[~iiii :,, :o:]

t\Not\ot \Nn vontts

or rkorosttoN\t tootc
wu\ vot wttt tt\kN tN uts cu\rtk
coNctrs
1hesearerheideasandconceprsve`lllearninrhischaprerofrhenores. Lse hese summary seclons a he sar
ol each chaper o keep rack ol wha
you`re learnlng. We have qulzzes anJ
Jlscusslon lorums onllne lor you o prac
lce your skllls anJ ge lamlllar wlh each
ol hese conceps.
Propositions: rhesearerhefundanenralunirsofinfornarion. 1hey
arerhekindsofrhingsvecanasserrordeny, agreeordisagree,
believeornorbelieve.
Proposition:| .onnc.tivcs: 1hesearerhelogicalconceprs ~Ni (&),
oi (), No1 (), oNiv ii (), ii ~Ni oNiv ii ().
Vevilldefinerhe uc||-jormcJ jormu|:s of proposition:| |ogi..
Ve vill inrroduce rhe rools of trut| v:|u:tions and trut| t:||cs.
You`llgerfaniliarvirhrheserulesA & B isrrueiffborh A and
B arerrue; A B isrrueiffarleasroneof A and B arerrue, A
isrrueiff A isnorrrue; A B isfalseiff A isrrueand B isfalse;
A B isrrueiff A and B haverhesanerrurhvalue.
Ve vill classify fornulas according ro rheir logical behaviour.
You`llbeablerorecognise t:uto|ogics, .ontingcn.ics, and .ontr:Ji.-
tions.
Ve vill classify rhe vay differenr fornulas can relare ro each
orher. You`ll undersrand rhe relarions of |ogi.:| .onscucn.c, |og-
i.:| cuiv:|cn.c, being .ontr:Ji.torics, .ontr:rics and su|-.ontr:rics.
skttts
1hesearerheskillsyouvilllearnrodenonsrrare.
Disringuishingsenrencesvhichexpressproposirionsfronrhose
rhardon`r.
Idenrifyvell-fornedfornulas, andrhenainconnecriveofafor-
nula.
1ranslare narural language senrences inro fornulas of proposi-
rionallogic; esp.varieriesofinplicarion: ii, oNiv ii, UNiiss, erc.
Lserrurhrablesrodererninevherherafornulaisaraurology, a
conrradicrion, aconringency.
Lserrurhrablesrodererninevherherornorfornulasarerelared
bylogicalconsequenceorlogicalequivalence, orvherherrhey
areconrradicrory, conrrariesorsub-conrraries.
,
1herearenanyvayyoucanrhinkabourlogic. Sonepeoplerhink
oflogicasavholelorofripsandrricksforrhinkingvell. Crherpeo-
plerhinkoflogicisrhebodyofrhenosrgeneralrrurhsabourrhings.
Srillorhersrhinkoflogicasrhelavsofrhoughr. Eachofrheseideas
provide differenr vays inro ropic. 1he vay uc undersrand rhe ropic
of logic is a differenr fron all of rhose ideas. Vhen you look ar rhe
hisroryoflogicespeciallyrhekindoflogicrharhasfloveredinrhe
grearvorksofrhe20rhandrhebeginningofrhe21srCenrury, yousee
alorofvorkabour proojs, abour moJc|s, abour scntcn.cs, rhevayrhey
rc|:tc to c:.| ot|cr, hovrheycanbe JcrivcJ or rcjutcJ, orhovrheycan
be intcrprctcJ. 1hisvorkinlogicisappliedinnanydifferenrareas, like
conpurerscience(inrhesrudyofdarabases, andinrheinrerprerarionof
progranninglanguagesandalgorirhns), inelecrronicengineering(in
rhesrudyofdigiralcircuirs), inlinguisrics(inrhesrudyofrheneanings
of vords and senrences), in narhenarics (in rhe srudy of proofs and
nodelsfordifferenrnarhenaricalrheories), andinphilosophy(inrhe
developnenr of fundanenral rheories abour exisrence, or possibiliry
andnecessiry, andnuchnorebesides).
Inallofrhis, logicpaysarrenrionro |:ngu:gc and u|:t uc .:n cxprcss
in our |:ngu:gc. Logic is especially cenrred on rhe vay rhe clains ve
nakerelareroeachorher. Logiciansareconcernedvirhnorionslike
rhese:
toNsis1iNtv
Canrheseclainsberruerogerher? Crarerhey iNtoNsis1iN1
inrharrhey .|:s| andcannorbeallrrue.
toNsiQUiNti
Dorhesepreniseshaverhissrarenenrasaconsequence? Ifve
areconnirredrorheprenisesofrhisreasoning, areve(arleasr
inplicirly)alsoconnirredrorheconclusion? Crisrheresone
vayvecouldgranrrheprenisesburavoidrharconclusion?
iQUiv~iiNti
Vhendodifferenrsenrencesanounrrosayingrhesanerhing
vhile expressing ir in differenr vays? Hov can you shov rhar
rvosenrences Jon't sayrhesanerhing? Isrheonlyvayrofinda
circunsrancevhereonecouldholdvirhourrheorheronealso
holding?
Quesrionslikerhesecanalladdressedusingrheroolsfronlogic: rools
rharve`lllearninrhissubjecr. Ler`ssrarroursrudyoflogicbylook-
ingnorearrhekindsofsenrencesvhichplayaroleinconsisrencey,
consequenceandequivalence.
. t\Not\ot or rkorosttoN\t tootc
Inrhissecrionvevillinrroducerhelanguageofproposirionallogic.
:o i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
.. rkorosttoNs
Jhls yellow bos ollers a cjiniticn. lay
speclal aenlon o yellow boses when
revlslng, because hese are he Jellnllons
ol key conceps.
..
A senrenceexpressesa iioiosi1ioN iffirnakesasrarenenrabour
hov rhings are. Iroposirions are rhe kinds of rhings rhar can be
truc or j:|sc. Youcan :grcc uit| or Jis:grcc uit|, erc.
So, proposirions are inporranr because rhey`re rhe unirs rhar fearure
vhenveconsiderconsisrency, consequenceandequivalence. We use crangc |cxc lor esamples. Jhese
lllusrae he Jellnllons.
..
1hesearesenrencesrharexpressproposirions:
Vehavesrudenrsfronalloverrhevorld.
1hereisnodifferenceberveenrhenindandrhebrain.
3 + 5 < 4 + 3.
Youcanseerharrhesesenrencesarerhekindsofrhingsrharareeirher
truc or j:|sc. 1harvecan :grcc uit| or Jis:grcc uit|. Vecoulduserhen
asa prcmisc inourreasoning, orasa .on.|usion. I agreerharvedohave
srudenrsfronalloverrhevorld. I havereadargunenrsvhichpurporr Jhe l` here ls Creg, bu somelmes he
l` ln hese noes ls Ien, or boh ol us
slmulaneousy.
ro shov rhar rhere is no difference berveen rhe nind and rhe brain,
andI havereadargunenrsrharpurporrroshovrharrhenindisnor
rhebrain. Lorhconclusionsvouldshovrhar1hereisnodifference
berveenrhenindandrhebraindoesexpressaproposirion, evenif
vedon`ragreeonvherherir`srrueornor. Iinally3 + 5 < 4 + 3
expresses a proposirion, even if ir`s an obviously false one, since 8 is Some people complaln abou he clause
ha proposllons shoulJ make a sae
men abou how hlngs are.` lu lalse
proposllons are slll proposllons, anJ
saemens abou absrac anJ lnvlslble
hlngs (llke numbers) are slll abou hls
worlJ,
largerrhan 7, norsnaller.
Irshouldbeclearrharnorallsenrencesexpressproposirions. 1here
arenanyrhingsvecandovirhsenrencesbesidessrakingourclainon
vharisrrue.
..
1hesearesenrencesrhar Jon't expressproposirions.
Ileasedon`rvarchrheselecruresvhiledrivingacar.
VharisrhecapiralofErhiopia?
1hankgoodness; rhepoorcar'
Hi, jen'
1hefirsrsenrenceherenakesa rcucst. Irisan impcr:tivc. 1herequesr lven hough we ake proposllons o be
he cenral locus ol loglc, Nuel lelnap`s
leclaralves are no enough` [] re
mlnJs us ha lmperalves, greelngs, anJ
oher speech acs are as lmporan lor
loglc anJ phllosophy as Jeclaralves, he
senences ha espress proposllons.
cannorbe truc or j:|sc. Ircanbeviseorfoolishronakerherequesr,
and ir can be conplied virh or floured, and you can agree ro follov
ir, orobjecrroir. Lurircannorberhekindofrhingrharisusedasa
:.: i~NcU~ci oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit ::
preniseoraconclusioninanargunenr. 1hesecondsenrenceasksa
ucstion. 1har is a special kind of requesr: a requesr for infornarion.
Again, rhar`snorrhekindofrhingrharcanberrueorfalse. 1herhird
senrenceisanexpressionofgrarirudeorsurprise. 1helasrisa grccting.
1hese, also, cannorberrueorfalse.
Hereareguidelinesfordisringuishingsenrencesrharexpressproposi-
rionsfronrhoserhardon`r. A iioiosi1ioN isrhekindofrhingyou
could:
believeordisbelieve;
agreeordisagreevirh;
asserrordeny;
giveareasonfororagainsr;
useasareasonfororagainsrsonerhingelse; and
expressvirha Jc.|:r:tivc scntcn.c.
Hereisanopporruniryforyouroresryourundersranding: Jhese are he esamples we also use ln he
vlJeo lecures o es your knowleJge.
We go lno he answers ln more Jeph
here below, ln he green bos. lon`
reaJ he answers lmmeJlaely. Jry he
queslons lor yoursell o es your own
unJersanJlng ol he maerlal. HeaJ
o he Ccuzsczu Jlscusslon boarJs ll
you have queslons abou hese answers.
..
ioi voU: Vhichofrhesesenrencesexpressproposirions?
(a) Creglivesinelbourne.
(b) Vhardoyourhinkoflogicsofar?
(c) I vishI hadlearnedlogicbefore'
(d) Ir`sinnoralroconsunenear.
(e) 1hislasrsenrenceonrhelisrisnorrrue.
..
~ N s v i i s :
( a ) Y c s . 1 h i s e x p r e s s e s a ( r r u e ) p r o p o s i r i o n .
( b ) ^ o . 1 h i s a s k s a q u e s r i o n .
( c ) Y c s . 1 h i s c a n b e e i r h e r r r u e o r f a l s e . I r e x p r e s s e s a
s e n r i n e n r a v i s h , b u r i r e x p r e s s e s r h e s e n r i n e n r b y v a y o f
n a k i n g a s r a r e n e n r . C n e v a y y o u c a n r e l l r h a r r h i s e x p r e s s e s
a p r o p o s i r i o n i s r o s e e r h a r y o u c o u l d u s e r h i s s e n r e n c e r o i n -
s i n c e r e . Y o u c o u l d s a y r h o s e v o r d s v h e n i n f a c r y o u d o n o r
v i s h y o u h a d l e a r n e d l o g i c b e f o r e .
( d ) Y c s . 1 h i s e x p r e s s e s a p r o p o s i r i o n . I r ` s r h e k i n d o f r h i n g v e
c a n g i v e r e a s o n s f o r o r a g a i n s r , a n d a g r e e o r d i s a g r e e v i r h .
