Basics of DC drives....

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Chiplonkar Y.M.
y_chiplonkar@yahoo.com
Block diaram of a DC drive :
!enior "lectrical Maintenance enineers above the ae of forty or fifty sometimes find
themselves o#tdated in their kno$lede. %ith this backro#nd in mind an attempt is made
here to describe certain concepts $hich one finds in old analo dc drives. !#ch drives are
still in #se in a lare n#mber of ind#stries. Diital drives are different only in the manner in
$hich these basic f#nctions are achieved. &nderstandin these $ill help in solvin many
problems irrespective of the type of the drive. 'hese details $ill help in better #nderstandin
of the s#b(ect $hich is other$ise learnt in bits and pieces by many over a period of time as
they ro$ in ind#stry.
'ypes of DC drives :
)ike any other classification* there are many $ays in $hich the DC drives can be
classified. %hatever may be the $ay* the main p#rpose is to divide and learn. i.e. learn the
topic by breakin it do$n in small areas.
Classification can be like...
+three phase or sinle phase
+analo or diital
+constant speed application or constant c#rrent application
+!emicontrolled or f#llycontrolled etc.
,o$er section of a DC drive consistin of po$er handlin components can take any of
the follo$in shapes.
+sinle phase semicontrolled
+sinle phase f#lly controlled
+three phase semicontrolled
+three phase f#lly controlled
By semicontrol and f#ll control $e mean the type of control $e have over the po$er
controllin devices* i.e. thyristors or diodes. -n semicontrolled type* in a three phase
confi#ration* only half of the devices have control over the c#rrent flo$in thro#h them.
'he sketch above sho$s that three o#t of si. c#rrent carryin devices are diodes and
three are thyristors. !eventh component across the /ve and +ve terminals is a diode and
called 01""%2"")-34 diode. -t is necessary to free$heel the enery in the ind#ctance of
the motor. %ith all si. devices #nder control of ate p#lses* the electronic circ#it has total
control over the motor c#rrent. 'his confi#ration is also kno$n as 5 p#lse confi#ration.
1amp section :
!ho$n belo$ is a typical ramp circ#it fo#nd in analo dc drives.

!peed 6mplifier !ection:
!peed amplifier in a dc drive does not amplify speed 7 -t derives its name from the
simple fact that the feedback sinal iven to this amplifier is that of speed of the dc motor.
'his amplifier is also called more appropriately as M6891 )99,. 'his amplifier forms a
ma(or loop : o#ter loop ; in the overall closed loop system of a dc drive* the internal or
M-391 loop bein that of c#rrent $ith c#rrent feedback.
'his amplifier* in a simple analo dc drive* is b#ilt aro#nd sinle operational
amplifier in ,- confi#ration. i.e. it has a resistor and capacitor in the feedback loop decidin
,19,91'-936) 46-3 and -3'"416) '-M" of the amplifier. 'ypical val#es in an
analo dc drives are <<= kilo ohms and >.? micro farad. 'here is also a @ain@ potentiometer
associated $ith the speed amplifier. 'his is set* d#rin commissionin of the drive* to et
optimally damped response of the closed loop* i.e. it is set in s#ch a $ay that the dc motor
reaches its set speed as fast as possible b#t at the same time it has no overshoots or
#ndershoots of speed d#rin acceleration or deceleration. 4ain is normally set to$ards
minim#m of the rane available* i.e. the $iper of the potentiometer is to$ards the o#tp#t of
the opamp. 9#tp#t of the speed amplifier acts as the inp#t to the c#rrent amplifier
thro#h a preset potentiometer called @C&11"3' )-M-'@. 1ead more on the c#rrent
limitin and c#rrent amplifier in other links.
Ma(ority of applications of DC drives involve holdin the speed of the dc motor
to a fi.ed set val#e irrespective of variation in load* s#pply voltae etc. 0or controllin the
speed precisely* meas#rement of speed is necessary. &nless $e meas#re $e can not control.
'achoenerators do the (ob of meas#rin the speed. 'hey ive voltae proportional to the
speed of the motor. 6cc#racy of control $ill therefore depend to a reat e.tent on the A#ality
of the tachoenerator. 'ypical speed holdin acc#racies are =.B C to D C .
2o$ever* there are many applications $hich reA#ire that speed of the dc motor be
varied from zero to f#ll speed b#t acc#racy is not necessary. -n s#ch cases* a cheaper control
is possible #sin 6rmat#re Eoltae 0eedback instead of 'achoenerator feedback. 'he
ass#mption here is that the speed of any dc motor is ro#hly proportional to the armat#re
voltae applied* if $e nelect the resistance drop takin place in the armat#re $indin. 'his
drop in bi motors is typically #p to B C of the rated motor voltae. 'hat means* by #sin
armat#re voltae feedback* $e can et acc#racy #p to B C. . 2o$ever* there is a method
called F-1 compensationG by $hich a better control is possible. -t is not as ood as that
achieved by #sin a tachoenerator. 6 sinal proportional to the C#rrent in the 6rmat#re is
already available in the drive. -t is derived from C#rrent 'ransformers on 6C side of the
thyristor bride. 'his is s#btracted from the feedback of 6rmat#re voltae. 'h#s* act#al
feedback eA#ivalent to :6rmat#re Eoltae+ - . 1 ; is applied to the speed amplifier and a
better control of speed is achieved.

