Grade 10 Science Exam Review

Experimentation and laboratory safety

Experiment
o An experiment is the test of a hypothesis
Variable
o A factor in an experiment that can be changed
Hypothesis
o A prediction for the outcome of the experiment, predicts the effect that the
independent variable will have on the dependent variable and why. Usually
formatted as an If... then... because... statement.
Independent Variable
o It is a variable you have control over, what you can choose and manipulate. It is a
variable that will affect and change the dependent variable
Dependent Variable
o It is a variable that you measure in an experiment, and this is what is affected during
the experiment. It is called the dependent variable because it depends on the
independent variable
Controlled Variable
o It is the variable that is held constant and is never changed during the experiment so
as not to affect the dependent variable.
Experimental Control
o It is a group of experimental specimen that are not supposed to be exposed to the
independent variable so that it can be compared to the other groups that are
exposed to the independent variable.


Laboratory Safety
What are common safety rules of the lab?
Never work alone, use the buddy system
Do not touch labmates
The lab is never a place for goofing around
Do not cut corners or be sloppy
Never conduct an unauthorized experiment
Always read the procedure carefully
Always read the labels
Always use MSDS
Follow the procedure
Wear gloves, lab coat and goggles or a full face shield
Tie back hair, wear closed toed shoes, no jewelry
Change gloves when needed and remove before you leave
Inspect all hoses and fittings around the bunsen burners, report and fix if necessary
always point glassware away from people or dangerous goods when heating
Dont let the glass beaker touch the open flame
Keep your workspace clean
Never put chemicals back into their container
Never add water to acid, Do what you oughta, add acid to water
Do not wash hot glassware
Never use chipped, cracked, or broken glassware
Inform the teacher of all injuries, no matter how minor
Report all cracked or damaged equipment, no matter how minor
Call in the experts if necessary
Always use fume hood or snorkel when handling product with dangerous vapours
Locate fire exits, alarms, extinguishers and blankets, eye wash stations, sinks and showers.
Wash hands before leaving lab


Hazardous Household Product Symbols
Poisonous
Examples: Windshield washer fluid, Furniture polish, Antifreeze
The dangers: Eating, drinking, licking, sometimes inhaling (consuming)


Corrosive
Examples: Toilet bowl cleaners, Oven cleaners
The dangers: Can burn skin, eyes, harm respiratory system if inhaled


Flammable
Examples: contact adhesives, solvents
The dangers: Product and its fumes can ignite through heat or sparks



Explosive (container)
Examples: Aerosol containers
The dangers: Flying shrapnel that can seriously injure or harm
WHMIS Hazardous Symbols

Flammable and Combustible Material
Meaning: May burn and can easily catch fire
How to handle/precautions: Keep away from open fire, never smoke nearby, store in
cool area

Compressed gas
Meaning: Under pressure, can explode if heated or dropped
How to handle/precautions: Handle with caution, keep away from flames/sparks, do
not drop


Oxidising materials
Meaning: Can cause or promote combustion of another material
How to handle/precautions: Wear eye, hand and face protection, handle with
caution


Bio-hazardous and infectious materials
Meaning: Living organisms or their toxins that can cause disease in people or
organisms
How to handle/precautions: use protective clothing and proper equipment


Poisonous and infectious materials causing other toxic effects
Meaning: Has health effects that appear one time and with repeated exposure can
cause cancer and birth defects
How to handle/precautions: wear protective clothing, work in an open area

Poisonous and infectious material causing immediate and serious toxic effects
Meaning: Can rapidly cause harmful health effects, including death
How to handle/precautions: Do not swallow, inhale or touch. Wash and shower
after use

Dangerously reactive material
Meaning: Very unstable, may react and explode
How to handle/precautions: Do not drop, keep away from heat and open containers
carefully.

