Chapter 13 LIFE HISTORY PATTERNS

PATTERNS OF REPRODUCTION
There are two forms of reproduction, sexual and asexual.
Asexual reproduction takes several forms: budding, mitosis in unicellular organisms, runners,
parthenogenesis, etc.
1. Dioecious: male and female individuals sexes separate e.g. most animals and some
plants.
!. Monoecious: plants with male flowers and female flowers on the same individual.
3. Hermaphrodiic: plants with male and female organs in the same flower in animals,
hermaphroditic individuals have testes and ovaries, a condition common in
invertebrates.
MATIN! SYSTEMS
1. Mono"am#: a persistent pair bond between one male and one female: common in birds.
!. Po$#"#n# "pol#gam#$: one male has a harem of several females: some birds, man#
mammals.
3. Po$#andr# "pol#gam#$: one female has several males rare, in some birds like rails,
cranes, %acana and spotted sandpiper.
&. Promiscui# "pol#gam#$: no bonds are established: common in mammals.
'emale birds are tied to a nest and eggs re(uire incubating. 'emale mammals are not tied to
the nest, do not incubate eggs, and produce milk for the #oung. The continued presence of a
male is not a necessit# in mammals.
Cuc%o$dr# and anicuc%o$dr#&
Cuckoldr# occurs when the females of monogamous pairs mate with males other than their
partners.
)ales of man# species have developed anticuckoldr# behavior to prevent their females from
mating with another male, e.g. guarding the female
The female invests a large amount of energ# in producing a clutch of eggs and incubating them.
)ating with several males assures her that some eggs will be fertili*ed.
Cuckoldr# is common among man# animal species.
SE'UAL SELECTION
)ales are not selective with whom the# mate.
'emales are selective and males must prove their fitness. This is called se(ua$ se$ecion.
There is intense rivalr# between males for female attention. This is called inrase(ua$
compeiion.
MODELS OF SE'UAL SELECTION
Sexual selection is selection for characters that enhance mating success. Darwin was
impressed by the fact that qualities of sexual attractiveness were often the reverse of qualities
leading to individual survival. He thought that gaining a higher chance to win mates was worth
the risk conferred by such characters. Bright colors long tails plumes antlers and horns
threaten the survival of the animal but they also give them an advantage in fighting other males
or attracting females. !o Darwin sexually selected characters were of no use other than being
attractive to the females. He described sexual selection as selection in relation to sex. "allace
however thought that all those characters were more than ornaments with some utilitarian
quality which females benefited for choosing. #n his view the ornamentations are used to
advertise genuine quality as only the healthiest males can afford doing so$ mating with them will
generate more and healthier offspring.%
M&Te)*i% Dora%+ hp,--dora%m&ripod&com-e)o$uion-sse$ec&hm$
+exual selection favors traits that enhance mating success even if the# handicap the male b#
making him more vulnerable to predation.
'emales invest a lot in reproduction. ,t is to their advantage to be selective in choosing a mate,
one who will pass on the best genes to the next generation.
./ Run-away Selection Theory &'( )isher *+,-./ (ccording to )isher if a ma0ority of
females prefer a particular kind of male other females would be favored if they mate with the
same kind of males because their sons will be attractive to many females. 1very individual will
tend to inherit its mother2s genes for preferring its father and its father2s genes for the qualities
preferred. !hese two &groups of. genes will then segregate together and under certain
circumstances due to positive feedback may lead to runaway selection of more and more
exaggeration of the quality preferred. !his would continue until the disadvantage in terms of
male survival exceeds the reproductive advantage for males. 1ventually all the males in the
population will end up with a tail length at the optimum point. "hen all males come to have the
same trait there would be no genetic advantage to a female in choosing one rather than the
other. Because of this ma0or problem with this theory more elaborate forms of it have been
developed.% M&Te)*i% Dora%+ hp,--dora%m&ripod&com-e)o$uion-sse$ec&hm$
Simple version of the Runaway Selection Model:
(. (ssume two genes are involved/ )emale choice gene &C 3 choose males with exaggerated
trait c 3 mate randomly. and 4ale trait gene &T 3 have exaggerated trait t 3 normal trait.
*. "hen C allele is common T is favored 5 C females do better since their offspring have both
C allele&s. for daughters and T trait for sons.
6. T increases not because it directly benefits females but because it gets chosen &it pays to
have sons with trait and daughters who chose it..