9nly preca#tion necessary $hile #sin the armat#re voltae feedback is to isolate the
armat#re voltae alvanically before it is fed to the electronic circ#it. DC to DC isolators are
available for this p#rpose. 'he isolation prevents circ#it components from becomin @live@ if
feedback is not isolated.
C#rrent 6mplifier !ection :
C#rrent amplifier in a dc drive does not amplify c#rrent 7 -t derives its name from the
simple fact that the feedback sinal iven to this amplifier is that of current of the dc motor.
'his amplifier is also called more appropriately as M-391 )99,. 'his amplifier forms a
minor loop : inner loop; in the overall closed loop system of a dc drive* the e.ternal or
M6891 loop bein that of speed $ith speed feedback.
'his amplifier* in a simple analo dc drive is b#ilt aro#nd sinle operational amplifier
in ,- confi#ration. i.e. it has a resistor and capacitor in the feedback loop decidin
,19,91'-936) 46-3 and -3'"416) '-M" of the amplifier. 'ypical val#es in an
analo dc drives are D= kilo ohms and D micro farad. !ome desins may have C#rrent 4ain
like that in speed amplifier. 9#tp#t of the c#rrent amplifier acts as the inp#t to the firin
circ#it. 'he o#tp#t of this amplifier is restricted $ithin t$o minim#m and ma.im#m limits
set by t$o preset potentiometers called minim#m and ma.im#m voltae or @conversion@ and
@inversion@ limits. 'his dc level decides the instance in sine$ave at $hich the thryristors are
fired. -f $e disconnect the o#tp#t of this amplifier and connect a potentiometer to feed dc
level to the firin circ#it* $e can test any drive in @open@ loop manner. 'his is normally done
to dianose fa#lts in the firin section of the drive. !ince there are no safety limits left $hen
the drive is tested is this fashion* it is advisable to take initial tests $ith )amp load instead of
dc motor.
C#rrent )imitin :
9#tp#t of the speed amplifier is connected to the ne.t stae of c#rrent amplifier
thro#h a preset potentiometer called @c#rrent limit pot@. 'his potentiometer restricts the
voltae level oin to the c#rrent amplifier. -f dc drive is f#nctionin correctly* restrictin
this voltae level can restrict the c#rrent taken by the motor to any val#e from zero to f#ll
load c#rrent. 'o #nderstand different #ses of this feat#re* a brief description of the $orkin
of the t$o closed loops : speed and c#rrent ; $ill be in order.
%hen a dc drive is started and certain speed reference voltae is iven* the o#tp#t
voltae of the ramp circ#it starts increasin slo$ly. 'his voltae is connected to the inp#t of
the speed amplifier. 'he o#tp#t of this amplifier starts oin to$ards the sat#ration level
: either /s#pply voltae or +ve s#pply voltae dependin #pon the confi#ration of the
opamp and reference polarity.; 'his voltae in t#rn fed to the c#rrent amplifier* p#shes the
c#rrent amplifier voltae also to$ards its sat#ration level slo$ly. 'he risin voltae starts
firin the thyristors thereby eneratin rad#ally increasin armat#re voltae. 'he motor
starts acceleratin. -n the process the tachoenrator mo#nted on the dc motor starts
eneratin more and more voltae. 6t one instance* the voltae enerated by tachoenerator*
$hich reaches the inp#t of the speed amplifier* matches the reference voltae at the inp#t of
the speed amplifier. 6ny tendency of tachoenerator voltae increasin the reference
voltae* drops the o#tp#t of the speed amplifier. 'he net res#lt is that the motor starts
r#nnin at a constant speed. 2ere* let #s ass#me that the mechanical load is s#ch that the
c#rrent feedback enerated is D volt. Yo# $ill notice that the voltae o#tp#t from the speed
amplifier is also D volt. 3o$* in this condition* if the motor is mechanically loaded more* it
demands more c#rrent from the thyristors. 'his e.tra c#rrent can not come from the s#pply
$itho#t an increase in armat#re voltae. -ncreased mechanical load first drops the speed of
the motor slihtly. Decreased back emf of the motor allo$s the motor c#rrent to increase.
: motor c#rrent H Iapplied voltae + back emf J / armat#re resistance ;. 6lmost in no time* the
drop in speed is compensated by the speed amplifier takin a corrective action beca#se of the
closed loop feedback. -f the o#tp#t of the speed amplifier is monitored* it $ill be seen that
the o#tp#t has one #p and matched the c#rrent feedback level. 'his is tricky. -t appears as if
the feedback is decidin ho$ m#ch sho#ld be the reference 7 More and more load on the
motor $ill o on increasin the feedback sinal level and a point $ill be reached $hen the
o#tp#t of the speed amplifier can match the c#rrent feedback level. 0rom this point on$ards*
the motor c#rrent can not increase to meet the demand from the mechanical load* and as a
res#lt the speed $ill start fallin do$n. 'his point is the point $here the c#rrent has started
limitin itself. 6ny amo#nt of load p#t on the motor $ill only res#lt in drop in speed. 'his is
c#rrent limitin. !o lon as the motor is demandin c#rrent less than the set val#e* the speed
closed loop $ill $ork perfectly holdin the speed at the set val#e. 0#rther rise in load $ill
res#lt in red#ction in speed.
3o$ that the c#rrent limitin is clear* let #s see the #ses of this feat#re in a dc drive.
+ 'o limit the c#rrent to a safe level.
+ 'o test the tachoenerator sinal by r#nnin the motor #nder c#rrent limit. %itho#t drive
r#nnin in c#rrent limit* it is impossible to concl#de if the tachoenerator is at fa#lt. 'he
closed loop action makes it impossible. B#t by p#ttin the drive in c#rrent limit* $e are
act#ally breakin the feedback loop thereby makin it possible to dianose.
+ -t helps in initial trials of the drive or motor* $here e.cessive load can ca#se damae.
+ -t can also help in decidin the correct polarity of the tachoenerator reA#ired.
+ -t can be #sed to control tension in $inder application $here speed is not reA#ired to be
maintained b#t it is the tension $hich is to be maintained constant.
0irin Circ#it !ection:
-n a three phase dc drives* the three line voltaes applied to the thyristors. 'hese are 1+
Y* Y+B* and B+1. 1eferrin to the sketch belo$* thyristor D $ill cond#ct only $hen its anode
is most positive compared to other t$o i.e. no. K and B* provided* off co#rse* the firin p#lse
is applied.
)ookin at the three phase sine$ave diaram* this possibility e.ists only after point
@6@* and contin#es to e.ist till point @B@ $hich is DL= derees a$ay from @6@. 'his means
that the firin p#lse enerated by the electronics m#st be able to s$in from 6 to B.
,#lse is enerated #sin a dc level from c#rrent amplifier and a sine$ave from the
three phase s#pply. Both are first compared in a comparator. 'his comparator enerates a
sA#are $ave in $hich the risin and fallin edes occ#r at the instant $hen amplit#des of
sine $ave and that of the dc level are eA#al. 'herefore* one m#st have a sine$ave sinal
$hich covers entire DL= derees bet$een @6@ and @B@ . 'his sine $ave is normally derived
by phase shiftin a voltae $hich has K= derees phase shift $ith respect to )ine voltae.
,hase shiftin capacitors are typically =.D mfd to =.>? mfd. 1esistor val#es are ad(#sted
accordinly and are chosen to have lo$ tolerance of D C . 9#tp#t of these comparators : 5
for three phase drive ; is passed thro#h capacitors* to enerate p#lses. 'hese are amplified
and applied to ate of the thyristor thro#h a p#lse transformer.
9#tp#t voltae from the C#rrent 6mplifier is a DC voltae level $hich varies from zero to
ma.im#m or neative to positive D= or DB volts dependin #pon the desin. -t is a dc level.
-ts voltae level decides the point alon the 'ime a.is at $hich the firin p#lse is enerated.
'his is achieved by comparin this voltae level $ith F!ine %aveG voltae applied to the
inp#ts of comparators. 'he si. sine $ave voltaes are derived from three FsynchronisinG
transformers $hich enerate 5 voltaes. "ach sine $ave is phase shifted from another by K=
derees. 'his phase shiftin is achieved #sin precision resistors and capacitors $ith
tolerances of less than one percent. 'ypical val#es for B= 2z operation of DC drives* are =.D
mfd to =.>? mfd $ith resistance val#es ad(#sted accordinly. 6 total of 5= derees of phase
shift is reA#ired bet$een the sine $ave applied to the thyristor of a partic#lar phase and the
correspondin synchronisin sine $ave. 'he remainin K= derees of phase shift is achieved
thro#h Delta / !tar confi#ration of primary and secondary of !ynchronisin 'ransformers.
'hese t$o methods toether add to filtration of noise also. Eoltaes at the o#tp#t of 5
comparators are in the form of sA#are $ave. 'he risin and fallin edes of the sA#are $ave
ive rise to p#lses $hen these are passed thro#h Fco#plinG capacitors. 'hese are normally
amplified #sin transistors like !)D== or -Cs like <==K.
Checkin a 'hyristor on table :
'hyristor* $hen checked on diital m#ltimeter* sho#ld sho$ @open circ#it@ in
both directions. 1esistance bet$een 6node and cathode is sometimes as lo$ as < k b#t s#ch
thyristors also $ork okay.
4ate and cathode* $hen checked on @diode test@ rane * sometimes sho$ voltae drop
of appro.imately =.B to =.? volts in one direction and @open@ in other direction. !ome
thyristors sho$ @diode@ in both directions. B#t @open@ in both directions is not a sin for
ood thyristor. 'o check if the thyristor : rated at 5= amps or above ; is trierin okay $ith
ate p#lses* the follo$in set #p on table can reveal the res#lt. 'he s$itch sho#ld be pressed
for short time* for a second or so* to avoid damae to the ate (#nction. -f the lamp lo$s
$hen the s$itch is closed* the thyristor can be considered to be in ood condition. Eery
small thyristor of ratins less than typically >= amps may reA#ire hiher val#e of resistor to
limit the ate c#rrent. 2ih val#es like >? k can be selected to bein $ith and red#ced if the
b#lb does not lo$. 4ate resistor and a s$itch sho$n belo$ may have to be shifted before
the lamp in some cases. Do not hold the s$itch do$n for lon time. 8#st a momentary trier
is eno#h.
&sin an 9scilloscope on DC drives :
"lectronic components in 'hyristor drives have voltaes of the order of >== volts as
$ell as dc //+ B volts* D< volts etc. 2ih voltaes present aro#nd thyristors are normally
derived directly from three phase s#pply $hich many a times has a ne#tral connection
also. 'his means that there are danero#s voltaes present aro#nd thyristors $ith respect
to ne#tral. 9scilloscope operatin from mains s#pply voltaes have invariably an F"arthG
connection in the mains cord. -nternally* this is connected to the FzeroG or FcommonG of
electronic circ#itry of oscilloscope. 'he B3C connectors $here $e connect the C19
probes* th#s* have a zero volt point ettin connected all the $ay #p to the meas#rin tip
of the probe.