Corrosive material
Meaning: Can cause damage to eyes and skin on contact, harmful to respiratory
system if inhaled
How to handle/precautions: Close containers tightly, wear protective clothing
Living Things, Cells and Microscopes
Characteristics of living things
All the living things have a set of common characteristics
o Have cells
o Have a limited lifespan
o Movement: The ability to respond to stimuli/ environment
o Growth: Organises materials from the environment into own structures
o Reproduction: Copies itself
o Metabolism: The use of fuel and release of chemical as well as gas exchange
o Evolution: Adaptation of species
o Ecology: Influences its surroundings


History of cell theory
o In 1665 Robert Hooke was the first person to examine cork under a compound
microscope. Hooke noted that cork was made up of miniscule box-like structures
that he called cells.
o Around the same time period Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was looking at living cells
through his much simpler microscope. He witnessed living cells such as bacteria cells
from pond water and human blood cells.
o In 1820 Robert Brown witnessed small, dense, round bodies, common to all plants
under his microscope, which he named the nucleus.
o In 1838 Matthias Schleiden said that all plants are made up of cells
o In 1839 Theodor Schwann said that all animals are also made up of cells
Cell Theory states that
o All living organisms are made up of cells
o The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms
o All cells come from pre-existing cells

Care and use of microscopes
o hold microscope by arm and base
o walk slowly and carefully
o start with low power objective
o put slide on, then move objective as close to stage as possible
o on low magnification, turn coarse focus knob until in focus
o on medium and high power only use the fine adjustment knob
o use lens paper to clean lenses
o when putting away:
put on low power
move stage all the way down
put away slide
wrap cord around base


Parts of a microscope





Labels
1. Tube
2. Revolving nosepiece
3. Low power objective lens
4. Medium power objective lens
5. High power objective lens
6. Stage clips
7. Diaphragm/condenser
8. Light source
9. Eyepiece/ocular lens
10. Arm
11. Stage
12. Coarse adjustment knob
13. Fine adjustment knob
14. Base

Biological Drawings
Supplies
o Blank, unlined paper
o A pencil and eraser
Before you draw
o Plan to make a large drawing, to of the page
o Draw on the left to leave room for labels on the right
Drawing
o Write a title, which includes the name of the specimen and if possible the part of the
specimen drawn
o Spend time observing and examining your specimen carefully
o Draw only exactly what you see
o Do not sketch - draw firm, solid lines
o Do not shade, stipple instead
Labelling
o Draw straight lines to the right of the drawing, with a ruler or straight edge
o Label lines should always be distinct and should never cross
o Put labels in a neat column, lined up
o Label your drawing using the name and part of the specimen you have drawn
o Include the magnification of your drawing
Magnification
o find specimen size:
o field diameter/number of cells that fit across
o e.g. 4.8mm/6 = 0.8mm is specimen size
o find magnification of drawing:
o size of drawing/size of specimen
o e.g. 75mm/0.8mm= 94x is magnification of drawing
LP field diameter: 4.5mm
MP field diameter: 1.8mm
HP field diameter: 0.45mm