7. !his leads to runaway selection and the ! allele increases until/
5 #t is fixed in the population
5 8atural selection against ! carriers halts it
T mutants may appear and lead to further exaggeration.
#t is the co5evolution of the trait and choice loci that drives the process. !hey become linked%
and self5reinforcing. !he result is an ongoing exaggeration of the trait$ held in check only by
natural selection. )emales gain success by 0ust having the tendency to choose for certain
traits.
http:--www.brown.edu-Courses-.io/&0-12'-b&03!4!13.pdf
0/ Handicap Theor#& According to the handicap heor#, males develop secondar# sexual
characteristics "e. g. bright plumage$ that could reduce the male5s survival.
This theor# presumes the evolution of three traits: a male handicap, a female attraction
for the handicap, a viabilit# trait.
)ales who have survived in spite of these handicaps are the stronger
1/ Re)ea$in" Si"na$ Theor# "6amilton 7 8uk, 19:!$: This theor# proposes that onl# males
resistant to parasites would be able to displa# conspicuous features ;not necessaril# costl# to
them; to attract females. Thus, the ornaments "such as long tails, inflated throat poaches or
bright plumage$ simpl# reveal the state of health without damaging it so the# constitute
revealing handicaps. 'emale choice for males with the best;developed sexual characters would
result in offspring that are likel# to inherit geneticall#;determined resistance to parasites from
their father. M&Te)*i% Dora%+ Ph&D& http:--www.dorak.info-evolution-sselect.html
PROCESS OF SELECTION
Inrase(ua$ se$ecion or male competition increases selective pressure for the evolution of
horns, larger si*e, exaggerated plumage and bright colors.
,t is presumed that in some wa# these characteristics influence female choice.
Inerse(ua$ se$ecion involves female choice among males offering resources or offering onl#
genes.
The selection of a resource, usuall# a territor#, appears to be a criterion for selection. The
(uestion is, does the female selects the territor# and accepts the male that goes with it< =r
does she selects the male, and accepts his territor# as a conse(uence<
The selection process comes down to salesmanship on the part to the male and sales
resistance on the part of the female.
Le%s are aggregations of males for the purpose of displa# and attraction of females.
'our criteria should be verified to identif# a lekking species:
1. there is no male parental investment be#ond the sperm
!. males aggregate at specific sites for displa#
3. the onl# resource females find on the lek is the male, i.e. the male genes
&. females can select her mate"s$,
There are several h#potheses advanced to explain lek behavior:
'emale choice: an unusual opportunit# to find a mate among displa#ing males.
6otpot model: males cluster in places where encounters with females are potentiall#
high.
6otshot model: the dominant male has the best territor# and mates with the largest
number of females subdominant males ma# be able to steal mating opportunities.
REPRODUCTI2E EFFORT
1arents allocate certain amount of time and energ# to reproduction.
PARENTAL CARE
Caring for #oung is a ma%or reproductive expenditure: providing food, shelter, protection, etc.
The degree of development at birth or hatching varies between species.
Precocia$ #oung are able to move about at or shortl# after birth, although the# ma# have
along infanc# and grow slowl#.
A$ricia$ animals are born helpless, naked or nearl# so, and often blind. The# grow
rapidl# and mature earl#.
)ost mammals are altricial or semiprecocial.
PARENTAL IN2ESTMENT
1arents have onl# limited amount of energ#. The# have to allocate certain amount of energ# to
their own survival.
1arents ma# invest a maximum amount of energ# into a single reproductive effort in a lifetime.
Seme$parous organisms breed onl# once in their lifetime.
The# produce man# #oung.
The# ma# be annual or perennial.
+almon, some s(uid, 1>;#ear cicada, agave, bamboo, some palms.
=rganisms ma# invest reproductive effort into man# small offspring and provide a minimal
amount of parental care.
Ieroparous breed several times in their life.
The# have fewer #oung and extend parental care.
)ost vertebrates, perennial herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees.
PARENTAL ENER!Y 3UD!ETS
1lants that grow in adverse environments allocate more energ# to reproduction than those in
more moderate habitats.
As parents divide available energ# among an increasing number of offspring, the fitness of
individual offspring declines.
+tudies suggest that ph#siological and ecological factors probabl# set clutch si*e among birds
at an optimum level that results in maximum lifetime reproduction.