2ere comes the ma(or risk. %hen the probe is connected to* say 4ate+Cathode of a
'hyristor* to check firin p#lses* a dead short circ#it occ#rs bet$een a phase voltae and
the earth* ca#sin a bi blast in the probe shield 7

'o avoid s#ch a sit#ation from arisin* FearthG pin of the C19 m#st be 1"M9E"D
$hen #sin on DC drives. 'his so#nds aainst the basics of handlin electrical eA#ipment
$here "arthin is a m#st7 2o$ever in this sit#ation it m#st be done $ith d#e care in
handlin. -t is f#rther important to keep in mind that there are danero#s voltaes present
on C19 metal parts $hich m#st not be allo$ed to come in contact $ith h#man body or
other metal parts connected to ro#nd.

Common fa#lts :
!peed of the motor Drops :
!ome times* even $hen the load is $ell $ithin the limit of the ratin of the drive
and that of the motor* it is observed that speed drops $hen the load is increased. 'here
can be follo$in reasons for this.
'he drive is $orkin #nder Eoltae 0eedback Control and that -1 compensation : i.e. the
compensatin action to compensate for the 1esistive Drop of voltae in the 6rmat#re
1esistance ; is not ad(#sted properly. -1 compensation is not to be applied $hen #sin
'achoenerator 0eedback arranement.
-f only fo#r thyristors are firin o#t of si.* an increase in load can p#sh the drive in
c#rrent limit if it is set very critically $itho#t any marin left. %hen fo#r thyristors fire*
averae c#rrent in the motor is less b#t the peaks are hiher. 'hese hiher peaks ca#se the
drive to o in c#rrent limit. 6 A#ick check on 9scilloscope $ill reveal this immediately.
More on -1 compensation...
-1 stands for F- into 1G. i.e. 6rmat#re C#rrent m#ltiplied by 1esistance of the
6rmat#re $indin. -n a dc motor the speed 3 is iven by the form#la
3H :E+ -1 ; / 0l#..
E is the applied voltae* 0l#. is the manetic filed in the air ap bet$een stator and
the rotor. Considerin the manit#de of -1 compared to that of Eoltae applied* one can
inore it. -1 is not more than B C of f#ll armat#re voltae. !peed of the motor therefore*
can be simply ass#med to be proportional to the applied voltae. 'o et some$hat closer
to the real fact* one can enerate a sinal proportional to - . 1 by sensin act#al armat#re
c#rrent and #se to compensate the error in 3 by s#btractin -1 from E. 'h#s* a feedback
sinal $hich is proportional to E+-1 rather than only E is more acc#rate and able to
control the speed more closely. ".cessive compensation of -1 can ca#se
overcompensation and may tend to increase the speed as the load increases. 'his is not
desired.
Motor oin to f#ll speed $itho#t control :
Motor can o to f#ll speed d#e to fa#lty tachoenerator* fa#lty or loose co#plin*
$ron polarity of tachoenerator* $ron polarity of field or armat#re connections*
defective reference sinal* defective 16M, circ#it* or even defective @firin@ circ#it. -n
case of fa#lty tachoenerator* a lance at speed indicator* $hich in many cases connected
to the same tachoenerator* can ive a cl#e. 'he indication $ill be zero.
-f firin circ#it has no control over armat#re voltae* then #s#ally the f#ses $ill
blo$ first before speed increases. -f f#ses escape from blo$in* then the speed $ill be
attained very fast $ith a (erk.
0a#lty reference $ill #s#ally take the motor to f#ll speed rather smoothly if
everythin else is okay.
-f speed indication is seen* one can check the voltae divider #sed for scalin do$n
the tachoenerator voltae to lo$ val#e. 3ormally a chain of resistors is #sed for this
p#rpose.
1esistor divider in a ood desin $ill make #se of many small val#e resistors
rather than a fe$ hih val#e resistors. 6lso the variable preset potentiometer provided for
ad(#stment of speed takes the follo$in correct form in a ood desin. 3ote the shortin
of $iper of the potentiometer $ith the one end. 8#st a small track on the ,CB* b#t sho$s
a real deep thinkin on the desinerMs part. %hen the $iper is not shorted* as seen in the
imae on the riht hand side* the drive $ill o to #ncontrolled f#ll speed $hen the $iper
makes poor contact after years of #se. %ith the arranement as sho$n on the left hand
side* bad contact on $iper $ill not take the motor to f#ll speed. -t $ill* on the other hand*
decrease slihtly and therefore not damae the mechanical parts connected to the motor.
0#ses blo$ too often :
-f main thyristor f#ses blo$ on applyin the mains po$er to the drive even $hen
@enable@ command has been removed or disconnected* most likely ca#se is @defective
thyristors@. Checkin $ith m#ltimeter* on diode rane* bet$een each 6C le and /ve : and
+ve later on ; one by one $ill indicate if the thyristor is fa#lty. 1eadin as lo$ as <k 9hm on
resistance rane are sometimes acceptable and thyristors $ill $ork in normal $ay. 2o$ever*
most of the ood thyristor $ill sho$ @open@ or a fe$ h#ndreds of kilo9hms. !ome b#tton
type thyristors* reA#ire press#re to be applied before the o#ter metallic part ets connected to
the thyristor inside. 'herefore* even a dead short thyristor $ill escape the test if tested
$itho#t pressin the probes hard. -f the f#se is bo$in $ith enable command iven* the
follo$in steps $ill lead to some cl#e.
D. Disconnect the motor armat#re. 0ield can be left #nto#ched.
<. connect t$o filament lamps of same $attae in series $ith each other* across the drive /
and + terminals.
K. 0irin circ#it normally ets a DC voltae from @c#rrent amplifier@ . 'he levels are either =
to /DB volts or +DB to /DB volts or /DB to = volts. )ookin at the circ#it diaram* determine
