Chap 02x PDF

ECE 5700
Digital Control Systems

Chapter 2
Dr. Bradley J. Bazuin
Western Michigan University
College of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
1903 W. Michigan Ave.
Kalamazoo MI, 49008-5329
Discrete-Time Systems and
the z-Transform
Discrete-Time Systems
Transform Methods
Properties of the z-Transform
Solution of Differential Equations
The Inverse z-Transform
ECE 6950
Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the course textbook: C.L. Phillips and H.T Nagle,
Digital Control System Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1995, ISBN: 0-13-309832.
2
Simulation Diagrams and Flow Graphs
State Variables
Other State Variable Formulations
Transfer Functions
Solutions of the State Equations
Linear Time-Varying Systems
Digital Control System
Using analog-to-digital converters, digital computers, and
digital-to-analog converters
ECE 6950 Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the course textbook: C.L. Phillips and H.T
Nagle, Digital Control System Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1995, ISBN: 0-13-309832.
3
R.C. Dorf and R.H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, 9
th
ed., Prentice Hall, 2001. ISBN 0-13-030660-6
Actuator DAC Output
Discrete time steps
based on the update
rate.
4
Digital Equivalent of a PI Actuator
Proportional-Integral (PI) error processing actuator
Defining the discrete numerical integral (step area)
( ) ( ) ( )
+ =
t
I p
d e K t e K t m
0

The discretized actuator
5
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) kT e T T k x kT x + = 1
( ) ( ) ( ) kT x K kT e K kT m
I p
+ =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] T k x K kT e T K kT e K kT m
I I p
1 + + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] [ ] T k x K T k e T K kT e T K kT e K kT m
I I I p
2 1 + + + =
Generalized Difference Equation
The general form of the first-order linear difference
equation is
The generalized n-th order difference equation is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1
0 0 1
+ = k x a k e b k e b k x
The comparable continuous time differential equation is
6
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) n k x a k x a k x a
n k e b k e b k e b k x
n n
n n

+ + + =

0 2 1
0 1
2 1
1
L
L
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
dt
t dy
dt
t y d
dt
t y d
t e
dt
t e d
dt
t e d
t y
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

+ + + =
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1

L
L
Actuator Implementation
Use the continuous time actuator defined for the problem
and convert it to a digital discrete time compensator
The result is an approximation
Residual errors will exist for some portions of the performance
Define a unique digital compensator Define a unique digital compensator
Exact methods provide simulated/computed performance
Note: the transfer function of the actuator/compensator
takes the form of a filter in both domains!
7
Transform Methods
For continuous-time systems, the Laplace transform is
used to define the filter transfer function
For discrete-time systems, the z-Transform (using the
( )
( )
( ) 1
1
1
1
0 1
1
1
+ + + +
+ + + +
= =
s s s
s s s
s E
s Y
s H
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

L
L
For discrete-time systems, the z-Transform (using the
delay operator z) is defined as
With the transfer function
8
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) L + + + = =
2 1
2 1 0 z e z e e k e z E
( )
( )
( ) z E
z Y
z H =
Z-Transform Pair
For the forward transform defined as
The inverse transform is defined as
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=

= + + + = =
0
2 1
2 1 0
k
k
z k e z e z e e k e z E L
9
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) 1 ,
2
1
1 1
=
= =

j dz z z E
j
z E k e
k
Comment
This is the hand-waving method of describing the z-
transform and relating it to the Laplace transform.
Dorf Chapter 13 has a better introduction
Chapter 13-1 Notes Chapter 13-1 Notes
10
Time Delay and Laplace
What is the Laplace transform of a pure time delay?
But in a discrete time system, we define this as z^-1
( ) [ ] ( )
=
0
dt e T t T t L
st

( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) T s dt T s T t L = =
exp exp
0
But in a discrete time system, we define this as z^-1