Cell Parts and Functions
Organelles
o Structures that carry out specific functions within the cell.
Cell membrane
o Usually acts as a wall, holding the contents of the cell together and controlling what
goes in and out of the cell (food and waste).
Cytoplasm
o The liquid between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane. Holds the
organelles, enzymes, amino acids, ATP and carbohydrates.
Mitochondria
o Sausage shaped organelles that release energy so the cell can function, the
mitochondria is also called the powerhouse of the cell.
Nucleus
o The large round structure in the center of the cell, the Nucleus controls the center of
the cell and directs all of the cells activities, also contains the genetic material DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid).
Nuclear membrane
o Holds the contents of the nucleus together, also controls what goes in and out of
the nucleus.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
o Holds/ carries the genetic code, contains all of the instructions for running the cell
Nucleolus
o The dark area inside of the nucleus that makes ribosome parts (looks like a wad of
gum in Ms. Lees diagram)
Ribosomes
o the sites where proteins are assembled
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
o A series of small tubes that carry materials through the cell. The rough ER houses
some of the ribosomes for making trans membrane proteins. The smooth ER is
responsible for making fats and oils.
Golgi apparatus
o Receives, modifies and transports proteins made at the rough endoplasmic
reticulum, creates vesicles and lysosomes
Vesicles
o Small, membrane bound sacs used to transport materials throughout the cell
Lysosomes
o Saclike structures that allow digestion. Lysosomes can be used to break down
damaged organelles or used by white blood cells to destroy invading bacteria
Cell wall
o Found in plant cells, not animal cells, tough and rigid (made of cellulose- a glucose
polymer)
Vacuole
o Found mainly in plant cells, used for storage of food and water, they give support to
the cells structure
Cilia
o Short, normally numerous, hair like extensions that beat in a coordinated fashion.
Ex: paramecium is covered with cilia that help it swim through the water.
Flagellum
o Long whip like tails that help the cell move. Human sperm cells are able to move due
to their flagellum.

Plant Cell/Animal Cell
Plant Cell

Note: Golgi vesicles, amyloplasts, vacuole membrane, raphide crystal and
druse crystal were not in any handouts or discussed in class


Animal Cell

The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Cell cycle
o The life of a cell including cell growth, DNA replication, preparation for mitosis and
mitosis; normal cells live from 50-60 cycles
Mitosis
o The phase of the cell cycle in which the cell divides into two identical daughter cells,
the stages of mitosis are interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
(to remember: I Pee on the MAT)
Chromatin
o A combination of DNA and proteins
Chromosomes
o made of condensed DNA, formed during mitosis
Sister Chromatids
o Identical copies of a chromosome joined by a centromere
Interphase
o During interphase the cell grows, but can only grow to a certain size. Beyond that
the surface area of the cell is too small for the volume of the cell and it is not
possible for the cell to get enough nutrients and waste in and out of the cell quickly.
Prophase
o During prophase the chromatin condenses into chromosomes, which are sister
chromatids at this point. The mitotic spindles, which will pull the chromatids into
position, form. In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell to
form the poles of the mitotic spindles, in this stage the nuclear structure and
membranes will also break apart.
Metaphase
o During metaphase, chromatids line up at the cells equatus (AKA: the equatorial
plate) and the mitotic spindle fibres attach themselves to the centriole. The fibres
link each sister chromatid to opposite poles.
Anaphase
o During anaphase the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibres. The
separated chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase
o In telophase cytokinesis occurs, which is the splitting of the cells cytoplasm. In
animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms, which is a pinching in the middle of the cell to
form two new cells. In plant cells a new cell wall is formed between the two new
cells.
First growth phase
o The cell produces new proteins and organelles
Synthesis phase
o The DNA is replicated in preparation for mitosis
Second growth phase
o The cell produces the organelles and structures needed for cell division
Cell necrosis
o The death of a cell through injury or disease; not preprogrammed
Apoptosis
o Programmed cell death which occurs when a cell is no longer needed. For example,
the body produces a lot of different cells when an infection like the flu is present,
but after it has fought off the infection, those cells are no longer needed and they
die.
Carcinogens
Substances that cause cancer through the mutation of the DNA. They generally fall in three
categories, however there is a fourth.
o Viruses (ex: human papilloma virus can cause cervical cancer)
o Radiation (ex: UV radiation from the sun can cause skin cancer)
o Hazardous materials (ex: asbestos can cause lung cancer)
o Genetics (ex: breast cancer genes)