$hich rane of voltae the drive normally $orks $ith. 6ccordinly* connect a B or D=
kilo9hm potentiometer to a s#itable dc s#pply* preferably from the drive itself* and connect
the $iper of the potentiometer to the inp#t of the 0irin Circ#it. 'ake care to remove the
normal interconnection bet$een firin circ#it and the previo#s stae i.e. c#rrent amplifier.
>. 6pply po$er to the drive and ive "nable command* i.e. start the drive thro#h normal
control available.
B. Eary the potentiometer from one end to the other end and yo# sho#ld see a very
rad#al and flicker free variation in the intensity of the lamp.
5. -f the above is observed* then the reason for the f#se blo$in is not in the firin section
of the electronic cards. -t co#ld be in the motor* the load* or closed loop part of the circ#it
etc.
?. -f the variation in the intensity of the lamp is erratic* or yo# see no control over
intensity* then the firin circ#it is defective and this co#ld be the ca#se for f#ses to blo$.
2ere $e ass#me that no one has played $ith the phase seA#ence of the s#pply to the
drive.
L. Defects in the firin circ#it co#ld be fa#lty synchronizin transformers* fa#lty phase
shift capacitors etc.
N. ,hase shift capacitors* after lon #se for years* may become open. Yo# $ill find si. of
them in three phase drives. 1eplace all.
D=. -f the intensity of the lamp varies smoothly from zero to f#ll* check the ma.im#m
voltae available across drive //+ terminals. 0or a three phase >DB volts system* it sho#ld
be as hih as B5= volts dc. -f not* check if the firin circ#it has a potentiometer limitin
the ma.im#m firin anle. Eerify that yo# have control over the ma.im#m voltae
available. -f the voltae is not risin more than B== volts* connect oscilloscope across one
of the lamps and check the $aveform. 9ne of the thyristors not firin* can lead to this
symptom of lo$ voltae. 'he $ave forms $ith all 5 thyristors firin properly and $ith
only > thyristors firin* are sho$n belo$.
6 bad tachoenerator can also sometimes* dependin on the severity of damae* ca#se
f#ses to blo$. ,#ttin the drive in c#rrent limit and then checkin the sinal of
tachoenerator on 9scilloscope $ill reveal if the tachoenerator is bad or not. ,#ttin the
drive in c#rrent limit ens#res that the closed loop corrective action is disabled and
dianosis is correctly made. !ee the sinal from a bad tachoenerator $hich can blo$ the
f#ses occasionally. -f it is not possible to p#t the drive in c#rrent limit* one can r#n the
motor in F9pen )oopG as mentioned above and check the tachoenerator sinal.
9verheatin of motor :
Motor can r#n hot for any of the follo$in reasons :
D. coolin inadeA#ate d#e to air leakaes in the blo$er asket
<. blo$er direction $ron
K. bearins fa#lty
>. ain ad(#stment of the drive incorrect
B. 0o#r A#adrant dc drives $hich have t$o sets of thyristors : '$o brides connected in
back to back manner ; can ca#se overheatin of motor if the ain is not ad(#sted properly.
Monitorin C#rrent $aveform $ill sho$ that both the thyristor brides are firin
: becomin on ; alternately at a fast rate. 'orA#e is th#s applied in alternate directions.
2o$ever* mechanically this is not felt d#e to inertia. 3et effect of torA#es in both
directions is $hat is rotatin the motor in one direction. -t is like sayin that $e et a
torA#e of say K #nits b#t it is as a res#lt of t$o opposite torA#es of #nnecessarily hih
val#es. : <K+<= HK* or B5+BKHK 7; 'orA#e of /B5 and OBK #nits ca#se overheatin of the
$indin* b#t it is K #nits $hich is drivin the load.
B. -f motor r#ns normally at lo$ speeds* red#ce the diameter of the p#lley on the motor
shaft.
'his $ill red#ce the c#rrent dra$n for the same load* th#s red#ce the heatin.
Motor ives (erks :
8erks observed $hile r#nnin the motor are danero#s to the drive as $ell as to the
motor and connected load. -t is harmf#l to contin#e r#nnin the motor $itho#t tryin to
locate the so#rce.
8erks* many a times* appear to be arisin from the mechanical parts b#t s#ch
concl#sions are deceptive. -mmediate checkin of c#rrent $aveform $ill ive some cl#e.
3ote the difference in the t$o $aveforms. !harp rise only in one peak is normally not
possible d#e to mechanical parts.
%aveform as sho$n in the sketch on the left hand side is also possible if a thyristor
has collected a lot of d#st aro#nd ate cathode area. Peepin ceramic ins#lator aro#nd
ate clean is one sol#tion to s#ch cases. 'hyristors misfire $ith s#ch d#st ettin
acc#m#lated and can create a bi so#nd from the ears connected to the motor. -f one is
not a$are of this @electrical possibility@* it misleads people to think that the ears have
developed some problem.
,rinted circ#it boards also acc#m#late black d#st aro#nd the tracks $hich ca#ses
similar symptoms.
%hen any contactor in the panel drops o#t* some times* the motor ives (erks.
Droppin of a bi contactor ca#ses electrical noise to be enerated $hich travels alon
and is picked #p by sensitive F4ateG leads. !#ch (erks can be red#ced by t$istin the ate
cathode leads $ith very tiht t$ist. 'he t$istin makes the ate cathode leads imm#ne to
pickin #p of noise. !horter lenths of these $ires also helps. 1+C circ#its across the
contactor coils also help in red#cin these (erks. 1+C circ#it eats #p the noise enerated
riht at the so#rce.
!parkin on comm#tator :
!parks are often seen on the comm#tator* belo$ the carbon br#shes. 'here are many
reasons for this. Min#te observations can reveal the ca#se.