( e ) 1 h i s i s . o n t r o v c r s i : | i r i s p a r a d o x i c a l . S o n e p e o p l e r h i n k
r h a r p a r a d o x i c a l s r a r e n e n r s a r e d e f e c r i v e , a n d d o n ` r e x p r e s s
p r o p o s i r i o n s . C r h e r s r h i n k r h a r d e s p i r e b e i n g p a r a d o x i c a l ,
r h i s d o e s e x p r e s s a p r o p o s i r i o n .
..z coNNtctvts
Connecrives are like g|uc: ve use connecrives ro conbine differenr
proposirions. kindarall.
:: i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
Ij ir`sraining :nJ I don`r havenyunbrella,
t|cn I`llgerver un|css I`nlucky.
Here is anorher senrence, nade up of differenr proposirions, vhich
usesrhesaneconnecrives, inrhesanesrrucrureasrhefirsrsenrence.
Ij I srrikerhenarch :nJ irisn`r ver,
t|cn irvilllighr un|css ir`sinavacuun.
Andhereisanorher.
Ij n > 5 :nJ m isn`r even,
t|cn f(m, n) > 5 un|css m = n.
Asyoucansee, vecanuserhesevordslike'if`and'and`and'nor`and
'unless`rojoinsrarenenrsabourrhevearher, narches, ornarhenar-
ics. Connecrivesjoinproposirionsronakenevproposirions, u|:tcvcr
rhoseproposirionsareabour, virhouraddingroorchangingrheropic
underdiscussion. Inrhissecrion, ve`lllook arrheconnecrivesve`ll
exanineinourinrroducrionrologic.
toN}UNt1ioN Considerrheservoproposirions:
Ir`sraining. I don`rhavenyunbrella.
Vecanasserrborhofrhenaroncebyasserringrheir .onun.tion:
Ir`sraining :nJ I don`rhavenyunbrella.
..
Ior proposirions p and q, rheir toN}UNt1ioN is rhe proposirion
vhichve`llvrireasp & q.
p, q arerhe toN}UNt1s ofrheconjuncrion p & q.
ln some oher loglc ess, you`ll see a
conjunclon wrlen wlh a weJge .`
We use he ampersanJ.
orallusesofrhevord:nJfornconjuncrions. Lookarrhefollov-
ingproposirions. Ve`llseehovsoneofrhenfornconjuncrions, and
sonedonor.
C|:n.y is tircJ :nJ M:Jison |:s : |c:J:.|c.
Yes, rhisisaconjuncrion. 1heconjuncrsaresinple: Clancy
isriredandadisonhasaheadache
I |c:rncJ |ogi. :nJ I ncvcr rcgrcttcJ it.
Yes, rhis is a conjuncrion. 1he firsr conjuncr is I learned
logic. 1he second is besr nor expressed as I never regrerred
ir, becausevhenverakerhisclauseourofrhesenrence, ir`snor
soclearvharirneans. LerrerroexpressirasI neverregrerred
learninglogic.
Lcc :nJ L:r.y :rc |ovcrs.
:.: i~NcU~ci oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit :
1hisis not asrraighrforvardconjuncrion. Ifbyrhesenrence
you nean rhar Lee and Darcy love each orher, rhen rhis is nor
rheconjuncrionofLeeisaloverandDarcyisalover. So, ir
doesn`rhaverhesanesrrucrureasLeeandDarcyarelogicians,
vhichisrheconjuncrionofLeeisalogicianandDarcyisa
logician.
I ucnt out :nJ |:J Jinncr.
1his is also nor a srraighrforvard conjuncrion: ar leasr, ir is
norrheconjuncrionofI venrourandI haddinnerifirsays
rharI haddinner :jtcr I venrour(orberrer, u|i|c I vasour).
Cnc j:|sc movc :nJ I s|oot.
o. 1his is nor a conjuncrion. Ir expresses rhe clain rhar
ij younakeonefalsenove, I shoor. 1hisisa .onJition:|, nora Hang on lor a pagewe`ll
ge o conJllonals soon.
conjuncrion.
..
ioi voU: Vhichofrhefollovingproposirionsareconjuncrions?
Cfrhoserharare, vhararerheirconjuncrs?
(a) I`nraking Logi. 1 and Logi. 2.
(b) Clancyandadisongornarried.
(c) angoesandbananasarenurririous.
(d) Lo.tor J|o and S|cr|o.| Ho|mcs haveneverbeenonrhesane
1V progran.
(e) Lo.tor J|o and j:mcs LonJ havebeenplayedbynanydiffer-
enracrors.
..
~ N s v i i :
( a ) Y e s : I ` n r a k i n g L o g i . 1 a n d I ` n r a k i n g L o g i . 2 .
( b ) o : n o r i f i r n e a n s r h a r C l a n c y a n d a d i s o n g o r n a r r i e d r o
e a c h o r h e r .
( c ) Y e s : a n g o e s a r e n u r r i r i o u s a n d L a n a n a s a r e n u r r i -
r i o u s .
( d ) o : r h i s n e a n s r h a r r h e y ` v e n e v e r b e e n o n a 1 V p r o g r a n
u i t | c : . | o t | c r .
( e ) Y e s : L o . t o r J | o h a s b e e n p l a y e d b y n a n y d i f f e r e n r a c r o r s
a n d j : m c s L o n J h a s b e e n p l a y e d b y n a n y d i f f e r e n r a c r o r s .
Conjuncrionisnorrheonlyvayroconbinervosrarenenrs. Vecan
alsouse Jisun.tion.
iis}UNt1ioN Vecanasserrrhar :t |c:st onc ofrhervoproposirionsare
rruebyasserringrheir Jisun.tion.
: i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
I`llgerver, or I`nlucky.
Disjuncrionscanbeinrerpreredas in.|usivc:
I`llgerver, or I`nlucky(andnaybeborh).
or cx.|usivc:
I`llgerver, or I`nlucky(andnorborh).
Cfren, vhen asserring a disjuncrion, ve do nor nake clear vherher
veneanroincluderhecaserharborhdisjuncrsarerrue, orvherher
veneanroexcludeir. 1herarenanyinreresringissuesonhovve
inrerprerdisjuncrionsinnarurallanguage. Inrhisrexr, vevillfocus
oninclusivedisjuncrionasiriseasierrovorkvirhinnanyvays; in ^s we wlll see ln he nes seclon when
we suJy ruh ables. a conjunclon ls
truc when anJ only when boh conjuncs
are rue. ^n lncluslve Jlsjunclon ls ja|c
when anJ only when boh Jlsjuncs are
lalse. Jhls ls he Jually we mean.
parricular, irhasa Ju:| relarionshipvirhconjuncrion.
..
Iorproposirions pand q, rheir iNtiUsivi iis}UNt1ioNisrhepropo-
sirionvhichve`llvrireasp q.
p and q arecalledrhe iis}UNt1s ofrhedisjuncrion.
Jhe symbol ` ls lrom vc|,` he laln
worJ lor or.`
Lnlessacrslikeadisjuncrionroo.
I`llgerver, unlessI`nlucky.
1his says eirher I ger ver or I an lucky. If neirher holds, rhen rhe
srarenenrisfalse. Ifeirherholds, rhesrarenenrisrrue. l`s one hlng lor unless` o be a Jls
junclon. ShoulJ unless` be reaeJ
as lncluslve or escluslve` Wha Jo you
hlnk`
I`llgororheparryunlessClancyisrhere.
1hissaysrhareirherI gororheparry, orClancyisrhere. IfClancyis
norarrheparry, you`dberighrroexpecrneroberhere, becauseI`ve
saidrharI`llgounlessClancyisrhere.
toNii1ioN~is Vecanexpressrelarions |ctuccn proposirionsbyvay
ofcondirionals. Hereisanexanple:
IfirrainsrhenI`llgerver.
1hisconnecrsrheproposirionsirrainsandI`llgerver. Irdoesnor
sayrharborharerrue(irisnoraconjuncrion), andirdoesnorsayrhar
eirherarerrue. 1hesrarenenrvouldberrueonasunnydayvhenI
anoursidevirhouranunbrella. Irexpressesacondirionalconnecrion
berveenrhervoproposirions: rheirrrurhisconnecredinrharifrhe
firsr(irrains)isrruerhensoisrhesecond(I`llgerver).
1heoneconnecrionexpressedinacondirionalcanbeexpressedin
nanydifferenrfornsofvords.
If p rhen q
If p, q
:.: i~NcU~ci oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit :,
q if p
p onlyif q
p inplies q
Ineachofrhesecases, vesayrhar p isrhe :ntc.cJcnt, and q isrhe .onsc-
ucnt. Andineachcase, rhesrarenenrrellsusrharif p isrrue, sois q.
Ineachcase, rhesrarenenrisrefuredif p isrrueand q isnor. orice
rharinq if prheconsequenrconesfirsr. 1heonlyinp onlyif q
flipsrheorderinrheifbackrorheanrecedenrfirsrandconsequenr
second.
Ir`sinporranrroundersrandrharinacondirional, vearenornak-
ingaclainabourvherherrheanrecedenr .:uscs rheconsequenr. Vhen
I sayifirrainsrhenI`llgerverrhenrheanrecedenrisirrainsand
rheconsequenrisI`llgerver, andhere, rypically, rheraincausesne
rogerver. Hovever, I couldequallysayI`llgerveronlyifirrains.
In rhis case, rhe I`ll ger ver is rhe :ntc.cJcnt vhile ir rains is rhe
.onscucnt. Inrhiscase, nygerringverdoesn`r .:usc rherain. (o, rhe
rainifirrainscausesnerogerver, nor vi.c vcrs:.) Lurifveknov
rharrhecondirionalisrrue, vecan |c:rn rharirhasrainedvhenvelearn
rharI havegorver. 1heconnecrionexpressedinrhecondirionalisa
connecrioninrherrurhorfalsiryofrheanrecedenrandrheconsequenr.
Iris not clainingrharrheanrecedenrcausesrheconsequenr.
..
Iorproposirions p and q, rheir toNii1ioN~i if p rhen qisrhe
proposirionvhichve`llvrireasp q.
p isrhe ~N1itiiiN1 and q isrhe toNsiQUiN1 ofrhecondirional.
Ir`saninporranrskillrorecognisecondirionals, andinparricular, ^ hanJy es ls o ask. Wha woulJ con
vlnce you ha hls saemen ls ja|c` ^
conJllonal ls lalse when he aneceJen
ls rue anJ he consequen ls lalse.
robeablerorecogniserhe :ntc.cJcnt andrhe .onscucnt. Confusingrhe
anrecedenrandrheconsequenrofcondirionalsisasourceofnanylog-
icalnisrakes.
..
ioi voU: Vhichofrhesearecondirionals? Iorrhoserhararecon-
dirionals, idenrifyrheanrecedenrandrheconsequenr.
(a) IfI don`rdorhepracriceexercises, I von`rlearn.
(b) I`lllearnifI dorhepracriceexercises.
(c) I`llgerverifirrainsandI don`rhaveanunbrella.
(d) I`llgerveronlyifirrainsandI don`rhaveanunbrella.
(e) 1hereporrinpliesrhar2nillionjobsnaybelosr.
:o i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
..
~ N s v i i :
( a ) Y e s n t c . c J c n t , I d o n ` r d o r h e p r a c r i c e e x e r c i s e s . C o n s c -
u c n t , I v o n ` r l e a r n .
( b ) Y e s n t c . c J c n t , I d o r h e p r a c r i c e e x e r c i s e s . C o n s c u c n t , I ` l l
l e a r n .