Cancer
Cancer cells are cells that do not undergo apoptosis at the right time and divide out of
control.
o Cancer occurs when the DNA in the cell is damaged in some way so that the cells
instructions (like when to stop replicating) are changed
o Cancer cells rapidly divide, and produce more cells than are needed. These new cells
can begin to form a mass or a tumor. These cells are unspecialised cells (but do not
aid in the tissue function), and therefore crowd out other functioning masses, using
up their space, energy and resources to grow. Cancer becomes deadly when it
spreads into organs and tissues, preventing their proper functioning.
How does cancer spread
o It spreads in two ways: invasion and metastasis. Invasion is the migration into
neighboring tissues. (Physically growing into the neighbouring tissue.) Metastasis is
the movement of cancer cells through the bloodstream or lymphatic system to
other sites in the body. Benign tumors cannot spread by invasion or metastasis.
Malignant tumors are capable of spreading by invasion or metastasis, and are by
definition cancer
How is cancer treated
o Although there is no cure for cancer there are 3 main treatments
o Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy destroys cells which are in mitosis. Since cancer cells
replicate more often than other cells, they are vulnerable. However, other
rapidly dividing cells are also targeted, such as hair, skin and stomach lining.
(chemotherapy uses comes a drug)
o Radiation
Radiation is directed at tumors and mutates the DNA of the cells. Cancer
cells are more vulnerable than normal cells because they have less ability to
repair damaged DNA than healthy cancer cells. The damage of DNA can
lead to the death of the cell, or the slowing of its replication
o Surgery
Surgeons can remove tumors from the body, but must be careful not to
damage surrounding tissue. Also all cancer cells must be removed or the
tumor will return
Regeneration and cell cloning
Regeneration
Specialized cells
o Cells that perform a specific function within the body
Embryonic stem cells
o Called somatic cells
Adult stem cells
o Undifferentiated cells
Totipotent Have the potential to create develop into any cell found in the human body
can develop an organism
Pluripotent Potential to differentiate into almost any cell in the body
Multipotent Have the ability to self-renew for long periods of time and differentiate into
specialized cells with specific functions Limited in differentiating ability
Why can't humans regenerate?
o
If all cells contain the same copy of DNA, how do they specialize?
o
What kind of stem cell is most valued? Why?
o embryonic stem cells are the most valuable because they are early enough in their
development that they can become any type of tissue at all, they are pluripotent
What are some possible uses for stem cells?
The Eyes of Nye: cloning worksheet
Name one concern about patents for cloning technology
Conflict of interest Cloning becomes capital
Expensive
Designer Babies


Pressure to sell ovum
Why doesnt reproductive cloning work well?
Because you have to take the old nucleus and make it think its a young cell.
Tissues and organs
What are the major functions of each type of tissue?
Be able to give an example of each type of tissue.
Epithelial tissue
o Animal tissue
o Line our body cavities and the outer surface of our bodies
o Protects and keeps our organs in place
o Forms glands
o Examples:
skin
Lining of lungs, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, cornea
Adrenal and sweat glands
Connective tissues
o Support and protect structures
o Forms blood, stores fat, fills empty space
o Examples:
Tendons and ligaments
Bones
Cartilage
Blood
Muscle tissue
o Animal tissue
o Allows movement
o Examples:
Skeletal (voluntary, ex: arms and legs)
Smooth (involuntary, ex: blood vessels and stomach)
Cardiac (involuntary, heart muscles)
Nervous tissue
o Animal tissue
o Transmits and stores information
o Restores _____________
o Examples:
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
Epidermal tissue
o Plant based tissue
o Forms protective outer covering
o Allows exchange of material and gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide)
o Examples:
On top of and underneath leaves
Meristematic tissue
o plant based tissue
o Stem cell, unspecialized
o Allows growth, capable of dividing and multiplying by mitosis
o Responsible for growing new plant parts
o Examples:
Stem tips, root tips and leaves
Ground tissue
o in the stem; provides strength and support
o Roots store food and water
o Responsible for growing new plant parts
o Examples:
Most of the plant is made up of ground tissue
Stems, roots and leaves
Vascular tissue
o Moves substances from roots to leaves
o Transports sugars from leaves to other parts of the plant
o Examples:
Xylem: moves water and minerals
Phloem: transports sugar produced during photosynthesis to other parts of
the plant where it can be used for energy
Be able to name organs in plants and animals.
Roots
o Epidermal: Root cap Meristematic: below the root cap Ground tissue and
vascular tissue make up the centre of the roots
o Collect and transport water and nutrients
o Stores food
o Anchors the plant
Leaves
o Vascular tissue Epidermal tissue: Secretes a waxy covering called the cuticle
ground tissue: mesophyll
o Site of photosynthesis 3 CO2 + 3 H2O +C6H12O6
o Transports sugar to other parts of the plants
Stem
o Epidermal tissue Ground tissue Vascular tissue
o Transports water and nutrients (Food)
o Supports leaves and flowers
Flowers
o Epidermal, ground, vascular and Meristematic tissue
o Reproductive structure of the plant
o Ovary may become fruit or hard cell
Be able to name a component tissue for each organ
Give the function for the skin, lungs, heart, organs of digestion, roots, leaves, stems and
flowers
Be able to label the digestive system, heart, respiratory system and leaf
Organ systems
What organs are involved in each system and what are their basic functions?
Integumentary system
o The skin, hair, sweat glands and nails
o Protects the body
o Helps the body control temperature
Digestive system
o Mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, tongue, gallbladder, liver, intestines, rectum
o absorbs nutrients from food and eliminates solid waste
Respiratory system
Nose, Mouth, trachea, lungs, bronchi, alveoli, diaphragm
Exchange of gasses