9ne needs to check if.....

!parkin occ#rs only $hen the load and speed are increased.
!parks are yello$ish in color and do not have bl#e tine.
!parkin is intermittent and occ#rrence is #npredictable.
9#t of many ca#ses* the follo$in are a fe$.
a; -nter t#rn short in the armat#re $indin. C#rrent $aveform in s#ch cases is seen as
#nder.

b; Defective interpole $indin can also ca#se sparkin. -f the position of the br#sh holder
is dist#rbed the follo$in steps can be #sed to ad(#st it to normal position* ass#min that
the interpoles are ok.
Disconnect the motor totally.
1emove armat#re connections.
6pply <K= volts 6C voltae to the field $indin.
Meas#re the ind#ced voltae in the armat#re on the carbon br#shes. : across the terminals
$here DC leads from the drive $ere connected ;
6d(#st : rock the rocker slo$ly for$ard and back$ard ; the rocker till the voltae ind#ced
is lo$est.
'ihten the rocker position at this point.

c; !parks yello$ in color indicate that these are ca#sed d#e to #neven s#rface of
comm#tator. ,articles of carbon from the br#shes are flyin off d#e to mechanical impact
on the br#sh tips. Makin the comm#tator smooth on a lathe machine may solve this
problem.

2ere is a photoraph of c#rrent $aveform $ith all 5 thyristor firin. 2o$ever* all
the c#rrent peaks are not of same amplit#de. 'his means that the motor is takin hih
c#rrent for some time and a lo$er c#rrent for some time. 6s e.plained above* #neven
mechanical friction can 39' ca#se this. Beca#se* as yo# can see* each c#rrent peak lasts
for hardly K milliseconds. Mechanical non #niformity in friction or load can not chane
that fast. 'he reason for this #neven c#rrent peaks is al$ays from electrical side.
'here are t$o possibilities.