11
System Response to a Time Delay
R(s) Y(s)
( )
0
t t
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
= =
0
t h L dt e t h s H
st
( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
0
exp t s dt e t t s H
st
= =
The magnitude response is: ( ) ( ) 1 exp = = t jw jw H

So, what effect might a time delay have on the gain and
phase of a system?
Open Loop Gain no change
Open Loop Phase significant change based on the frequency!
The additional phase may make the system unstable!
12
The magnitude response is: ( ) ( ) 1 exp
0
= = t jw jw H
The phase response is: ( )
0
t w jw H =
Discrete System Caution
The sampling rate is very important.
Too long between samples and significant phase delay will
happen. This can and will lead to an unstable output
The relationship between time samples in z and the actual
sample rate is assumed to be appropriate and not always sample rate is assumed to be appropriate and not always
addressed!
Criterion may be able to be developed to establish what the
sample rate must be to be stable
13
Z-Transform Example (Math Trick)
Perform the z-transform of a time sampled unit step
function
( ) 0 , 1 = k for k e
( ) ( ) L + + + = =

2 1
1 z z z k e z E
k
Using the identity (Taylor series expansion for small x)
Results in
14
=
0 k
1 , 1
1
1
2 1
< + + + =
x for x x
x
L
( ) 1 ,
1 1
1
1
1
<
z for
z
z
z
z E
Example 2
A decreasing exponential
( ) 0 , =

k for k e
T ak
( ) ( ) L + + + = =

2 2 1
0
1 z z z k e z E
T k a T ak
k
k

15
( ) ( ) ( ) L + + + = =

2
1 1
0
0
1 z z z k e
T ak T ak
k
k
k

( ) 1 ,
1
1
1
1
<
=

=

z for
z
z
z
z E
T ak
T ak T ak

Region of Convergence
The mathematical bounds shown are the regions in which
an inverse transform exists the integral can be
performed.
For values outside this region, the result is not valid. Using an
improper sample rate would be such an instance
Some texts dwell on this, out text does not!
In general, you can use tables of forward and inverse
transforms to compute results.
16
Properties of the z-Transform (1)
Addition/Subtraction
Multiplication
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) z E z E k e k e
2 1 2 1
=
17
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) z E a k e a k e a
1 1 1
= =
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) z E b z E a k e b k e a
2 1 2 1
=
Real Translation (n a positive integer)
Moving the data sequence right (with 0 filling)
Moving the data sequence left with data zeroing
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) z E z n k u n k e
n
1 1
=

Moving the data sequence left with data zeroing
18
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( )
(
= +

1
0
1 1 1
n
k
k n
z k e z E z k u n k e
The discrete unit impulse function
As with continuous time, a discrete impulse function exists
( )
=
=
n k
n k
n k
, 0
, 1
( ) [ ] ( )

= =

19
( ) [ ] ( )
n
k
k
z z n k n k Z

= =

0

Complex Translation
( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ]

=
= =
1
0
1
1
1
0
1 1
n
k
k
a
n
k
k ak ak
z k e z k e k e
( ) [ ] ( ) z E k e
a ak
=

1 1
20
( ) [ ] ( )
1 1
Example
( )
ak
k k e

=
1
( ) [ ]
( )
2
1
= =
z
z
k k e Z
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )
2 2
1
1
a
a
a
a
ak
z
z
z
z
k k e Z
= =

Initial Value
( ) ( ) L + + + = =

2 1
0
1 z z z k e z E
k
k
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] L + + + = =

2 1
2 ` 1 0 lim lim lim z e z e e z k e z E
z
k
z z
21
[ ]

=

0
z
k
z z
( ) ( ) 0 lim e z E
z
=

Final Value
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
(
(
+ + +
+ + +
=
(
+ + =
(
+ + = +

=

1 1
2 1 1 1 0
lim
1 lim
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
0 0
0 0
n e z n e z z
e z z e z e
z k e z k u k e
z k e z k u k e k e k e E
n n
n
n
k
k
n
k
k
n
k
k
k
k
L
L
( ) ( ) [ ] { }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( + + +