Circulatory system
o Heart, veins, blood, arteries
o Transports materials within the body
Excretory system
o Skin, kidney, bladder, ureter, urethra
o elimination of excretory product from the body
Skeletal system
o Bones and cartilage
o Supports and protects the body, allows movement
Muscular system
o Smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscles, can also be classified as voluntary and
involuntary
o works with the skeletal system to provide movement
o Moves materials within the body
Nervous system
o Brain, nerves and spinal cord
o Controls body functions
o Coordinates responses and activities
Endocrine system
o Glands (pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid and adrenal), Pancreas, Ovaries and
testicles
Reproductive system
o Ovaries, fallopian tubes, vagina, uterus, testes, epididymis, vas deferens, penis,
urethra
o Responsible for reproduction
Lymphatic system
o White blood cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vessels
o Protects the body from disease
o Circulates lymph fluid
o Absorbs and transports fats
Organs for sale
What are some reasons organ sale might be restricted?
o The idea of ownership of a human by another (slavery)
o Trade of humans
o Commercializing human parts
o Impoverished people may feel pushed to sell their organs
Do you think that organ sale should be legalized in Canada? Give persuasive justification.
o You could argue that is should
Gift of a life
We are able to operate without certain organs
o Or against for the above reasons


Imaging the human body
Be able to explain one type of body imaging in depth
Be able to describe each type of imaging and how it works
X-ray
o Emits radiation into body, bones will glow white with radiation.
o Can be used for bones, cardiac and vascular systems
o Used in medicine to check for broken bones and in dentistry to observe non visible
parts of teeth
Fluoroscopy
o Provides video footage, X-ray transmitted through body and images received by
fluorescent plate on opposite side from X-ray
o Can be used for full body, but works better when focused on a specific part
o Diagnostic abilities, can also be used to monitor internal procedures
Ultrasound
o uses sound waves, conducts images of internal structure
o Generally used in soft tissues, major organs
o Used to diagnose heart problems and to view fetuses
Computed tomography
o Uses computer processed x-rays to produce topographic images of the human body
o Used for mainly soft tissues, blood vessels but mainly used for brains
o Diagnosing cancers
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
o Emits a magnetic field that reacts with hydrogen atoms within your body to produce
images
o Soft tissues, brain, heart, liver
o Diagnosing
Nuclear medicine
o Used for entire body
o Detection and treatment of cancer
Positron emission technology (PET)
o Tracers are emitted into the body, these emit positrons and produce a 3d image of
your body
o Generally soft tissues, can be used for whole body
o Diagnosing heart disease and brain disorders
Biophotonics
o uses light to make pictures of the inside of bodily structures with a tube that goes
into the body
o light and camera attached to the tube
o used for digestive tract, soft tissues, search for cancerous growths in stomach or
intestines, and sometimes the inside of eyes
Frog digestion
Cutting the muscle
1. Go find a group with a different sex frog. What are two visible differences?
Males have two internal testicles and a spermatic canal in which they produce sperm to fertilize the
eggs. Female frogs have ovaries, oviducts and uteri.
2. What are the exposed organs wrapped in?
The exposed organs are wrapped in the peritoneum membrane.
3. What is the heart wrapped in?
It is wrapped in the pericardial sac.
4. In mammals there is an extra separation of the body cavity by the diaphragm. What are the 2
cavities called?
The abdominal and thoracic cavity.