0irst possibility is that the firin of all 5 thyristors itself is #neven or #nbalanced.
'his can be verified by bypassin 1amp* speed amplifier* c#rrent amplifier and
connectin the drive in 9,"3 loop mode. i.e. by ivin a dc sinal of firin thyristors
directly from a potentiometer to the firin circ#it. : !ee the e.planation in the link @0#ses
blo$@ ;. 'he motor m#st be operated very caref#lly in this mode as there are no
protections of c#rrent limit etc. 6 small mistake or ro#h handlin of the potentiometer
can ca#se a bi (erk or shock to the mechanical parts. -f the c#rrent $aveform does not
chane its shape : #neven peaks ; then it can be concl#ded that the ,hase+!hift circ#it
components in the 0irin Circ#it are not matched properly. -n analo Drive* one can
check val#es of all 5 resistors and 5 capacitors $hich ive reA#ired phase shift for firin
p#lses. 'he resistors are #s#ally of D C tolerance levels. 6ll m#st be precisely same. -f
the c#rrent $aveform becomes smooth $ith all 5 peaks of c#rrent of same amplit#de*
then it can be concl#ded that the ca#se for #neven peaks lies in the firin sinal comin
from the o#tp#t of c#rrent amplifier

9#tp#t of the c#rrent amplifier* $hen seen on oscilloscope* $ill sho$ $avy dc
sinal. -ncorrect ad(#stment of 4ain of the amplifiers: both speed and c#rrent ; ca#ses
this sinal to be $avy. 1ed#ce the ain to make the DC level more like a straiht line. -f
the ain ad(#stment does not solve the problem* then another so#rce $hich is likely is bad
tachoenerator. Missin dc voltae on some comm#tator sements of the tachoenerator
can ca#se the o#tp#t of the c#rrent amplifier to become $avy.

!ome times* too m#ch of ain in the !peed 6mplifier makes the motor to rotate
very slo$ly even at zero speed reference sinal. 'he only method to prevent this from
happenin* if at all it is critical* is to red#ce the ain $itho#t compromisin on
performance at hiher speed levels. -f the drive has a provision to apply a biasin sinal
of opposite polarity as that of the main speed reference sinal* applyin a bias may also
solve this problem. 'his may add a small non+linearity in the overall performance.
&nstable or erratic !peed control.
!peed variation can be rad#al over time or erratic and #npredictable. -f the
variation is rad#al it co#ld be arisin from heatin of some component* especially in the
feedback circ#it. !#dden or erratic variations can be ca#sed by several reasons. Dry
solder in reference path* leaky capacitors in 1amp circ#it are (#st t$o of many reasons.
Motor starts only after reference voltae is increased s#bstantially* b#t the control is okay
once the motor is started...
'his is a very pec#liar sit#ation. 6s the drive reference voltae is slo$ly increased*
the motor does not respond for A#ite some voltae. 'he motor starts r#nnin at a m#ch
hiher speed. 2o$ever* once started* the reference voltae has ood control and the
speed can be red#ced almost till zero $itho#t problem. 'his is ca#sed by #neA#al s#pply
voltaes to the operational amplifiers in 16M, circ#it. 3ormally the voltaes are /DB
and +DB volts. -f these voltaes are #neA#al* e.. /D>.K E and O D5.B volts* then the
sit#ation described above is arises. 4iven belo$ is a typical arranement of eneratin
/ve and +ve voltaes $itho#t #sin K pin voltae re#lators. 'he selection of zener diode
in one of the sections may reA#ire trial and error method to et e.act eA#al voltaes at the
o#tp#t of 3,3 and ,3, transistors.
2#ntin in speed :
'his phenomenon of motor speed oin #p and do$n in a noticeable rhythm is
called Fh#ntinG.
2#ntin* or speed of motor oin #p and do$n in rhythm* can be ca#sed beca#se of
follo$in reasons :
+ )oad on the motor too small and the ad(#stments done at normal load do not hold ood
for liht loads.
+ C#rrent feedback absent. Check the sinal on B#rden 1esistor of C#rrent 'ransformers*
$ith an oscilloscope.
+ 4ain of the speed amplifier does not match $ith the mechanical inertia. 3ormally too
m#ch ain ca#ses this type of h#ntin.
+ 'oo m#ch of -nteral time.
-rre#lar speed variation can be ca#sed by loose co#plin of tachoenerator* #nstable
o#tp#t of 16M, enerator* dry solder in feedback path of tachoenerator sinal etc.
Motor stops all off a s#dden $itho#t ivin any indication:
'his fa#lt is apparently diffic#lt to trace b#t a commonly fo#nd ca#se is Fpoor enable
contactG. Drive is FenabledG i.e. allo$ed to r#n $hen everythin else is okay by an
electrical contact called FenableG contact of a relay or a contactor. -n many drives* it is
common to #se a normally open contact $hich closes to start the drive. 'herefore* a bad
electrical contact often FdisablesG the drive for #npredictable d#ration dependin on the
period for $hich the contact resistance remains hih. 6 A#ick meas#rement of contact
resistance $ith all po$er p#t off* reveals if the bad contact is the ca#se. 6 resistance
val#e more than D or < ohms #s#ally an indication of bad #nreliable contact. !prayin
"lectrical Contact Cleaner sol#tion or C'C : Carbon 'etra Chloride ; helps in restorin
the contact to ood #sable condition. 1eplacin the open type contactor $ith a totally
enclosed relay $ith old plated contacts $ill solve the problem permanently if the
s#rro#ndin of the drive is d#sty.
Motor not able to drive the load.....
!ome times* motor dra$s ood amo#nt of armat#re c#rrent* b#t not able to drive the load
connected to it. Common reason for this observation is that the load is too m#ch and is
beyond the capacity of motor to prod#ce reA#ired torA#e. 'he dc drive is said to have
one in Fc#rrent limitG. 'his is visible on ammeter connected to the drive. 9ne $ill find
that the motor starts dra$in more and more c#rrent and finally reaches a point $here the
ammeter appears to be st#ck at one level. -f the ammeter is of analo type* the pointer
becomes rock steady. -f the drive has not reached the c#rrent limit level* then the
ammeter pointer normally keeps on movin #p and do$n a bit. -n s#ch cases ca#se for
no rotation is not from e.cessive load.
-f the load is mechanically not (ammed or locked* and the drive oes in c#rrent limit*
there co#ld be one more probable reason for this. -t is possible that the Ffield voltaeG is
absent and the mechanism to sense Ffield fail#reG condition is bypassed7 i.e. o#t of t$o
manetic fl#.es prod#ced by armat#re c#rrent and field $indin* reA#ired for prod#ction
of torA#e* one is absent.
-f the filed voltae is also present and okay* there is another possibility* altho#h remote*
that the carbon br#shes on the comm#tator are not makin contact $ith comm#tator. -n
case of motors $ith > sets of br#shes : located at N= derees ; this sit#ation is likely to
occ#r. 'he armat#re c#rrent dra$n by the motor is not at Felectrical riht anlesG $ith
respect to manetic fl#. and therefore not able to prod#ce any torA#e7