2 1 1 1 0
1 1 1
e z z e z e L
22
( ) ( ) [ ] { }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
)
(
(
+ + +
+ + +
= +

1 1
2 1 1 1 0
lim lim 1 lim
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
n e z n e z z
e z z e z e
k e k e E
n n
n z z
L
L
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) 0 1 lim 0 1 lim 1 lim
1
e n e e n e k e k e E
n n z
+ = + = +

But
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 1 0 1 e z z E z z E e z E z k e k e E = = +
Substituting ( ) ( ) ( ) { } ( ) [ ] ( ) 0 1 lim 0 1 lim
1
e n e e z z E z
n z
+ =

( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] n e z E z
n z
= lim 1 lim
1
Example Check
Using the discrete unit step function
Initial Value
( ) 0 , 1 = k for k e
( ) 1 ,
1 1
1
1
1
<
z for
z
z
z
z E
( ) ( )
1
Final Value
23
( ) ( ) 0 1
1
1
lim lim
1
e
z
z E
z z
= =

( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] n e z
z
z
z z E z
n z z z
= = =
(
= lim 1 lim
1
1 lim 1 lim
1 1 1
z-Transform Pairs
See Table 2-2 on p. 37
See appendix VIII on p. 676-677
See Table 2-3 on p. 42 and inside the back cover!
24
Laplace and z-Transforms
25
R.C. Dorf and R.H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, 9th ed., Prentice Hall, 2001
Z-Transform Difference Equations
Example 2.9
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 = k m k e k e k m
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z M z z E z z E z M =
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
1 1

= + z z E z z M
( ) z
1
1
26
( )
( )
( )
( ) z E
z
z
z M
+
1
1
1
1
Let
( )
=
odd k
even k
k e
, 0
, 1
Example Continued (2)
Transforming the input
( ) ( )
k
k e 1
2
1
2
1
+ =
( ) L + + + + =
6 4 2
1 z z z z E
( )
( ) ( )
|
|
\
|

+
|
\
|
=
1 1
1 1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
z
z
z E
( ) L + + + =
6 4 2 2
z z z z E z
27
( ) ( )
\

\

1 1
2 1 2
z
z
( )
2 2
1 1
1
1
1
1 1
2
1

=
|
|
\
|
+ +
=
z z
z z
z E
( )
( ) ( ) 1 1 1
2
2
2
+
=
=
z z
z
z
z
z E
( ) ( ) 1
2
=

z E z z E
( )
2
1
1
=
z
z E
Example Continued (3)
( )
( )
( )
( ) z E
z
z
z M
+
1
1
1
1
( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
1

+
=
z z
z E
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
2 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1

+ +
=
+ +
=
+
=
z z z z z z z
z
z M
28
Perform the division, resulting in
( )
( ) ( )

+ =
+ + =
0
4 3 2 1
1 1
5 4 3 2 1
k
k
k
z k
z z z z z M L
( ) ( ) ( )
k
k k e 1 1 + =
The previous was an example of the power series method
Perform the division and the values are the time sample values
This method can and often does results in an infinite sequence .
May be hard to recognized in a closed form expression.
29
Example 2.10
( )
2 1
1
2
2 3 1 2 3

+
=
+
=
z z
z
z z
z
z E
( ) L + + + + + =
5 4 3 2 1
29 15 7 3 z z z z z z E
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 , 1 2 1 = + = + e for k e k e
30
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) L =
=
=
=
=
=
5
15 4
7 3
3 2
1 1
0 0
e
e
e
e
e
e
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 0 , 1 2 1 = + = + e for k e k e
( ) 1 2 =
k
k e
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3
1 1 2 2 2 2
+ + + + = +
+ + + = +
+ + = +
k e k e
k e k e
k e k e
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
1 2 2 2 2 2
+ = + + + = +
+ = + + + = +
+ = +
k e k e k e
k e k e k e
k e k e
Partial-Fraction Expansion
Expand the polynomial fraction into a summation of
simple fractions.
Example 2.11
( )
1 1 2 1
1
2
1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3