Respiratory and Circulatory System
Label the following parts on Diagram 3.
liver (third space)
heart (second space)
lungs (first space)

1. Have a look at the frog. They are small, single chamber organs. Why is there no need for
complicated lungs?
They dont need complicated lungs because most of their respiration is through their highly moist
and vascularized skin.


Digestive System of the Frog
Label the following parts on Diagram 4.
stomach (second space on the right side)
cloaca (fifth space on the right side)
large intestine (fourth space on the right side)
small intestine (second space on the left side)
mesentery (first space on the left side)
esophagus (first space on the right side)
pancreas (third space on the right side)


1. The liver is an accessory organ to the digestive system, and it produces an important digestive
juice. What does it secrete?

It secretes a digestive juice called bile.

2. What is the function of the gallbladder?

It stores bile from the liver.

3. What system does the spleen belong to, and what does it do?

It belongs to the digestive system; it filters red blood cells.

4. You may see yellow lobes attached to the kidneys called fat bodies. What are these for?

It stores food that is used during hibernation or periods of breeding.

5. What does the inside of the stomach look like?

(Answer: whatever the last meal was for the frog, Im sure this question wont be on the test)

6. Why is the small intestine so long?

Since the small intestine is for absorbing moisture and nutrients from the material consumed, the
longer the intestines, the more moisture and nutrients are absorbed.

Chemistry notes
Recall
An ion is a charged atom formed by gaining or losing electrons
An ion is negative when it has a surplus of electrons and is positive when it has a lack of electrons
Full valence and stability
An atom that has a full valence shell is considered stable
All atoms want to be stable, like their nearest noble gas (in terms of valence configuration [how many
shells])
Noble gases are the most stable because of their full valence configuration, thus they do not try to mix
with other atoms
Examples
Sodium, which has 1e- on its outer shell, will lose that electron; because it is easier for the atom to do
such than it is to gain 7e- Sodium will form neon which has a total of 10e-
By losing an electron, sodium will become positive
Fluorine which has 7e- on its outer shell, will gain another electron, because it is easier for that atom to
gain 1e- than to lose 7e- Fluorine will form neon which has a total of 10e-
By gaining an electron, fluorine will become negative
Ionic bonding
When forming ions, the electrons always have to go to somewhere, or go to somewhere
Examples
NaCl or table salt is an ionic compound comprised of sodium and chlorine
If you look at the makeup of sodium we will find that it has one electron on its outer shell, and if you
look at the makeup of chlorine you will see that it has seven electrons on its outer shell. In ionic
bonding, one atom must give its surplus electrons to the other atom, making one positive and the other
negative.
Ionic compounds are wrote as Metal-Non-metal-Ide
When writing the chemical formulas you must consider the ions of each atom, and determine if the
positive charge is equal to the negative charge.
If they are then you will write the formula with no subscripts, for example NaCl, the negative charge of
sodium is equal to the positive charge of chlorine.
However if the charges are not equal, you must determine how many of each is needed to make the
compound neutral.
Examples:
1.) In the case of calcium and fluoride, calcium will form the ion 2+, and fluorine will form the ion 1- The
charges of these two will not become neutral when bonded.
To do this you must have one calcium atom, and two fluorine atoms.
This will form the chemical formula of CaF2
2.) In the case of magnesium and oxygen, Mg will form an ion of 2+ and O will form an ion of 2-,
because the charge of these ions will be equal, only one of each is necessary to make the compound
neutral. The chemical formula will be MgO (not Mg2O2)