( c ) A n b i g u o u s I r c o u l d b e r h e c o n d i r i o n a l v i r h : n t c . c J c n t i r
r a i n s a n d I d o n ` r h a v e n y u n b r e l l a , a n d . o n s c u c n t I ` l l g e r
v e r . C r , i r c o u l d b e r h e . o n u n . t i o n v h o s e f i r s r c o n j u n c r i s
r h e c o n d i r i o n a l I ` l l g e r v e r i f i r r a i n s . H o v c a n y o u r e l l
v h i c h i r i s ? A s k y o u r s e l f r h e q u e s r i o n : d o e s i r f o l l o v f r o n
r h e o r i g i n a l s r a r e n e n r r h a r I d o n ` r h a v e a n u n b r e l l a ? I f s o ,
i r ` s a c o n j u n c r i o n . I f n o r , i r ` s a c o n d i r i o n a l .
( d ) A n b i g u o u s I r c o u l d b e r h e c o n d i r i o n a l v i r h : n t c . c J c n t I ` l l
g e r v e r , a n d . o n s c u c n t i r r a i n s a n d I d o n ` r h a v e n y u n b r e l l a .
C r , i r c o u l d b e r h e . o n u n . t i o n v h o s e f i r s r c o n j u n c r i s r h e c o n -
d i r i o n a l I ` l l g e r v e r o n l y i f i r r a i n s . H o v c a n y o u r e l l v h i c h
i r i s ? 1 h e s a n e r e s r a s v i r h ( c ) .
( e ) o i r i s a s r a r e n e n r o f i n p l i c a r i o n , b u r r h e a n r e c e d e n r i s
r h e r e p o r r a n d r h i s p h r a s e i s n o r i r s e l f a s e n r e n c e e x p r e s s i n g
a p r o p o s i r i o n . 1 h e r e p o r r i r s e l f n i g h r e x p r e s s a ( v e r y l o n g )
p r o p o s i r i o n , b u r r h a r i s n o r r h e a n r e c e d e n r i n r h i s s r a r e n e n r .
..
ioi voU: Vhichofrheservocondirionalshasyou`lldovellas
rheanrecedenr, andyousrudyhardasrheconsequenr?
(a) You`lldovellifyousrudyhard.
(b) You`lldovellonlyifyousrudyhard.
(c) Ifyousrudyhard, you`lldovell.
..
~ N s v i i : C n l y ( b ) . I n ( a ) a n d ( c ) y o u s r u d y h a r d i s r h e : n t c . c J c n t
a n d y o u ` l l d o v e l l i s r h e . o n s c u c n t .
ni-toNii1ioN~is Inphilosophy, narhenaricsandorherrechnicaldo-
nains, youvillofrenseeafornofvordsrharexpressesarvo-vaycon-
necrionberveenproposirions. 1hisfornofvordsisrhe |i-.onJition:|:
I`llgerverifandonlyifir`sraining.
:.: i~NcU~ci oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit :,
..
1he ni-toNii1ioN~i of p and q is p q.
pand qarerhe |cjt- and rig|t-|:nJ cxprcssions ofrhebi-condirional.
1hevordsifandonlyifareofrenabbreviarediff.
Nic~1ioN 1hebasicvayof Jcnying aproposirionisroasserrirs ncg:-
tion:
Snokingisnoralvaysbadforyourhealrh.
1hisisrhenegarionofsnoking is alvaysbadforyourself.
..
If p isaproposirion, irs Nic~1ioN is p.
p issaidroberhe ncg:nJ of p.
ConsidrrhefollovingVhichofrhefollovingproposirionsarenega-
rions, andvhararerheirnegands?
IrisnorrhecaserharI`vevonrheLondonararhon.
1hisisrhenegarionofI |:vc vonrheLondonararhon.
1harourfirvon`rcosryouS250.
1hisisrhenegarionofrharourfirvillcosryouS250.
Snokingisneverbadforyourhealrh.
1hisisrhenegarionofSnokingissonerinesbadforyourhealrh.
I annoracrook.T|is is t|c j:mous Jcni:| jrom Pi.|:rJ ^ixon, in t|c
u:|c oj t|c J:tcrg:tc s.:nJ:|.
1hisisanegarion, andir`srhenegarionofI anacrook.
1har`s enough for inrroducing negarion and sone of irs behaviours.
oir`srineforyou.
..
ioi voU: Vhichofrhefollovingproposirionsarenegarions, and
vhararerheirnegands?
(a) I von`rgororheparry.
(b) I von`rgororheparryifClancyisrhere.
(c) Younusrn`rrhinkrharlogicisonlyforcleverpeople.
(d) 1hefridgedidn`rgercleaned, unlessyoucleanedir.
:8 i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
..
~ N s v i i :
( a ) Y c s r h e n e g a r i o n o f I v i l l g o r o r h e p a r r y .
( b ) ^ o n o r a n e g a r i o n . I r ` s a c o n d i r i o n a l , v i r h r h e n e g a r i o n I
v o n ` r g o r o r h e p a r r y i n r h e c o n s e q u e n r .
( c ) ^ o r h i s i s n o t n e g a r i o n o f y o u n u s r r h i n k r h a r l o g i c i s o n l y
f o r c l e v e r p e o p l e . ( I f i r ` s p u r e l y o p r i o n a l f o r y o u r o r h i n k
r h a r l o g i c i s o n l y f o r c l e v e r p e o p l e , r h e n b o r h y o u n u s r
r h i n k r h a r l o g i c i s o n l y f o r c l e v e r p e o p l e a n d y o u n u s r n o r
r h i n k r h a r l o g i c i s o n l y f o r c l e v e r p e o p l e a r e f a l s e . u s r
n o r i s n o r r h e s a n e a s i r ` s n o r r h e c a s e r h a r y o u n u s r . )
( d ) ^ o r h e d i s j u n c r i o n o f a n e g a r i o n ( r h e n e g a r i o n o f r h e
f r i d g e d i d g e r c l e a n e d ) v i r h r h e p r o p o s i r i o n y o u c l e a n e d
r h e f r i d g e .
o1hii toNNit1ivis 1hereareplenryof ot|cr vaysronakepropo-
sirionsouroforherproposirions. Iorexanple, ifverakeanyofrhe
follovingsenrencefragnenrs
Clancybelievesrhar.
Irispossiblerhar.
Irisnecessaryrhar.
.because.
andreplaceeachellpsisbyasenrenceexpressingaproposirion, rhenrhe ^n elllpsls` ls he hree Jos we use o
lnJlcae ha somehlng has lel ou ol
es.
resulrisalsosenrenceexpressingaproposirion. 1hesephrasefragnenrs
dorhejobofconnecrivesoroperarorsinrhesanesorrofvayrharorher
connecrivesdo.
Well, hey have he same sor ol gram-
mar as he raJllonal conneclves. How
ever, hey are loglcally much more com
ples. lpitcmi: |cgi: ls he loglc ol knowl
eJge anJ bellel (he loglcal behavlour
ol saemens llke x belleves ha p` are
suJleJ ln eplsemlc loglc), anJ mca|
|cgi: ls he loglc ol posslbllly anJ ne
cessly. loh are aclve areas ol suJy ln
loglc a hls lme.
Vevon`rlookarrhesesorrsofconnecrivesinrhissubjecr, soneof
rheseand morc arealsosrudiedbylogicians, burexaniningrhenvould
rakeusroofaravayfronvherevearegoinginrhissubjecr.
.. rkorosttoN\t rokvtt\s
So, vehaveafanilyofconnecrives(conjuncrion, disjuncrion, rhecon-
dirionalandrhebi-condirional), andanoperaror(negarion). Hereisa
sunnaryofrhenorarionandvocabularyvevilluse.
iNciish voiis toNNit1ivi svxnoi
.and. .onun.tion &
.or. Jisun.tion
if., rhen. .onJition:|
.iff. |i-.onJition:|
nor. ncg:tion
:.: i~NcU~ci oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit :,
Vevilluserhesesynbolsrodefinea jorm:| |:ngu:gc rorepresenrrhe
srrucrures. You can rhink of a fornal language in rvo vays. (1) A
fornal language is a special lirrle language of irs ovn. (2) Ir`s a vay
ofrepresringrhe jorm or s|:pc ofsenrencesinoureverydaylanguages.
Lorhofrheseareappropriarevaysofundersrandingafornallanguage.
1he fornal language is nade up of jormu|:s. A fornula in a fornal
languageislikeasenrenceinaneverydaylanguage. A specialfearureof
fornallanguagesisrharveprovideprecisrulesforvhensonerhingis
afornulainrhelanguage. 1herearenojudgenenrcallsorborderline
cases. Eirhersonerhingisclearlyinrhelanguage(ir`sa'vell-forned
fornula`)orir`sclearlynor(ir`sungrannarical). Hovdovenanage
rhis? Lygivinga prc.isc gr:mm:r forrhefornallanguage.
Vedefinerhe jormu|:s ofourlanguagebysrarringvirhacollecrionof
:toms. Ve`llusesonecollecrionofsynbolsasrhesrarringpoinrofa ^n aom` ls somehlng ha ls lnJlvls
lble. (a-tcmCreek lor canno be Jl
vlJeJ`). Now, jus llke everyJay aoms
can be JlvlJeJ (hey`re maJe ol pro
ons, neurons, elecrons), our aoms
perhaps can be JlvlJeJ oo, bu he
lmporan leaure ol aoms ls ha
hey have no jcrmu|a lnslJe hem.
languageforproposirionallogic.
..
iiiiNi1ioN: A collecrionof :toms issonecollecrionofsynbols
ve`lluserobuildupfornulas. Ve`llofrenuselerrerslike p, q, r,
s, x, y, r
3
, s
15
, p1, p0, . . . asarons.
Cncevehaveourarons, ourbuildingblocks, verhenuserhenro
buildupalanguageoffornulas.
..
iiiiNi1ioN: 1helanguageofproposirionallogic(relariveroachoice
ofacollecrionof arons)isdefinedasfollovs:
(1) toms are jormu|:s.
(2) If A isa jormu|:,
rhensois A.
(3) If A and B are jormu|:s,
rhensoare (A & B), (AB), (A B) and (A B).
() ^ot|ing c|sc isa jormu|:.
Anorhervayroconpacrlyspecifyrhe'grannar`ofrhisfornalrouse
rhefollovingnorarion Jhls ls rNr, or lackus Naur lorm,`
llrs useJ ln he speclllcalon ol lor
mal compuer programmlng languages
such as \toot. nttp://cui.unigc.
cn/do-zcscuzcn/Enscignccnt/
unu1yscintc/|ocut8Nl.nt1
ioixUi~ := ~1ox | ioixUi~ | (ioixUi~ & ioixUi~) |
(ioixUi~ ioixUi~) | (ioixUi~ ioixUi~) |
(ioixUi~ ioixUi~)
1his gr:mm:r givesusrulesrofollovrogenerarefornulasourofarons.
Iorexanple, if p, q and r arearons, vecanshovrhar (p (q & r))
isafornularoo. Hereisrheconsrrucrionprocess:
:o i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
p, q and r arearons, sobycondirion(1), rheyarefornulas, roo.
Since p isafornula, bycondirion(2), p isafornula.
Since q and r arefornulas, bycondirion(3), (q & r) isafornula.
Since p and (q & r) arefornulas, bycondirion(3), (p (q &
r)) isafornula, roo.
..
1hesearefornulasroo. Canyouseevhy?
((p & q) r)
((p q) r)
(((p q) & (q r)) (p r))
Irisnorroodifficulrrogorhroughrheconsrrucrionprocessforeach
of rhese fornulas, srarring ar rhe arons (p, q and r) and building up
rhe consriruenrs piece by piece. orice rhar rhere is no problen in
applying rcpc:tcJ negarionsynbols. ly conJllon (2), ll p ls a lormula so ls
p. ly conJllon (2), ll p ls a lormula
(anJ l ls), so ls p. ly conJllon (2),
ll p ls a lormula (anJ l ls), hen so
ls p. ly conJllon (2), ll p ls
a lormula, so ls p. ^nJ so on, a
injinitum.