0ield $eakenin for ettin speed above base speed :

!peed of a DC motor is overned by t$o variables viz. 6rmat#re voltae and field
voltae. 6rmat#re voltae and speed are directly proportional to each other. 0ield voltae
and speed are inversely proportional to each other. i.e. if the field voltae is reduced
keepin armat#re voltae constant* the speed of the motor oes #p. 9n the other hand* if
the field voltae is kept constant and armat#re voltae is increased* the speed oes #p.
0or ettin speeds #p to base speed of the motor : desined speed $hich is
achieved $hen armat#re voltae and field voltae are at their f#ll rated val#es ;* the
armat#re voltae is varied from zero #p to f#ll rated voltae. 0or ettin speed above the
base speed* the armat#re voltae is kept constant and field is rad#ally red#ced. 'his is
represented in the sketch belo$.
"lectronically* #sin dc drives this is achieved as follo$s.
6rmat#re of the dc motor is connected to a normal dc drive $hich varies the speed
of the motor from zero #p to its rated base speed. 'his is achieved* for e.ample* $ith a
reference voltae of zero to B volts. 6t B volts reference level* the motor reaches its
ma.im#m level of armat#re voltae allo$ed. 6s the reference is f#rther increased from B
to D= volts* another thyristor #nit $hich feeds the field c#rrent* takes over the control and
starts red#cin the field slo$ly. 'his chaneover of controls is smooth and a#tomatic.
1eferrin to the block diaram belo$ makes it clear. !#ch controls are #sef#l $here the
load on the motor : k% ; does not increase proportionately at speeds above certain speed.
-n this zone of speed* the hiher speed of motor can be achieved thro#h field $eakenin.
-n the zone $here speed is increased by $eakenin of the field* the 2orse ,o$er of the
motor remains constant and is therefore referred to as FConstant 2,G operation. Belo$
the point $here field $eakenin (#st beins* the operation is called FConstant 'orA#eG.
'hese t$o names are slihtly misleadin. -n the Constant 2, zone* the horsepo$er
act#ally developed is constant. 2o$ever* in the Constant 'orA#e zone* it is not the torA#e
developed $hich is constant* b#t it is the Ma.im#m 'orA#e 6vailable is constant.

Constant 2orse,o$er and Constant 'orA#e :
Mechanical )oad connected to the motor reA#ires certain horsepo$er at certain
speed. )et #s say* this is as sho$n by the black raph in the sketch belo$. ,oint to be
noted is that the horsepo$er reA#irement of the load does not o #p after a certain speed *
3f in the raph. 2o$ever* the selection of the motor m#st take care of the ma.im#m
horsepo$er demanded by the load. 'herefore* ordinarily* $e $o#ld have chosen the
horsepo$er of the motor as that eA#al to PD.
B#t considerin the fact that the load does not reA#ire more horsepo$er after the
speed 3f* $e can select a lo$er horsepo$er motor : P< ; and do field $eakenin at speed
3f. 1ed#cin the field voltae of the dc motor after 3f* red#ces the torA#e $hich can be
enerated by the motor. B#t as the speed is more the prod#ct of speed and torA#e remains
constant. 'his is C93!'63' 291!",9%"1 reion of the operation of the motor.
'he zone bet$een zero speed and speed 3f* the horsepo$er enerated by the
motor oes on increasin. 2o$ever* the @ma.im#m torA#e available@ is constant. 'his
zone of operation is called C93!'63' '91Q&" reion. -t is to be noted that the torA#e
enerated by the motor is not constant b#t the ma.im#m torA#e available from the motor
is constant.
,o$er 0actor:

-n alternatin c#rrent circ#its* alternatin voltae and alternatin c#rrent are not al$ays
necessarily in phase $ith each other. i.e. to say* the c#rrent flo$in in any circ#it
component* $hich a res#lt of applied voltae* follo$s the voltae $ave form $ith a time
ap. 'his time ap co#ld be either ahead of the voltae applied or it co#ld be behind the
voltae applied. -n circ#it $ith a lot of ind#ctance present* the c#rrent is behind the
voltae applied. -n s#ch cases the c#rrent is said to be FlainG the voltae* as if it is a
bit rel#ctant to flo$. 'he amo#nt of FlaG depends on the amo#nt of ind#ctance present.
-n circ#its $ith a lot of capacitance present* the voltae follo$s the c#rrent. -n s#ch cases
the c#rrent is said to be FleadinG the voltae.
-n case of DC drives $ith f#lly controlled confi#ration* lo$ speed operation of dc
motors is achieved by firin the thyristors nearer to DL= derees for ettin lo$er voltae.
'h#s* for every sin#soidal cycle of s#pply* the c#rrent starts flo$in late as compared to
the voltae. DC drives* therefore* $hen operated at lo$ speeds* ca#se a very lo$ or
FpoorG po$er factor. 'here is no $ay by $hich this sit#ation co#ld be improved. -t is an
effect created as a Fby prod#ctG of the method #sed for speed control.