3.) In the case of aluminium and sulfur, Al will form the ion of 3+ and S will form an ion of 2-, because
the charges of these are not equal, two aluminium atoms and three sulphur ions will be needed to
make the charge of the compound neutral. The chemical formula of this will be Al2S3
Note: An interesting relationship that makes writing the compounds easier to write is to switch the
charges of the two atoms in the ionic compound. Al with its ion of 3+ and S with its ion of 2- are written
as Al2S3.
Mg and O both have an ion of 2+/-, but are not written as Mg2O2 however, because they are reduced to
their simplest form of MgO
Rules of writing chemical formulas
1.) The numbers telling how many of each atom is in the molecule are called subscript and are written
on the same line, below the atomic symbol.
2.) The charges of atoms may not be written above, although you may do it as a step to figuring out the
formula
3.) The Charges (+,-) are not written in the formula
4.) Always reduce the subscripts to their lowest common factors
Naming ionic compounds
The metal cation is named first, and keeps its name, the non-metal is written next and it must have ide
added to its ending
Example:
NaCl, is written as Sodium-Chloride. Sodium, the metal is written first, and keeps its full name, while
chlorine, is written last an as chloride
Practice
MgO is written as Magnesium-Oxide Al2S3 is written as Aluminium-Sulfide
CaBr2 is written as Calcium-bromide NaP3 is written as Sodium-Phosphide
Transition metals
Some metals have more than one possible valence; these metals are under the acronym of CLINT
(Copper, Lead, Iron, Nickel, and Tin).
Copper can have possible valence of 1+ and 2+, (I, II)
Lead can have possible valence of 2+ and 4+ (II, IV)
Iron can have possible valence of 2+ and 3+ (II, III)
Nickel can have possible valence of 2+ and 3+ (II, III)
Tin can have possible valence of 2+ and 4+ (II, IV)

Writing chemical formulas
In the case of Iron (II) oxide, the chemical formula is still written metal, then non-metal
Then write the ionic charges above the symbols. The ionic charge for the multivalent element can be
found in the name Iron (II) oxide, Fe2+O1-
Using the previously mentioned trick, transfer the charge numbers between the two atoms within the
molecule, making Iron (II) oxide FeO2
Practice
Tin (IV) chloride would become SnCl4 Manganese (IV) oxide would become MnO4
Copper (II) phosphide would become CuP2 Iron (II) Fluoride would become FeFl2
Lead (IV) sulphide would become CuS4 Nickel (II) chloride would become NiCl2

Writing the compound name
First, you must recognise that it has a transition (CLINT) metal, if it doesnt, then it is just written as
Metal, Non-metal, with no numerals.
If it is indeed a transition metal, then you must figure out which version of the metal we have.
To figure this out, you do a reverse-crossover, then check to see if the non-metal is the correct ion
Then write the formula with numerals in the middle Metal (numeral) Non-metal.
Example:
CuCl2, which is technically Cu1Cl2 when crossed over is Cu2Cl1, Cu2 is copper with the roman numeral
of II, which is written as Copper (II) Chloride
Try it
Name the compound
Check if the metal is a transition metal
Perform the reverse crossover
Check if the non-metal is the correct ion
If so, write as Metal (Numerals) Non-metals
If not, then multiply both the metal and the non-metal to make oxygen the correct ion
Try with
SnBr4___________________________ Tin (IV) Bromide
Fef3____________________________ Iron (III) Fluoride
CuI_____________________________ Copper (I) Iodide
CuS_____________________________ Copper (II) Sulphide
Sn3P2___________________________ Tin (II) Phosphide
FeC2____________________________ Iron (II) Carbide
Practice
Name the following compounds write the names for the following components
Magnesium oxide Li2O
Sodium fluoride AlCl2
Aluminium nitride MgS
Potassium sulfide CaO
Lithium iodide KBr
Calcium bromide BeF
Beryllium oxide Na3N
Aluminium sulfide Al2O3
Copper (I) bromide CuCl2
Tin (II) Iodide FeBr3
Iron (III) chloride PbS
Calcium phosphide SnO2
Lead (II) oxide Na2S
Lead (IV) fluoride Mg3P2
Tin (IV) bromide CuI
Copper (II) sulphide PbCl4
Iron (II) oxide FeP
Calcium nitride CaF2