..
Vhereas, rhesesrringsofsynbolsarenorfornulas.
p
(p & q r)
p (q r)
Canyouseevhy? p isnorafornulabecausevheneverveadda'`
roafornulaveusecondirion(2), andrhe'`occurs |cjorc afornula,
norafrerir. So p isnorafornula.
(p & qr) isnorafornulabecausevheneverveadd'&`or'`roa
fornulaveusecondirion(3), andaccordingrorhiscondirion, vhen-
everveaddeirheran'&`oran'`rhenveaddrvoparenrheses(one
lefr, onerighr). Soafornulavirhone'&`andone',` shouldconrain
fourparenrheses. Lur'(p & q r)`isnissingapairofparenrheses. ln hls case, he mlsslng parenheses
really Jo make a Jlllerence. ll we were o
aJJ hem back ln, we have wo oplons.
(p & (q r)), a conjunclon ol p wlh
q r or l ls ((p & q) r), whlch ls
a Jlsjunclon ol (p & q) wlh r. Jhese
mean very Jllleren hlngs.
So, roo, is 'p (q r).` Ir only has rvo parenrheses, vhen ir
should have four. Lur in rhis case ir is is rhe ourernosr pair rhar is
nissing rhere is no anbiguiry in inrerprering rhis srring of synbols.
Adding rhe parenrheses, ve ger '(p (q r)),` a bi-condirional
virh 'p` as ihi and '(q r)` as ihi, a condirional virh anrecedenr
q andconsequenr r. Vecouldrenoverheourernosrparenrhesesof
Why pu he ouermos parenheses ln
a all` l`s because ol when we aJJ he
lormula lnslJe anoher lormula ha we
neeJ he parenheses. p q` ls no am
blguous by lsell, bu when we conjoln l
o r as p q & r we have amblguly.
eachfornulavirhnolossorconfusion. Ironnovonve`llleaveour
vriring dovn ourernosr parenrheses vhen rhis is convenienr. (1he
parenrhesesare t|crc, burvedon`ralvaysvrirerhendovn.)
:.: i~NcU~ci oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit ::
ov, ler`s consider an exercise ro check hov you`re going virh
fornulas.
..
ioi voU: Considerarinylanguagevhichconrainsonly tuo ~1oxs
p and q. Andsupposevefornallrhefornulasofourbabylan-
guagejusrusingrhese tuo arons.
Vhichofrhesefollovingarefornulasofrhislirrlelanguage?
p
((p q) q)
(p r)
Hovnanyfornulasinrhisbabylanguageconrainjusr 2 synbols?
Hovabour 3? Cr 4? Crnore?
..
~ N s v i i : p i s n o r a f o r n u l a , b u r ( ( p q ) q ) a n d ( p r ) a r e
f o r n u l a s .
1 h e r e a r e o n l y 2 f o r n u l a s v i r h 2 s y n b o l s : p a n d q . 1 h e r e a r e
a l s o 2 f o r n u l a s v i r h 3 s y n b o l s : p a n d q . ( V e d o n ` r c o u n r
p & q a s a f o r n u l a v i r h r h r e e s y n b o l s . I r h a s j i v c , e v e n r h o u g h v e
d i d n ` r v r i r e d o v n r h e o u r e r n o s r p a r e n r h e s e s . ) I n d e e d , r h e r e a r e
o n l y 2 f o r n u l a s v i r h 4 s y n b o l s . p a n d q . I o r 5 s y n b o l s
r h e r e a r e 2 + ( 4 4 ) = 1 8 f o r n u l a s : p a n d q , r o g e r h e r
v i r h ( p & p ) , ( p & q ) , ( q & p ) , a n d ( q & p ) f o r c o n j u n c r i o n , a n d
s i n i l a r l y , d i s j u n c r i o n , r h e c o n d i r i o n a l a n d r h e b i - c o n d i r i o n a l .
.. rokv\tts\toN
Ifvevanrrouselogicroassesssenrencesofnarurallanguageveneed
ro tr:ns|:tc fronsenrencesofEnglish(oranyorhernarurallanguage)ro
fornulasinourproposirionallanguage. Anorhervayofundersrand-
ing rhis is rhar ve are iJcntijying rhe forn of rhe senrence in narural
language. Doingrhishelpsusidenrifylogicalsrrucrurespresenrinour
srarenenrs. 1hisisasrepalongrhevayoffinding jorms ourproposi-
rionshave.
1hisis jorm:|is:tion. 1herearerhreesrepsyouneedrogorhrough lormallslng a senence ls a klnJ ol jc-
:uing. \ou aenJ o cmc ol he lea
ures ol he senence (he loglcal con
neclves anJ operaors, anJ he way hey
comblne hlngs) anJ you lgnore oh
ers (he parlcular :cntcnt). Jhls lsn`
o say ha he conen lsn` lmporan,
ol course. lu ln lormal loglc l`s lm
poran o locus on he way ha propo
sllons are srucureJ anJ comblneJ.
vhenyou`refindingalogicalforn:
1. IJcntijy t|c Connc.tivcs.
2. Crc:tc : Li.tion:ry.
3. IinJ t|c Iorm.
Ler`slookarafevexanples.
:: i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
..
ix~xiii :: Iornaliserhissenrence:
organcan`rdoadvancedlogic
unlessshe`snasreredconnecrives.
Ler`sgorhroughrherhreesrages, onebyone.
1. Vhar connecrives can you find in rhis senrence? Lnless is
a disjuncrion. 1here`s also anorher operaror hiding rhere: rhe
n`rincan`r isanegarion. organ .:n't doadvancedlogicis
rhenegarionoforgan .:n doadvancedlogic.
2. ovvenakeadicrionary. Velookforrhoseproposirionsrhar
are a parr of rhis srarenenr, vhich have no logical connecrives
ofrheirovn. organcan`rdoadvancedlogicisrhenegarion
of organ can do advanced logic and rhis srarenenr has no
logical connecrives, so ve`ll rrear rhar as an :tom. Ler`s choose
rhelerrer l rosrandforrharproposirion. l`s purely a maer ol cholce as o wha
leers you use. We llke o use leers ha
remlnJ us ol he proposllon belng useJ.
We coulJ have chosen m lor Norgan,
bu Norgan leaures ln he oher propo
sllon, as Joes maserlng conneclves.
lu we coulJ have equally chosen a lor
aJvanceJ,` anJ ha woulJ have workeJ
jus as well.
1heorheraroninsideourproposirionisexpressedbyrhephrase
she`s nasrered connecrives. In rhis conrexr in rhe senrence,
ir`s clear vhar rhe she neans: ir neans Morg:n. Civen rhar
ve`regoingrorakerhisphraseshe`snasreredconnecrivesour
ofconrexrroconsiderirbyirself, ve`llreplacerhispronounby
rhenaneirpoinrsbackro. Sove`llrakeorganhasnasrered
connecrives as our orher aronic proposirion, and ler`s choose
anorherlerrer, say c, forrhisproposirion.
1hisgivesusrhefolloving Ji.tion:ry, pairinguparonic jormu|:s
(rhe l andrhe c)virhproposirions.
l = organcandoadvancedlogic
c = organhasnasreredconnecrives
3. Civen rhe dicrionary, ve can proceed ro find rhe forn of our
senrence. Ve`veseenrharorgancan`rdoadvancedlogicis
rhenegarionoforgancandoadvancedlogic, so
organcan`rdoadvancedlogic is l
1henrheunlessisadisjuncrion. Ingeneral, A unless Bhas
rhe logical forn of rhe disjuncrion of A and B. If ve say rhar
organ can`r do advanced logic unless he`s nasrered connec-
rives, ve`resayingrhareirherorgancan`rdoadvancedlogic,
ororganhasnasreredconnecrives. Soourlogicalfornis:
(l c)
rhedisjuncrionof l virh c. Asve`vealreadysaid, vecanleave
ourrheourerparenrhesesifyoulike, andjusrvrire'l c.`
:.: i~NcU~ci oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit :
Ler`slookaranorherexanple.
..
ix~xiii :: Iornaliserhissenrence:
Ifyoudon`rfinish C:mc oj T|roncs rhenI can`rreadir.
1. Here rhere are rvo negarions, in don`r and can`r, and rhe
cenrralcondirional.
2. 1hearonicproposirionsrhenare
f = Youfinish C:mc oj T|roncs
rsi = I canread C:mc oj T|roncs
3. 1hen rhe fornalisarion is rhe condirional virh anrcedenr you
don`r finish C:mc oj T|roncs (vhich is fornalised as f) and
vhose consequenr is I can`r read C:mc oj T|roncs (vhich is
fornalisedas r). Sorhevholefornulaisrhen Nolce, we`ve lel ou he
ouer parenheses here. We
won` menlon hls any more. f r
..
ioi voU: Vhichofrhefollovingrhreesenrenceshasrhisforn:
s (l w)?
1. Ifyousrrikerhisnarchirvilllighr, unlessirisver.
2. Ifyousrrikerhisnarch, eirherirvilllighrorir`sver.
3. 1hisnarchvilllighrifyousrrikeir, unlessirisver.
vhereveuserhefollovingdicrionary iit1ioN~iv:
s yousrrikerhisnarch.
l rhisnarchvilllighr.
w rhisnarchisver.
..
~ N s v i i : 2 . I s r h e c o r r e c r a n s v e r . 1 . a n d 3 . b o r h h a v e r h e f o r n
( s l ) w . I n b o r h c a s e s , r h e c o n n a b e f o r e r h e ' u n l e s s ` i n d i c a r e s
r h a r r h e c l a u s e b e f o r e i s o n e d i s j u n c r o f r h e d i s j u n c r i o n . I n b o r h
c a s e s , r h a r c l a u s e h a s r h e f o r n ( s l ) .
1hisisrheprocessoffindinglogicalfornofsenrencesinalanguagelike
English. Lurfindinglogicalsrrucrureofnarurallanguagesenrencesis We only have esperlence wlh a lew
languagesanJ lngllsh ls our only nalve
language. ^re here speclal lssues when
l comes o llnJl l oher han lngllsh.
^re here speclal lssues when l comes
o lormallslng anJ oher languages` le
us know ln he Ccuzsczu Jlscusslon
boarJs. We`J love o hear lrom you.
onlyoneofrhenanyrhingsrharfornalisarionandfornalisarioninro
rhelanguageofproposirionallogicisgoodfor.
: i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
.., txrktsstvt rowtk
Herearesoneexanplesofvharyoucandovirhrhelanguageofpropo-
sirional logicbeyondsinpleexanples of rranslarions of logical forn.
1here`salorrharrhelanguageofproposirionallogicisgoodfor.
i~1~n~sis Cne place for proposirional logic is in our inreracrions
virhdigiraldarabases. I (Creg)haveanusicplayeronnyconpurer.
Ir`sabigreposiroryordarabaseofrherecordednusicI ovn. Sone-
rinessonerinesI use'snarrplaylisrs`rochooserracksrolisrenro. 1he
snarrplaylisredirorlookssonerhinglikerhis:
Smart Playlists

Playlist
Cancel OK
All of the following are true:
Artist is Keith Jarrett
Rating is

All of the following are true:
Artist is not Keith Jarrett
Genre is Jazz
Match any of the following rules:
1his playlisr selecrs all of rhe rracks vhich are cit|cr Iive-Srar rared
Keirh jarrerr rracks, or orher jazz rracks rhar aren`r by Keirh jarrerr. tcnjcicn. l have a |ct ol lelh Iarre.