.rood reduction is another wa# of concentration the energ# of reproduction into fewer offspring
in order to increase their fitness. This occurs often when food is scarce.
As#nchronous hatching.
+iblicide: the larger sibling kills the runt.
.irds in higher latitudes have larger clutch si*e than those in the tropics mammals have larger
litters. The mortalit# of adults is also higher in higher latitudes.
The availabilit# of resources has been advanced as the explanation: longer da#s allow for
longer time foraging greater mortalit# of adults in winter provides more food in the spring to
survivors.
)ost hermaphroditic animals are not self;fertili*ing.
6ermaphroditic plants have the advantage of a single individual being able to coloni*e a new
habitat.
?ender change among animals, notabl# fish species, appears to be stimulated b# a social
change involving sex ratios in the population. +ex reversal can occur is some individuals of the
previous sex are removed.
Among plants, perennials dela# flowering until the# have attained a sufficientl# large leaf area to
support seed production.
'ecundit# in fish increases with si*e, which in turn increases with age. .ecause earl# fecundit#
reduces both growth and later reproductive success, fish obtain a selective advantage b#
dela#ing sexual maturation until the# grow larger.
!ENDER ALLOCATION
@esource allocation ma# influence sex ratios in the offspring because of the differential costs of
producing males and females.
Aatural selection often favors those parents who invest e(uall# in sons and daughters.
Bhen both are e(uall# expensive, the sex ratio will be 1:1.
The cost of rearing ma# not be e(ual. The sex ratio will become skewed toward the less
expensive sex.
R4SELECTION AND 54SELECTION
r and K se$ecion
The theor# of r; and C; selection predicts that species in different environments will differ in life
histor# traits such as si*e, fecundit#, age at first reproduction, number of reproductive events
during the lifetime, and total life span.
r4se$eced species end o&&& 54 se$eced species end o&&&
Darl# maturit# "increases r$ 4ate maturit#
)an# #oung "increases r and dispersal$. 'ew #oung.
+mall #oung so the# can make man#. 4arge #oung to increase
survival
+hort life or annuals. 4ong life or perennial.
4ess parental care. Dxtended parental care.
4ess competitive abilit#. ?ood competitors.
Eer# good dispersal abilit#. ?ood dispersal abilit#.
In sa6$e ha6ias, populations tend to sta# at or near 9, the carr#ing capacit#.
A tendenc# towards becoming established and remaining in place.
The# can cope with ph#sical and biotic pressures.
Conditions are stable and 9 varies little no growth.
D.g. Climax forests, deserts, caves, ocean depths.
In unsa6$e or emporar# ha6ias, populations will grow ver# fast to reach 9 and their biotic
potential, r, is full# reali*ed.
+pace, light, water, etc. is rarel# a problem at the beginning "little competition$.
=pportunit# for the population to grow.
Bhen conditions shift "unstable habitatF$, the population becomes overcrowded and
declines 9 varies greatl#.
D. g. abandoned fields, sandbars, seasonal ponds, openings in the forest.
HA3ITAT SELECTION
Gualit# of the habitat is essential to reproductive success: HrichI habitats improves reproductive
successJfitness.
The selection of a habitat is an important part of an organism5s life histor# pattern.
+tructure and diversit# of the habitat in relation to food appears to be important in habitat
selection.
Aesting sites, hiding places, perches, etc. also contribute to the (ualit# of the habitat.
6abitats range from optimal to submarginal. The optimal habitats fill up faster.
All species show some plasticit# in the selection of habitats. 4atecomers or subdominant
individuals are left with the poor habitat where the# ma# have little chance of reproducing
successfull#.
The onl# recourse plants have in habitat selection is to send seeds in anticipation that the# will
arrive at some place suitable for seedling germination and survival.
)or example in the northwestern :nited States males of both 'ed5winged and ;ellow5headed Blackbirds set up
territories in open marshes. !he 'edwings arrive earlier in the spring and occupy the entire marsh. "hen the
;ellowheads fly in they take over the best territories &areas of cattails and other plants in deep water that harbor the
richest insect life. and force the 'edwings into the shallower drier more marginal habitats. !he 'edwings are able to
breed successfully in these areas however while the ;ellowheads are unable to exploit the less productive sites
successfully. http:--www.stanford.edu-group-stanfordbirds-text-essa#s-.ird/Communities.html
)ore information: http:--www.stanford.edu-group-stanfordbirds-text-essa#s-6abitat/+election.html