'ryin to improve the po$er factor by p#ttin capacitors near the dc drive is kno$n to
have created problems of blo$in of thyristors or f#ses for no apparent reasons.
-n sit#ations $here the added kE6r by capacitors e.actly cancel the ind#ctive kE6r*
#nity po$er factor is achieved. 'his is act#ally a resonance condition. 'heoretically the
voltae can rise to any level damain sensitive electronic parts. ,ractically the voltae
does not rise to very hih level beca#se the FQ factorG of the overall plant is lo$. i.e. the
plant load has ot a lot of resistive cons#mption also. : -n absence of resistive element*
the voltae co#ld o to very hih levels as in case of resonant tank circ#its in 2ih
0reA#ency circ#its like radio freA#ency amplifiers.;

%hen load in the plant red#ces* the added capacitors tend to over compensate and make
the po$er factor as Fleadin po$er factorG. 'he "lectricity !#pply Companies normally
inore this as it is advantaeo#s for them. )oss on acco#nt of other s#rro#ndin plants
$hich do not maintain ood po$er factor is compensated by this leadin po$er factor in
some plants.

-f lare amo#nt of ind#ctive load is compensated by eA#ally lare amo#nt of capacitive
correction to et ood po$er factor* there is a danero#s sit#ation $aitin $hen the load
red#ces to very lo$ level. 0or e.ample* on holidays* $hen the load is almost zero* the
capacitors keep dra$in reactive po$er and the e.cessive capacitive c#rrent can fail
cables* or cable terminations or trip the circ#it breakers. 6pparently* this looks f#nny and
one keeps $onderin as to $hy the cables b#rnt $hen load $as zero on holidays.
Man#ally connected capacitors m#st be disconnected $hen likely red#ction in load is
anticipated.
,o$er 0actor -mprovement :

By addin capacitors in parallel to the ind#ctive load s#itably* po$er factor can be
improved and bro#ht to the desired level. -deally* brinin it to D is desirable. 2o$ever*
there are some problems involved $hich are associated $ith over compensation and
resonance arisin at #nity po$er factor. 2avin seen the basics of power factor* no$ let
#s see ho$ $e can estimate the val#e of capacitors reA#ired for improvin the po$er
factor to a desired level. 0or this p#rpose* $e need to kno$ the e.istin load in k%*
e.istin po$er factor and the po$er factor desired after improvement. 'he sit#ation is
described in the sketch belo$. 'he sol#tion involves some trionometric calc#lations.
'he val#e of capacitors reA#ired is normally not e.pressed in microfarads. -nstead* it is
e.pressed in kE6r* $hen #sed for the p#rpose of po$er factor improvement.

-maine a simple circ#it $ith a resistor connected to a dc voltae thro#h a s$itch. 'he
moment the s$itch is closed* the dc voltae of the so#rce appears across the resistor. 'he
resistor immediately starts carryin a c#rrent $hich is eA#al to Eoltae / 1esistance.
: E/1 ;. 'he c#rrent stops flo$in immediately $hen the s$itch is opened. 'he sit#ation
is some$hat different $hen the resistor is replaced by an ind#ctor. 6t the time of
s$itchin on the s$itch* there is a s#dden chane in the level of voltae $hich is seen by
the ind#ctor* from zero volts to E volts. 6s $e kno$* the ind#ctor al$ays opposes any
chane in the state of c#rrent $hich is carryin. -t tries to hold on to the e.istin state of
c#rrent in it. -f the voltae and c#rrent $aveforms are sin#soidal* then cosine of the anle
bet$een the voltae and c#rrent $aveforms is called ,o$er 0actor.
%hy cosineR %hy not sine or tanR

,o$er is M#ltiplication of Eoltae and C#rrent. B#t if the voltae and c#rrent are not in
phase $ith each other* simple m#ltiplication does not res#lt into po$er. ,o$er is
therefore* m#ltiplication of voltae and only that component of c#rrent $hich is in phase
$ith voltae. i.e. ,H E . - . cos S. 'his e.plains $hy cosine and not sine or tanent of
the anle7

-maine that yo# $ant to o to a bank and deposit yo#r money. %hen yo# reach the bank
yo# find that bank is closed. !o yo# come back $ith the cash $itho#t deliverin. By the
time yo# reach home* bank is aain opened. Yo# start aain from home* reach the bank
b#t find that bank is aain closed. 'hat is to say yo#r money does not et transferred to
the bank beca#se openin of the bank and yo# reachin the bank does not synchronize.
-n other $ords* the t$o actions are not in phase $ith each other. !imilarly* if the c#rrent
is not phase $ith the voltae it does not create any transfer of po$er from so#rce to the
load. 'he c#rrent simply travels $itho#t any res#lt. 'his is called $attless po$er. -t does
not res#lt into F$attsG or po$er.
-n case of DC* the voltae and the c#rrent are al$ays in synchronism $ith each other and
therefore* there is no A#estion of po$er factor.

-n a ceilin fan the po$er factor is typically aro#nd =.? . 'his means that only ?= C of the
c#rrent dra$n from the s#pply lines is #tilized in eneratin mechanical po$er by $ay of
rotatin the blades. -t is inefficient #se of c#rrent provided by the "lectric !#pply
Company. 'he enery meter fitted in the incomin line* ho$ever* records act#al enery
cons#med* takin into acco#nt the lo$ po$er factor of =.?. 'herefore* one does not pay
more for makin poor #se of c#rrent. 2o$ever* the electricity company advises
cons#mers to improve po$er factor and make better #se of the c#rrent s#pplied by them*
so that they need not lay thick copper cables for everyone.

-n ind#strial environment* the sit#ation is commercially different. ,oor po$er factor by
ind#stries is penalized by notin the po$er factor separately. -nd#strial cons#mers of
po$er therefore take meas#res to improve the po$er factor by p#ttin capacitors to
compensate the ind#ctance of motors in the factory.

T T T end of ,art+< T T T