Vecan jorm:|isc rhisplaylisrinrhefollovingvay:
Consideralanguagevirhrherhesearons, eachundersroodasde-
scribingagivenrrack.
kttu_i\kkt
rtvt_s\ks
i\//
So, ifveareconsideringarrack, kttu_i\kkt is truc ifir`saKeirhjarrerr
rrack, andir`s j:|sc orhervise. Ifir`sraredfivesrarrs, rhen rtvt_s\ks is
rrue, andsoon. 1henrhesnarrplaylisrcollecrsallrherracksofvhich Nolce, we`re movlng beyonJ hlnk
lng ol proposllons as jus rue or lalse,
anJ hlnklng ol hem as rue or lalse
cj somehlng. Jhls ls a lny move ln
he Jlreclon ol preJlcae loglc.` We`ll
locus on preJlcae loglc ln he seconJ
Ccuzsczu course, icgi:. ianguagc an
lnjcrmaticn 1.
t|is fornulaisrrue:
(kttu_i\kkt & rtvt_s\ks) (kttu_i\kkt & i\//)
1he 'any` and 'all` in rhe playlisr ediror do rhe job of Jisun.tion and
.onun.tion respecrively.
1hisisasinpleexanpleoflogicalsrrucrurefoundinrhingsorher
rhansenrencesinanarurallanguage. You`llseenanynoreofrhese
vhenirconesrodarabases, digiralcircuirs, naps, andrhenanyorher
placesvesroreinfornarion.
:.: i~NcU~ci oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit :,
stoii ~xnicUi1iis Iornalisarionofsenrencesinnarurallanguagecan
donuchnorerhanjusrhelpusfocusonlogicalsrrucrure. Vhenyou
fornalise, you`llnoricerharsonerinesrhingsarenoreasyarall. aru-
rallanguageis |ig||y :m|iguous. 1heonesenrencecouldneandifferenr
rhings. Cnesourceofanbiguiryisrheissueof s.opc, vhereirisnorclear ^noher source ol amblgu
ly ls |cxi:a|he one worJ
coulJ mean Jllleren hlngs.
hovrheparrsofrhesenrenceareneanrrofirrogerher. 1helanguage
ofproposirionallogichasnoscopeanbiguiriresarallirisprecisely
andrigorouslydefined. Sooneofrheadvanragesoffornalisingsen-
rencesinrhelanguageofproposirionallogicisrharscopeanbiguiries
canbeidenrifiedandhopefully, resolved. Herearesoneexanples
ofsenrencesvirhscopeanbiguiries.
Clancyquicklyareandvenrrovork.
- DidClancyearquicklyandrhenleisurelynakehisvayro
vork, ordidheborhearandgorovorkquickly?
adison: I`llhavefishandchipsorsalad.
- Doesjohnvanrfishvirheirherchipsorsaladonrheside
(f & (c s)), or does john vanr eirher fish and chips, or
(insread)salad((f & c) s)?
1herrainsareonsrrikerodayandI needrogerrogerrorheorher
sideofrovnby9anunlessI`nnisrenenberingrhings.
- Does ny faulry nenory poinr back ro ny norning ap-
poinrnenr(s & (a m))? AnI sayingrharrherrainsare
on srrike roday, and rhar eirher I have an appoinrnenr or
I`nnisraken? Crdoesirpoinrbackroborhclains((s &
a) m)? AnI sayingrhareirherI`nnisraken, orifI`nnor
rhere`sasrrikeandI havenyappoinrnenracrossrovn?
Scopeanbiguiriesareeasierropinpoinrgivenrheprecise(andinflex-
ible)languageoffornulas.
..
ioi voU: Selecrvhichofrheseoprionsarepossiblefornsofrhe
senrenceIfirrainsI`llgerverunlessI`nlucky.
1. r (wl)
2. r (w & l)
3. (r w) l
4. (r w) & l
..
~ N s v i i : 1 h e c o r r e c r a n s v e r s a r e ( 1 ) a n d ( 3 ) . 1 h e o r h e r a n s v e r s ,
( 2 ) a n d ( 4 ) a r e i n c o r r e c r b e c a u s e u n l e s s
1hislasrexanpleisverysubrle. aybeyoucan`racrually |c:r rhe
difference berveen rhese rvo clains vhen you consider rhe English
:o i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
senrence. 1ranslaringinrorhelanguageofproposirionallogichelpsus
gerangriponrhescopedisrincrion.
.z vontts rok rkorosttoN\t tootc. ktu
\rtts
Sofar, vehavedevelopedrhe synt:x orsynbolsofproposirionallogic
bydefiningafornallanguageoffornulas. Inrhissecrionvehavero
exaninerhe scm:nti.s or mc:ning ofproposirionallogicfornulasby
lookingarhovfornulascanbe truc or j:|sc offornulasdependingon
vherherrheirconponenrsare truc or j:|sc.
Vhydovefocusonrrurhanfalsiry? Ir`sbecauseofvharpropo-
sirions :rc. 1hey`re rhe sorrs of rhings rhar are truc or j:|sc, rhar you
canagreevirhordisagreevirh, proveordisproveorarueabour, erc.
1here`s nuch morc ro rhe neaning of srarenenrs rhan rheir srarus as
rrueorfalseburrhissrarusisaninporranrparrofneaning.
Sinceve`regoingrosee'rrue`and'false`alor, vevillusesynbols
asashorrhand. Jhls ls classlcal wovalueJ loglc. ln he
seclon on \agueness (Chaper + ol hese
noes), we`ll look a some reasons why
we mlgh wan o look |c,cn wo ruh
values. lu please, slck wlh hls as
sumplon lor now. ..
Vevrire 1 for'rrue`and 0 for'false`.
iossinii 1iU1h v~iU~1ioNs: Civenrhreearonicproposirions p, q and
r, eachofrheniseirherrrueorfalse, sorhererhereare cig|t possible
conbinarionsofrrurhvalues. Vhy? Iirsr, p iseirherrrueorfalse: rhere
are 2 oprions, andgiveneachofrheseoprionsfor p vehave 2 oprions
for q, sorhereare 22 = 4 oprionsfor p and q. 1henforeachofrhese
4 oprionsfor p and q rhereare 2 oprionsfor r, sorhereare 4 2 = 8
oprionsfor p and q and r rogerher. 1hereare 8 differenrvaysrhings Can you see why l makes sense o wrle
hese 8 posslblllles as 000, 001, 010, 011,
100, 101, 110, 111` Jhey`re he llrs 8
blnary numbers, lrom 0 o 7.
nighrrurnour, vhenirconesroansveringrhequesrionsofvherher
ornor p, vherherornor q, andvherherornor r.
..
Ve call each of rhese differenr choices of 0 and 1 for rhe aronic
proposirionsa 1iU1h v~iU~1ioN oran iN1iiiii1~1ioN.
A rrurh valuarion assigns a value (eirher 0 or 1) ro each aronic
proposirion.
Vesonerinesvrire'v(p) = 1`or'v(q) = 0`rosayrharrherrurh
valuarion v assignsrhevalue 1 ro p, or 0 ro q.
Ingeneral, given n differenraronicproposirions, rheroralnunber
ofdifferenrpossiblerrurhvaluarionsis 2 2 2 (n rines), vhich
is 2
n
. 1henunber 2
n
grovs vcry j:st inJccJ as n gerslarger. Jhere ls some conluslon causeJ by
he use ol nearly lJenlcal prellses
lor |inar, anJ mctri: numerlcal pre
llses lor very slmllar quanlles. See
nttp://cn.uikipcdiu.czg/uiki/
8inuzy_pzctix.
:.: xoiiis ioi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit: 1iU1h 1~niis :,
n 5 10 20 30 40 50 60
2
n
32 1, 024 1, 048, 576 > 10
9
> 10
12
> 10
15
> 10
18
iiiiix Kilo ega Ciga 1era Iera Exa
Ifyouhave60aronicproposirions, rhenrhereare 2
60
, vhichisnore
rhan 10
18
differenrrrurhvaluarionsforrhosearonicproposirions. 1here Jha`s a 1 lolloweJ by 18 zeros.
Jha`s a cricu|, blg number.
arenorerhan 10
18
differenrvaysrhevorldnighrhaverurnedour, jusr
rakingrhese 60 proposirionsinroaccounr.
Jhls ls why loglc can ge rlcky. Jhere
are los ol posslblllles o conslJer.
.z. sttNo tr ktu \rtts
A trut| t:||c isasysrenaricpresenrarionofrhedifferenrpossiblerrurh
valuarions, foragivenserofaronicproposirions. Ifvehaverhearons
p, q and r, venighrdravarablelikerhis
p q r
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
virheighrrovs, oneforeachrrurhvaluarionfor p, q and r. 1henin
eachrov, vecanrepresenrrherrurhvalueofafornularhar`sbuilrup
ourof p, q and r. Iorexanple, venighrhavearablelikerhis, forrhe
fornula (p q)? Nolce, hls has only 4 = 2 2 rows, as
here are are only 2 aomlc proposllons.
p q (p q)
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
Vevrirerherrurhvalueofaconplexfornulaunderirsnaincon-
necrive. Sorherrurhvalueof pq, rhedisjuncrionof p and q isvrirren
underrhe'.` Vevriredovna 1 inanyrovvhere p or q gorrhevalue
1, andrhar`srhesecond, rhirdandfourrhrovs. 1henrhevalueofrhe
fornula (pq) isvrirrenunderrhenegarionsynbol, andrhisisrrue
inrhefirsrrov(vhere p q vasfalse)andisfalseinrheorherrhree
rovs(vhere p q vasrrue).
1heresulrisarrurhrableforrheconplexfornula (p q) vhich
saysrharir`srrueif p and q areborhfalse(rhar`srhefirsrrov)andir`s
falseorhervise(rhar`srheorherrhreerovs).
:8 i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
1hesevaluesseenlikeconnonsense. Ifyouundersrandvharrhe
fornulasays(irsays'neirher p nor q`)rhenindeed, ir`srrueinexacrly
rherovvhereneirher p nor q isrrue.
Sovhygorhroughrherignaroleofrrurhrablesvhenvecansin-
ply read and inrerprer fornulas? Cne reason is rhar fornulas can be
nuchnoreconplexrhanrhesinplefornula (p q):
p ((p & (q (r & p))) (r p))
Vhenis t|is fornularrue? Vhenisirfalse? Vevouldlikeasysrenaric
andsrraighrforvardvayroexplainhovaconplexfornuladependsfor
irsrrurhvalueonrherrurhvaluesofirsparrs.
.z.z Nto\toN, coNitNctoN \Nn ntsitNctoN
Hereisvharve`lldo. Iirsrve`llgerclearonrherulesforrheconnec-
rives. Ler`sexplainhovrherrurhvalueofanegarion, aconjuncrionor
adisjuncriondependsonrherrurhvaluesofirsconsriruenrs.
..
Ifaproposirion A isrrue, rhenirs ncg:tion A isfalse. Cnrheorher
hand, if A isfalse, rhenirs ncg:tion A isrrue.
A A
0 1
1 0
1his is rhe trut| t:||c for rhe fornula A. Ir shovs hov rhe rrurh or We wrle a caplal leer A raher han
he lowercase p, slnce hls works lor
cvcr, lormula, no jus aomlc lormulas.