+

=
+
=
+
=
z
B
z
A
z z
z
z z
z
z E
31
( )
1 1 2 1 2
1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3

+ + z z z z z z
( ) ( )
1 1 1
2 1 1 1

+ = z B z A z
B A+ = 0 B A = 2 1
B B = 2 1
( )
1 1
1 1
1
2 1
1

+

=
z z
z E
( ) 1 2 =
k
z e
Alternate Expansion Solution
( )
( ) ( ) 1 2 1 2 2 3
2
=

=
+
=
z
z B
z
z A
z z
z
z z
z
z E
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1 2
1
1 2
2
2
=
=
= z
z z
z
z
z
A
32
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1
2 1
1
1 2
1
1
=
=
= z
z z
z
z
z
B
( )
1 2
=
z
z
z
z
z E
( ) 1 2 =
k
k e
Example 2.12
Equations with complex poles
( )
( ) ( ) 7788 . 0 7788 . 0 7788 . 0 7788 . 0
894 . 3
6065 . 0
894 . 3
2
j z
z B
j z
z A
j z j z
z
z
z
z Y
+
=
+

=
+

=
( )
( ) ( )
5 . 2
7788 . 0 2
894 . 3
7788 . 0 7788 . 0
894 . 3 7788 . 0
7788 . 0
j
j j z j z
z
z
j z
A
j z
=
=
+

=
=
33
( ) ( ) 7788 . 0 2 7788 . 0 7788 . 0
7788 . 0
j j z j z z
j z=
( )
( ) ( )
5 . 2
7788 . 0 2
894 . 3
7788 . 0 7788 . 0
894 . 3 7788 . 0
7788 . 0
j
j j z j z
z
z
j z
B
j z
=

=
+

+
=
=
( )
7788 . 0
5 . 2
7788 . 0
5 . 2
j z
z j
j z
z j
z Y
+

+
=
( ) ( ) ( )
k k
j j j j k y 7788 . 0 5 . 2 7788 . 0 5 . 2 =
Example 2.12 Continued
( ) ( ) ( )
k k
j j j j k y
|
|
\
|

|
\
|

|
|
\
|

|
\
|
= 25 . 0 exp
2
exp 5 . 2 25 . 0 exp
2
exp 5 . 2

( ) ( ) ( )
k k
j j j j k y 7788 . 0 5 . 2 7788 . 0 5 . 2 =
( ) ( )
(
(
|
|
|

|
|
|
= exp exp 25 . 0 exp 5 . 2

k j k j k j k y
34
( ) ( )
(
\

|
\
=
2
exp
2
exp 25 . 0 exp 5 . 2 k j k j k j k y
( ) ( )
(
\
|
=
2
sin 2 25 . 0 exp 5 . 2

k j k j k y
( ) ( )
|
\
|
=
2
sin 25 . 0 exp 0 . 5

k k k y
Discrete Convolution
Performed as expected
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) z E z E k e k e Z
2 1 2 1
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) n k e n e n k e n e k e k e k e
k
n
k
n
= = =

= =
1
0
2 2
0
1 2 1
35
Simulation Diagrams and Flow Graphs
36
Flow Graph Examples
Take and equation and make a flow graph
( )
( )
( )
( ) z E
z
z
z M
+
1
1
1
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z E z z z M = +
1 1
1 1
Unit time delay, T, represented by z^-1
37
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
1