Jhe A here ls a leer ha sanJs lor an,
lormula. ll you llke a echnlcal erm lor
hls, call l a :hcmati: jcrmu|a.
falsiryof A dependsonrherrurhorfalsiryof A.
..
Conun.tions are rrue vhen |ot| of rhe conjuncrs are rrue. And
rhey`re j:|sc rheresrofrherine.
A B (A & B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
1harisconjuncrion, andir`ssrraighrforvard. Disjuncrionisalirrlebir
lesssrraighrforvard. Ienenber, ve`llinrerprer'(AB)`asrhe in.|usivc
disjuncrionof A and Beirher A or B or |ot|.
:.: xoiiis ioi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit: 1iU1h 1~niis :,
..
Lisun.tions arerruevhen :t |c:st onc ofrhedisjuncrsisrrue. And
rhey`re j:|sc rheresrofrherine.
A B (AB)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
1har`s nor all of rhe rrurh rable rules, bur ler`s pause ro check hov
you`regoing.
..
ioi voU: Supposevedefine (AB) asneirher A nor B. Con-
plererherrurhrableforrhe connecrive:
A B (A B)
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
..
~ N s v i i : 1 h i s i s r h e s a n e r r u r h r a b l e a s f o r ( A B ) .
A B ( A B )
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
toxniNiNc toNNit1ivis: Vecanevaluareoneornore .omp|cx jor-
mu|:s in a single rable, srarring fron inner-nosr aronic proposirions
andvorkingourvards. Iorexanple, rhefornula (p & q).
s1~ci o: Vrireourrherablevirhenoughrovsancolunnsforrhe
fornula (p & q), andvrirerhevaluesforeacharonicproposirion
inrheappropriarecolunns.
p q ( p & q)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1
o i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
s1~ci :: 1henprocessanyvaluesrharcanbedefinedinrernsofrhe
valuesofaronsinonesrep. Inrhiscase, ir`srhevaluesof p and q.
p q ( p & q)
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1
s1~ci :: 1henvecanprocessrheconjuncrionofrhervonegarions:
p q ( p & q)
0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
s1~ci : Iinally, vecannegarerheresulr, rogerrheconpleredrable.
p q ( p & q)
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1hiscolunnofzerosandonesrepresenrsrherrurhvalueof (p & q)
in each of rhe differenr rovs of rhe rrurh rable. Each .o|umn repre-
senrs rhe differenr rrurh values of a proposirion vhich ve encounrer
onrhevayrovardbuildingupisfornula. Each rou represenrsadif-
ferenr possi|i|ity. 1hefirsrrovrepresenrsapossibiliryinvhich p and + posslbllly, or thc posslbllly` ls here
more han one posslbllly ln whlch p anJ
q are boh lalse` Jha JepenJs on how
you coun hem.
q are borh false. 1he zero ar rhe head of rhe colunn ve have high-
lighred(inrhecolunnfor (p & q))saysrhis: if p and q areborh
false, rhen (p & q) isfalseroo. Civenrharrhefourrovsofrherrurh
rablerepresenrrhefourdifferenrpossibiliriesfor p and q, rhenvehave
conprehensiveinfornarionabourrherrurhvalueof (p & q). A
1iU1h 1~nii likerhisshovshovrherrurhvalueof (p & q) de-
pendsonrherrurhvaluesof p andof q.
If you conpare rhis colunn virh rhe colunn for rhe disjuncrion
p q you`llnoricesonerhingquirespecial:
p q ( p & q) (p q)
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
orice rhar rhese rvo colunns are iJcnti.:|. 1his rells us sonerhing
veryspecialrharineachcircunsrance, (p & q) hasrhesanerrurh
valueas p q. 1hereisnocircunsrancevhere (p & q) and p q
havedifferenrrrurhvalues. 1heyare, inaninporranrsenseve`llsee
inanupconingsecrion, rheyare |ogi.:||y cuiv:|cnt.
:.: xoiiis ioi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit: 1iU1h 1~niis :
.z. ut v\tkt\t coNnttoN\t rtcoNnttoN\t
1he condirional is a nore conplex connecrive rhan rhe connecrives
ve`vealreadyseen. VhenisirrruerosayifI carchrherranbefore
8:20an, I`ll ger ro ny office on rine? Does rhe rrurh value of rhis
depend only on rhe rrurh value of I carch rhe rran before 8:20an
andI`llgerronyofficeonrine? aybenor. Lurrhereisquirealor
ofgoodvorkyoucandovirhcondirionalsvhenyouuseasinplefacr
abourcondirionalsasrhefocusofhovyouinrerprerrhen.
If A rhen B is j:|sc vhen A isrrueand B isfalse.
VecanarguearoundincirclesabourvhenifI carchrherranbefore
8:20an, I`llgerronyofficeonrineisrrueorfalse. Lurvecan :||
agreerharinacircunsrancevhereI Jo carchrherranbefore8:20an
andI Jon't gerronyofficeonrine, rhecondirionalis j:|sc. 1he m:tcri:| Jhe clrcumsance where l ge he ram
bu am lae ls a :cuntcrcxamp|c o he
conJllonal. ln general, a ruh valua
lon v where v(A) = 1 anJ v(B) = 0
ls a couneresample o he conJl
lonal A B. ^ maerlal conJllonal
ls rue accorJlng o ruh valualon
v ll v ls no a couneresample o l.
.onJition:| A B rakesrhisroberherrurhrableofrhesrarenenrif A
rhen B.
..
1he m:tcri:| .onJition:| A B is j:|sc vhen A isrrueand B isfalse,
andiris truc orhervise.
A B (A B)
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Inorhervords, A B asserrsrharrhereisakindof trut|-tr:nsjcr di-
recredfron A ro B. If A B isrrue(veareinrovs 1, 2 or 4 ofrhe
rable, norrov 3)rhenif A isrrueroo(sorov 4, nor 1 or 2)verhen
knovrhar B isrrueroo. 1rurhof A B isenoughforrherrurhof A
rorransferrorherrurhof B.
oricerharrherhecondirional (A B) hasrhesanerrurhrableas
(A & B).
A B (A B) (A & B)
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1he narerial condirional A B is rrue in all cases cx.cpt jor u|cn A
isrrueand B false. 1he m:tcri:| .onJition:| isrhe trut|-jun.tion:| .orc of
rhe inplies or if...rhen... connecrive in English, virh rhe rrurh
ofrhecondirionalexpressedpurelyinrernsofrherrurhorfalsiryof
anrecedenrandconsequenr. ln naural language usage, we enJ
o asser A lmplles B` or ll A hen
B` when we mean here ls some
klnJ :cntcnt :cnnc:ticn leaJlng
lrom A o B, ln aJJllon o a ruh
ransler conneclon lrom A o B.
: i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
Hereisanexanpleofrhedisrincrivebehaviourofrhenarerialcon-
dirional: rhefornula p (q p) isalvaysrrue.
p q p (q p)
0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ler p be I an a penguin, and ler q be Elvis is dead. Does rhe
srarenenr p (q p) (IfI`napenguin, rhenifElvisisdead, I`na
penguin)srrkeyouasrrue? ll that srlkes you as rue, wha abou
hls. p ls l`s JuesJay` anJ q ls l`s he
weekenJ`. ls ll l`s JuesJay, hen ll l`s
he weekenJ, l`s JuesJay` rue`
..
ioi voU: Conparerhefornulas (p q) and (p q) bycon-
pleringrheirrrurhrables.
p q (p q) (p q)
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
..
~ N s v i i : ( p q ) a n d ( p q ) h a v e d i f f e r e n r r r u r h r a b l e s .
p q ( p q ) ( p q )
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
V h e n p i s f a l s e , ( p q ) i s r r u e v h i l e ( p q ) i s f a l s e , b u r v h e n
p i s r r u e , ( p q ) a n d ( p q ) h a v e s a n e r r u r h v a l u e .
1his is an inporranr lesson ro learn: rhe scope disrincrion berveen
(p q) and (p q) nakesadifferenceinrheirrrurhvalues. arural
languagesdon`ralvaysnakeireasyforusrodisringuishberveenrhese
rvosrarenenrs. Vecouldexpress (p q) inEnglishasever q if
pvhile (p q) couldbeexpressedasor q if pornoreclearly
asp onlyifnor q.
1hi ni-toNii1ioN~i: Ve`llroundrhissecrionoffvirhrhesenanrics
ofrhebi-condirional.
:.: xoiiis ioi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit: 1iU1h 1~niis
..
A |i-.onJition:| fornula (A B) is rrue precisely vhen A and B
haveexacrlyrhesanerrurhvalue; (A B) isfalsepreciselyvhen
A and B havedifferenrrrurhvalues.
A B (A B)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
1hebi-condirionalifandonlyifisindeedfornedbyconjoiningan
ifvirhanonlyifasyou`llseevirhrhisexercise:
..
ioi voU: Ler A and B beanyfornulas. Conpare (A B) virh
((A B) & (B A)) byconpleringrhisrrurhrable.
A B (A B) ((A B) & (B A))
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
..
~ N s v i i :
A B ( A B ) ( ( A B ) & ( B A ) )
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
P c s u | t : ( A B ) h a s r h e s a n e r r u r h r a b l e a s ( ( A B ) & ( B A ) ) .
1 h e f o r n u l a ( A B ) ( ( A B ) & ( B A ) ) i s a l v a y s r r u e '
1hebi-condirionalconnecriveallovsusroexpress cu:|ity oj trut|-
v:|ucs, since (A B) is rrue exacrly vhen A and B have equal rrurh
valuesoneveryrovofrherrurhrable. egaringabi-condirionalrhen
givesusaneansroexpress incu:|ity or oppositcncss ofrrurh-values.
1he follovingvorkedrrurhrableexanpleshovsrharrhenegared lor hose ha choose he Combl
nalonal llglal Sysems appllca
lon area ln Chaper 3, you wlll see
he negaeJ blconJllonal agaln as
he cx:|uivc-0k conneclve, ln 3.2,
where (ANCIB) ls rue ll anJ only
ll esacly one ol A anJ B are rue.
bi-condirional (A B) infacrneansrhesaneasrhebi-condirional
(A B), of A virhrhenegarionof B. oricerhisisinconrrasrvirh
rhe siruarion for rhe one-direcrional condirional, vhere as ve have
seen, (A B) does not neanrhesaneas (A B).
i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
..
Ler A and B beanyfornulas. 1henrhefornula
(A B) (A B)
isalvaysrrue.
A B (A B) (A B)
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

. rkorosttoN\t coNctrs \
Cncevehaveavayofexplaininghovrherrurhvalueofaconplex ^mong he posslble groups ol ruh
conJllons here are wo esreme cases.
ln one ol hese cases he proposllon
ls rue lor all he ruhposslblllles ol
he elemenary proposllons. We say
ha he ruhconJllons are tautc|cgi-
:a|. ln he seconJ case he proposllon
ls lalse lor all he ruhposslblllles. he
ruhconJllons are :cntrai:tcr,. ln
he llrs case we call he proposllon a
auology, ln he seconJ, a conraJlc
lon. lroposllons show wha hey say.
auologles anJ conraJlclons show
ha hey say nohlng. ^ auology has
no ruhconJllons, slnce l ls uncon
Jllonally rue. anJ a conraJlclon ls
rue on no conJllon. Jauologles anJ
conraJlclons lack sense . Jauologles
anJ conraJlclons are no, however,
nonsenslcal. Jhey are par ol he symbol
lsm, much as 0` ls par ol he symbollsm
ol arlhmelc.` luJwlg Wlgenseln,
1ra:tatu icgi:c-lhi|ccphi:u, +.+6
+.+611.
proposiriondependsonrherrurhvaluesofirsconsriruenrs, rhevayis
open for us ro gain a berrer undersranding of proposirionsand rhe
relarionships berveen rhen. In rhis secrion, ve`ll look ar rvo spe-
cialclassesofproposirions, rhe t:uto|ogics andrhe .ontr:Ji.tions; anve`ll
alsolookarvharrrurhrablescan rell usabourrelarionshipsberveen
proposirions. Vevillsrarrbyclassifyingproposirionsinroraurologies,
conrradicrionsandrheresr.
.. ct\sstrvtNo rkorosttoNs
..
Aproposirionallogicfornula Aisa raurology exacrlyvhen Aeval-
uaresro 1 oneveryrrurhvaluarion(everyrovofirsrrurhrable).
Ifverhinkofaproposirionasdravinga Jistin.tion berveenrhosecir-
cunsrancesvhereirisrrue, anrhosevhereirisfalse, rhenaraurology
isanexrrenecase, vhere cvcryt|ing counrsasrrue.
..
ix~xiii: p p and ((p q) & q) p are t:uto|ogics.
p (p p)
0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1
p q ((p q) & q) p
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
:. iioiosi1ioN~i toNtii1s ~ ,
..
ioi voU: Shovrhar (p q) (p & q) and (p q) (q
p) areraurologies.
Vehaveprovidedalisrofusefulraurologiesarrheendofrhischaprer.
A raurologyisalvaysrrue. A .ontr:Ji.tion isalvays j:|sc.
..
A proposirionallogicfornula A isa conrradicrion exacrlyvhen A
evaluaresro 0 oneveryrrurhvaluarion(everyrovofirsrrurhrable).
..
ix~xiii: p & p and (p q) & (p & q) are .ontr:Ji.tions.
p (p & p)
0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
p q (p q) & (p & q)
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Sonefornulasarealvaysrrue. Crhersarealvaysfalse. Lurrharleaves
a lor of proposirions in berveen. Iirsr of all, a srarenenr rhar isn`r a
conrradicrionisarleasr somctimcs rrue. Vecallrharsorrofsrarenenr
s:tisji:||c.
..
A proposirionallogicfornula A is s:tisji:||c exacrlyvhen A evalu-
aresro 1 onarleasronerrurhvaluarion.
..
A proposirionallogicfornula A is .ontingcnt exacrlyvhen A issar-
isfiableburnoraraurology. A conringenrfornulaisrrueinarleasr
onevaluarionandfalseinarleasronevaluarion.
..
ix~xiii: p and (p & q) & (r & s) areexanplesofconringenr
fornulas.
Herearesonefacrsconnecringraurologiesandconrradicrions.
o i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
A isa t:uto|ogy ifandonlyif A is not s:tisji:||c
ifandonlyif A isa .ontr:Ji.tion.
A is s:tisji:||c ifandonlyif A is not : .ontr:Ji.tion
ifandonlyif A is not : t:uto|ogy.
..
ioi voU: Is p (p q) araurology, aconrradicrionorconrin-
genr?
..
~ N s v i i : p ( p q ) i s a r a u r o l o g y .
p q p ( p q )
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
..z tNtkttnt oN ut utsokv or rkorosttoN\t tootc
anypeoplehavebeeninvolvedinrhedevelopnenrofnodernpropo-
sirionallogicoverrhelasr170orsoyears. Hereareajusrrhreeofrhe
significanrfiguresinrheearlyhisroryofproposirionallogic.
Ccorgc Loo|c (18151864): synbolicnerhodsofalgebra
appliedrologic. 1847: T|c M:t|cm:ti.:| n:|ysis oj Logi.;
1854: n Invcstig:tion oj t|c L:us oj T|oug|t.
(ix~ci tiiii1: Ccorgc Loo|c in .o|or by Aurhor
Lnknovn (c. 1860) |Iublic donain], via Ji|imcJi:
Commons. nttp//enukpeduozg/uk/0eozge
boo1e.)
IronLoole, vegerrhenane'Looleanlogic`forclas-
sicalrvo-valuedproposirionallogic. InLoole`s'M:t|cm:ti.:| n:|ysis
oj Logi.,` heappliednarhenaricalrechniquesrorepresenrlogicalrela-
rions.
ugustus Lc Morg:n (18061871): algebraoflogic; and-
ordualiry. Deorgan`sLavsarerheequivalenceof
(AB) and A & B, andof (A & B) and AB.
(ix~ci tiiii1: ugustus Lc Morg:n, t|c m:t|cm:ti.i:n
bySophiaElizaberhDeorgan(1882)(Mcmoir oj u-
gustus Lc Morg:n)|Iublicdonain], via Ji|imcJi: Com-
mons. nttp//enukpeduozg/uk/|uguutuu
0eMozgun.)
:. iioiosi1ioN~i toNtii1s ~ ,
C|:r|cs S:nJcrs Pcir.c (18391914): rrurhrables, algebra
oflogic, nor-ornor(Ieircearrov).
(ix~ci tiiii1: C|:r|cs S:nJcrs Pcir.c by Aurhor Ln-
knovn(c.1900)|Iublicdonain], via Ji|imcJi: Com-
mons. nttp//enukpeduozg/uk/Cnuz1eu
8undezuiezce.)
1herearenanyorherpeoplesignificanrinrhedevelop-
nenrofproposirionallogic, includingCorrlobIrege, LerrrandIussell
andLudvigVirrgensrein, andlogichasdevelopedbeyondphilosophy
andnarhenaricsroorherdonainssuchaslinguisrics, engineeringand
conpurerscience, asve`llseelarerinrhecourse.
.. ktt\toNsutrs rtwttN rkorosttoNs
Iornanyapplicarionsoflogic, vevanrroknovabourrherelarion-
ships |ctuccn proposirions.
Argunenrsfronprenisesroconclusion.
Linguisricanalysis.
Digiralelecrroniccircuirs.
Vesrarrherevirhrelarionshipsberveensingleproposirions. 1hecore
relarionship in logic is rhe relarionship of |ogi.:| .onscucn.c. 1he key
ideaisrharonefornulahasanorherasalogicalconsequenceifvhen-
everrhefirsrisrrue, soisrhesecond. 1here`snovayforrhefirsrrobe
rruevhenrhesecondisfalse.
..
Iornula B isa iocit~i toNsiQUiNti offornula A exacrlyvhen
forallrrurhvaluarionsinvhich A isrrue, B isalsorrue.
Vevillvrirerhisas A |= B.
1hiscanalsobereadas: A logicallyenrails B, or A logicallyinplies B.
Irrequiresa trut|-tr:nsjcrring direcredconnecrionfron A ro B.
A logicallyenrails B neansrharforeveryrovinarrurhrableinvhich
A gersrhevalue 1, B nusralsogerrhevalue 1 onrharrov.
8 i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
..
ix~xiii: p & q |= p q.
p q p & q p q
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1hereisonlyonerovvhere (p & q) isrrue(rherhirdrov)and
inrharrov, (p q) isrrueroo. So p & q enrails p q.
..
Iornula A isa iocit~iiv iQUiv~iiN1 rofornula B exacrlyvhen
forallrrurhvaluarionsin A and B haverhesanevalues.
Vevillvrirerhisas A =||= B.
Ve`veseenlorsoflogicalequivalencesalready. Herearesone.
AB =||= (A & B)
A & B =||= (AB)
A B =||= (A & B)
A B =||= AB
Hereisanexanpleequivalence.
..
ix~xiii: p & q |= p q.
p q p & q ( p q)
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1hervofornulashaverhesanevaluesineachrov: rrueinrov 3
andfalseinallorhers.
Iolloving direcr fron rhe definirions, here are sone equivalenr
characrerisarionsoflogicalconsequence, logicalequivalence, andbeing
araurology.
A =||= B ifandonlyif A |= B and B |= A.
A |= B ifandonlyif (A B) isaraurology.
A =||= B ifandonlyif (A B) isaraurology.
:. iioiosi1ioN~i toNtii1s ~ ,
..
ioi voU: Suppose A and B areproposirionalfornulasconraining
arons p, q and r, andrheirrrurhrableslooklikerhis:
p q r A B
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
Vhichofrhesecorrecrlydescriberhelogicalrelarionshipberveen
fornulas A and B?
(a) A =||= B. (b) A |= B bur B |= A.
(c) B |= A bur A |= B. (d)oneofrheabove.
..
~ N s v i i : C p r i o n ( c ) : B | = A b u r A | = B . A l l o f r h e r o v s v h e r e
B i s r r u e a r e r o v s v h e r e A i s r r u e r o o , s o B | = A . C n r h e o r h e r
h a n d , r h e r e i s a r o v ( r h e s e c o n d r o v , v h e r e i ( p ) = 0 , i ( q ) = 0 a n d
i ( r ) = 1 ) v h e r e A i s r r u e a n d B i s n ` r , s o A | = B .
Lyapplyingasequenceofknovnlogicalequivalences(suchasrhose
lisredanongrheraurologiesarrheendofrhisChapreraroundpage43),
vecanseehovrheycanbeseenasre-vriringrules, asaneansroger
afornulainroanequivalenrdesiredshapeorforn. 1hisbeconesin-
porranrinChaprer 3on Conbinational Digital Systens, andalso
inChaprer 6, on Propositional Iioioc. Iorexanple:
(r & s) (p q)
(r & s) (p & q) Deorgan`sequivalence
(r & s) (p & q) Doublenegarion
(p & q) (r & s) conrraposirionequivalence
(p & q) (r & s) Doublenegarion
(p & q) (r s) Deorgan`sequivalence
(p & q) (r s) narerialcondirional
((p & q) & r) s Curry`sfornula
(p & q & r) s Associariviryof &
(Iornulas of rhe forn ((p & q & r) s) vill be knovn as progr:m
.|:uscs inChaprer 6.) Inrhisexanple, vehavenadeeverysrepexplicir.
o i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
Asyougernorepracriced, youvillbeableroconbinesreps, parric-
ularly rhose involving double negarion. Ior exanple, (A B)
(B A) viaconrraposirionequivalencevirhadoublenegarionlefr
inplicir. 1hereasoningprinciplebeingusedheregoesbyrhenaneof
Su|stitutivity oj Euiv:|cnts, andisalongrhesanelinesassubsrirurionof
equalsforequalsinelenenrarynarhenarics. 1heprinciplesays:
If A B rhen C[p := A] C[p := B] ,
vhere A, B and C arelogicfornulasvirh C conrainingaron p, and
C[p := A] is rhe resulr of replacing every occurrence of p in C virh
fornula A. 1heprinciplesays: if A and B arelogicallyequivalenrand
rheyareborhsubsriruredforanaroninafurrherfornula C, rhenrhe
resulrisrvonorelogicallyequivalenrfornulas, C[p := A] and C[p :=
B].
Ioranorherexanple,
(p & q & r) (p & q & r) (p & q & r)
(p & q & (r r)) (p & r & (q q))
Disrriburionof & over , plusConnurariviryof &,
(p & q) (p & r)
Cancellingequivalence
(p & (q r))
Disrriburionof & over
(p & (q & r))
Deorgan`sequivalence
Here, rhe C:n.c||ing cuiv:|cn.c (A & (BB)) Aexpressesrharifyou
havea .onun.tion virharaurologylike (B B), rhenyoucancancel
ourrhealvaysrrueparr. Likevise, (A(B & B)) A expressesrhar
ifyouhavea Jisun.tion virhaconrradicrionlike (B & B), rhenyou
cancancelourrhealvaysfalseparr.