= z z M z E z z M
State Variables
The state of a system is a set of variables such that the
knowledge of these variables and the input functions will,
with the equations describing the dynamics, provide the
future state and output of the system.
38
u B x A x + = &
u D x C y + =
Dorf Chapter 3 Notes
Continuous Time State Variables and examples
39
Discrete Time State Variables
Differential replaced by finite difference equations and
rearranged
( ) ( ) ( ) k u B k x A k x
k k
+ = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) k u D k x C k y
k k
+ =
40
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) k u B k x A
T
k x k x
+ =
+1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) k u B T k x k x A T k x + + = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) k u B T k x A T I k x + + = +1
A T I A
k
+ = B T B
k
=
Example 2.16
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) k y k y k u k y + + = + 72 . 0 1 7 . 1 2
( ) ( ) k y k x =
1
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1
1 2
+ = + = k x k y k x
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) k x k x k u k x
1 2 2
72 . 0 1 7 . 1 1 + + = +
41
( ) ( ) ( ) k u k x k x
(
+
(
= +
1
0
7 . 1 72 . 0
1 0
1
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) k u k x k y + = 0 0 1
Generalized Format
The text shows the conversion of a polynomial transfer
function into a matrix notation
Use the delay element outputs as states
Sum the states into the result
Note: this implementation is not unique, it is one of multiple ways Note: this implementation is not unique, it is one of multiple ways
that it can be done.
Canonical (equivalent mathematically) forms are discussed
in many places ECE5950, ECE5550, etc.
Other forms: serial (multiplicative), parallel (partial fraction
expansion), feed-back (output feed-back to almost every state),
feed-forward (output is scaled sum of almost all states).
42
State Notation from
Simulation Block Diagram
1. Draw a simulation diagram of the system using any
convenient method.
2. Assign a state variable to each delay output
3. Write the equation for each delay input and each system
output in terms of only the delay outputs and the system output in terms of only the delay outputs and the system
inputs.
43
Canonical Forms
Similarity Transformation
Let
( ) ( ) k w P k x =
( ) ( ) ( ) k u B k x A k x
k k
+ = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) k u D k x C k y
k k
+ =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) k u B P k w P A P k x P k w
k k
+ = + = +
1 1 1
1 1
44
( ) ( ) ( ) k u D k w P C k y
k k
+ =
( ) ( ) ( ) k u B k w A k w
wk wk
+ = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) k u D k w C k y
k wk
+ =
Characteristic Equation
( ) ( ) ( ) k u B k x A k x
k k
+ = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) z U B z X A z X z
k k
+ =
( ) ( ) ( ) z U B z X A I z
k k
=
45
( ) ( ) ( ) z U B A I z z X
k k
=
1
0 =
k
A I z
Characteristic Equations
of Canonical Form
The characteristic equations must be identical
0 =
k
A I z 0
1
= =

P A P I z A I z
k wk
0
1 1
= =

P A P P P z A I z
k wk
46
The permutation must be invertible P is full rank
This is defined as a similarity transformation
0 P A P P P z A I z
k wk
( ) 0
1
= =

P A I z P A I z
k wk
0
1
= = =

k k wk
A I z P A I z P A I z
Similarity Transformation
1. The characteristic values of the matrix are unchanged
under the transformation
2. The determinants are equal
3. The trace of each matrix is equal
47
Solution of the State Equation
( ) ( ) ( ) k u B k x A k x + = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 0 0 1 1 2 u B u B A x A A u B x A x + + = + =
( ) ( ) ( ) j u B A x A k x
k
j
j i k k
+ =

=

1
0
0
The Fundamental Matrix or State Transition Matrix is
48
( )
k
A k =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) j u B j i k x k k x
k
j
+ =

=
1
0
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) k u D j u B j i k C x k C k y
k
j
+ + =

=
1
0
0
z-Transform Method
( ) ( ) k x A k x = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) z X A x z z X z = 0
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 x z z X A I z =
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1
x A I z z z X =

For
49
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1
x A I z z z X =

( ) ( ) ( ) 0 x k k x =
( ) ( ) [ ]
1
1

= A I z z Z k
State Transition Matrix Properties
50

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ECE 5700

Digital Control Systems

But in a discrete time system, we define this as z^-1

The magnitude response is: ( ) ( ) 1 exp = = t jw jw H

Properties of the z-Transform (4)

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