Arrheorherexrrene, rherelarionshipopposirerologicalequiva-
lenceisrharofbeing .ontr:Ji.torics.
..
Iornulas A and B are conrradicrories exacrly vhen for all rrurh
valuarions, A and B have oppositc rrurhvalues.
So A and B beingconrradicroriesneansrhar B isbefalsevhenever A
isrrue, and B isrruevhenever A isfalse.
Ioranyproposirionalfornulas A, B:
A and B are .ontr:Ji.torics
ifandonlyif A =||= B
ifandonlyif (A B) isa t:uto|ogy.
Herearesonefurrherlogicalrelarionsvorrhknoving, rhardareback
roArisrorelianandnedievallogic.
:. iioiosi1ioN~i toNtii1s ~ :
..
Iornulas A and B are .ontr:rics vhenrheycannorborhberrue.
So A and B beingconrrariesneansrhar B isfalsevhenever A isrrue,
and A isfalsevhenever B isrrue.
..
Iornulas Aand B are su|-.ontr:rics vhenrheycannorborhbefalse.
Inconrrasr, Aand Bbeingsub-conrrariesneansrhar Bisrruevhenever
A isfalse, and A isrruevhenever B isfalse.
1he relarionships of being conrraries and sub-conrraries have rhe
follovingequivalenrcharacrerisarions. Ioranyfornulas A, B:
A and B are .ontr:rics
ifandonlyif A |= B
ifandonlyif (A B) isa t:uto|ogy
ifandonlyif (A & B) isa .ontr:Ji.tion
ifandonlyif (A & B) isa t:uto|ogy.
A and B are su|-.ontr:rics
ifandonlyif A |= B
ifandonlyif (A B) isa t:uto|ogy
ifandonlyif (AB) isa t:uto|ogy.
: i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
sovt \totootts
1hislisrisbynoneansexhausrive: youareencouragedroaddrorhe
lisrasyoudiscovernevones. Youdonorhaveronenoriserhelisr,
burrodevelopyourlogicinruirions, irvillbeusefulroreadrhrough
andnoricerheparrernsinir.
Ler A, B and C beanyfornulasofaproposirionallogiclanguage. 1he
follovingareraurologiesofproposirionallogic.
Doublenegarionelin.: A A
Excludedniddle: (AA) and (A & A)
Associariviryof &: ((A & B) & C) (A & (B & C))
Associariviryof : ((AB) C) (A(B C))
Connurariviryof &: (A & B) (B & A)
Connurariviryof : (AB) (B A)
Disrriburionof & over : (A & (B C)) ((A & B) (A & C))
Disrriburionof over &: (A(B & C)) ((AB) & (AC))
Deorgan`sfor of & ro : (A & B) (AB)
Deorgan`sfor of ro &: (AB) (A & B)
Deorgan`sfor of & ro : (A & B) (AB)
Deorgan`sfor of ro &: (AB) (A & B)
arerialcondirional: (A B) (AB)
egaredcondirional: (A B) (A & B)
Condirionalsfor &: (A & B) A and (A & B) B
Condirionalsfor : A (AB) and B (AB)
Veakening: A (B A)
Disrriburion: (A (B C)) ((A B) (A C))
Conrraposirion: (A B) (B A)
Conrraposirion2: (A B) (B A)
Conrraposirionequivalence: (A B) (B A)
Iierce`sLav: ((A B) A) A
MoJus poncns condirional: (A & (A B)) B
Curry`sIornula: ((A & B) C) (A (B C))
Excludingdisjuncrs: ((AB) & A) B
((AB) & B) A
Lsingonlyrheinferenceruleof MoJus Poncns: fron A and (A B), con-
clude B, onecangiveanininalaxionarisarionofclassicalproposirionallogic
byrakingasaxionsjusrrherhree: Veakening, Disrriburion and Conrrapo-
sirion. 1his axionarisarion vas firsr discovered by rhe Iolish logician jan
Lukasieviczinrhe1920s.
:. iioiosi1ioN~i toNtii1s ~
rt\Nk ktu \rtts
Herearesoneblankrrurhrablesroprinrouranduseforyourovnvork, for
rhree, fourandfivearonicproposirions.
p q r
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
i~NcU~ci ~Ni xoiiis oi iioiosi1ioN~i iocit th~i1ii :
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
:. iioiosi1ioN~i toNtii1s ~ ,
[~iiii :,, :o:]

[:] ~i~N i. ~NiiisoN ~Ni NUii i. niiN~i. Ent:i|mcnt. T|c Logi. oj Pc|c-
v:n.c :nJ ^c.cssity, volune 1. Irinceron Lniversiry Iress, Irinceron,
1975. |Cired on page 50]
[:] ~i~N ioss ~NiiisoN, NUii i. niiN~i, ~Ni }. xith~ii iUNN. Ent:i|-
mcnt. T|c Logi. oj Pc|cv:n.c :nJ ^c.cssity, volune 2. Irinceron Lniver-
siry Iress, Irinceron, 1992. |Cired on page 50]
[] iiviNc h. ~Niiiis. Iron senanric rableaux ro Snullyan rrees: a his-
rory of rhe developnenr of rhe falsifiabiliry rree nerhod. MoJcrn Logi.,
1(1):3669, 1990. |Cired on page 66]
[] }t ni~ii ~Ni ciic iis1~ii. Logi.:| P|ur:|ism. Cxford Lniversiry Iress,
Cxford, 2006. |Cired on page 139]
[,] NUii niiN~i. Declararives are nor enough. P|i|osop|i.:| StuJics,
59(1):130, 1990. |Cired on page 11]
[o] n. ~. i~viv ~Ni h. ~. iiiis1iiv. IntroJu.tion to L:tti.cs :nJ CrJcr. Can-
bridge Lniversiry Iress, Canbridge, 1990. |Cired on page 125]
[,] toiiN hovsoN. Logi. uit| Trccs. n introJu.tion to sym|o|i. |ogi.. Iour-
ledge, 1996. |Cired on pages 4, 66]
[8] }~N iUx~siivitz. Cn Dererninisn. In i. noixovsxi, ediror, Sc|c.tcJ
Jor|s. orrh Holland, Ansrerdan, 1970. |Cired on page 129]
[,] iiviN i. x~iis. Pc|cv:nt Logi.. P|i|osop|i.:| Intcrprct:tion. Canbridge
Lniversiry Iress, 2004. |Cired on page 50]
[:o] iith~ii xoN1~cUi. Lniversal grannar. T|cori:, 36(3):373398,
1970. |Cired on page 142]
[::] ciic iis1~ii. egarion in Ielevanr Logics: Hov I Sropped Vor-
rying and Learned ro Love rhe Iourley Srar. In iov c~nn~v ~Ni
hiiNiith v~NsiNc, edirors, J|:t is ^cg:tion, volune 13 of p-
p|icJ Logi. Scrics, pages 5376. Kluver Acadenic Iublishers, 1999.
|Cired on page 50]
[::] ciic iis1~ii. Logi.. Iundanenrals of Ihilosophy. Iourledge, 2006.
|Cired on page 4]
[:] i. x. sxUiiv~N. Iirst-CrJcr Logi.. Springer-Verlag, Lerlin, 1968.
Ieprinred by Dover Iress, 1995. |Cired on page 66]
[:] 1ixo1hv viiii~xsoN. 1:gucncss. Iourledge, London; ev York,
1994. |Cired on page 139]
[:,] 1ixo1hv viiii~xsoN. Knou|cJgc :nJ Its Limits. Cxford Lniversiry
Iress, Cxford, 2002. |Cired on page 139]
:o
[~iiii :,, :o:]
tv\ot \ckNowttnotvtNs
Supcr C|uc Tu|c, reproducedvirhpernissionfron Supcr C|uc Corpo-
r:tion.
Ccorgc Loo|c in Co|our, :rtist un|noun (c. 1860)
|iUniit iox~iN], via Ji|imcJi: Commons.
nttp:))cccns.uikicdiu.czg)uiki)li1c:0cczgc_8cc1c_cc1cz.
pg
C|:r|cs S:nJcrs Pcir.c byAurhorLnknovn(c.1900)
|iUniit iox~iN], via Ji|imcJi: Commons.
nttp:))cn.uikipcdiu.czg)uiki)Cnuz1cs_8undczs_icizcc.
C|:uJc S|:nnon virhhiselecrronechanicalnouse1heseus.
IeprinredvirhpernissionofAlcarel-LucenrLSA Inc.
nttp:))uuu.1und1cy.nct)nistczy)izzcz)pzc)snunncn.nt1.
janLukasievicz(1935), p|otogr:p|cr un|noun |iUniit iox~iN].
nttp:))uuu.cu1cu1cus.czg)MutnUnivczsu1is)6)1ukus.pg
^o:m C|oms|y by nJrcu Pus| |tt-nv-:.o]
nttp:))uuu.t1ickz.cc)pnctcs)undzcuzusk)6608086070)
L:r|:r: P:rtcc |iUniit iox~iN], via Ji|imcJi: Commons
nttp:))cccns.uikicdiu.czg)uiki)li1c:8uzLuzu_puztcc.pg
JJo E|cp|:nt ^:tion:| P:r| by Lri:n Snc|son |tt-nv-:.o]
nttp:))uuu.t1ickz.cc)pnctcs)82660628uNuu)420421460
Toy c|cp|:nt snip by s:mmyJ:vis Jog |tt-nv-:.o]
nttp:))uuu.t1ickz.cc)pnctcs)26660122uNu6)6u67806486)
:o,
Cur .:t by irr:tion:| .:t |tt-nv-s~-:.o]
nttp:))uuu.t1ickz.cc)pnctcs)izzuticnu1_cut)867766u1
Z:. :nJ Crcg in ri:on: (january2009)by C|ristinc P:r|cr,
reproducedvirhpernission.
Ji|son Tcnnis P:.uct by Kcvcn P:yr:vi |tt-nv-s~-.o]
nttp:))cccns.uikicdiu.czg)uiki)li1c:wi1scn_1cnnis_
8ucquct.pg
Lapropbynysrica|iUniit iox~iN]
nttp:))cpcnc1ipuzt.czg)dctui1)16418)1uptcp-Ly-ysticu
T|om:s Ho||cs (1588-1679), Englishphilosopher,
arrisrunknovn, |iUniit iox~iN]viaVikinediaConnons
nttp:))cccns.uikicdiu.czg)uiki)li1c:1ncus_ucLLcs.pcg
Portr:it oj CottjricJ Lci|ni: (1646-1716), Cernanphilosopher,
arrisrChrisrophLernhardIrancke, circa1700.
Herzog-Anron-Llrich-useun, Lraunschveig, Cernany.
|iUniit iox~iN]viaVikinediaConnons
nttp:))cccns.uikicdiu.czg)uiki)li1c:0ctttzicd_wi1nc1_
vcn_LciLniz.pg
Portr:it oj L:viJ Hi||crt (1862-1943), Cernannarhenarician,
arrisrunknovn|CC LY SA 2.0]; arhenarischesIorschungsinsrirur
Cbervolfach, Cernany: archivesofI.Ioquerre, Heidelberg.
nttp:))cupdL.tc.dc)dctui1?pnctc_id=024u
P|otogr:p| oj T|c St:.|cJ S|:tc S.u|pturc oj |:n Turing |y Stcp|cn Kctt|c,
IhorographbyjonCallasfronSanjose, LSA,|CC LY 2.0],
nttp:))cccns.uikicdiu.czg)uiki)li1c:|1un_1uzing.pg
:oo iiiiiiNtis
ii~i1 oi ~iiii :,, :o:
viaVikinediaConnons
:o,