Polyatomic
The Polyatomic is a group of atoms that tend to stay together and carry an overall ionic charge.
These charges are displayed in the table. (Note: you must memorize the name of the ion)
Name Formula Charge
Acetate CH3COO 1-
Ammonium NH4 1+
Bicarbonate HCO3 1-
Carbonate CO3 2-
Chlorate CLO3 1-
Hydroxide OH 1-
Nitrate NO3 1-
Nitrite NO2 1-
Phosphate PO4 3-
Sulfite SO3 2-
Sulfate SO4 2-

Naming polyatomic compounds
The same as in writing the ionic compounds, the structure for the compound name begins with the
metal, and is followed by that of the polyatomic ion.
Example:
CaCO3 the first part of this formula, Ca is calcium, a metal, and the second is the polyatomic ion CO3 or
carbonate, so the polyatomic ions name is Calcium Carbonate.
Try it
MgSO4______________________________________________________________Magnesium-sulfate
Mg(NO3)2___________________________________________________________Magnesium-nitrate
Al2(SO4)3___________________________________________________________Aluminium-sulfate
(NH4)2O ____________________________________________________________Ammonium-oxide
NaOH_______________________________________________________________Sodium-hydroxide


Writing polyatomic compound formulas
The same as naming ions, write the metals symbol first, and follow with the polyatomic ion.
Example
Sodium Hydroxide- In this case, you would write the formula for the metal, sodium, and then the
polyatomic group, hydroxide, and then write their charges above them, and cross them over. NaOH,
sodium and hydroxide have the same charge so when you cross over the charges, they cancel each other
out.
Now take the example of Lithium sulfate, Li having a charge of 1- and SO4 having a charge of 2-.
Cross over the charges for the two, and it becomes Li2SO4, However, because SO4 is a group and must
stay together, the formula cannot be simplified.
Try it
Calcium carbonate__________________________________________________________ CaCO
Magnesium sulfate__________________________________________________________MgSO4
Writing with brackets
If the charges of the two are not equal, and dont cancel each other out then you must write the formula
with brackets.
Example
In the case of Magnesium nitrate, Mg has a charge of 2+ and NO3 a charge of 1-, when you cross over
the numbers you will find that it may look like Mg1NO32, this is not correct, and the way you write this
is Mg(NO3)2, using brackets because all of what is in the brackets is now multiplied by two.
Remember that you mustnt reduce polyatomic formulae, because the Polyatomic ion has to stay as its
formula, the only instance is when you can reduce is when the charges are related, like 2- and 2+ or 4-
and 2+
Try it
Aluminum nitrate___________________________________________________________Al(NO3)3
Lead (IV) carbonate__________________________________________________________Pb3(CO3)4
Beryllium sulfate____________________________________________________________BeSO4
Magnesium hydroxide________________________________________________________Mg(OH)2

Sample problems
Name Formula Formula Name
Magnesuim sulfate Li2CO
Aluminium nitrate Ca(NO3)2
Potassium hydroxide K2SO4
Calcium carbonate NaNO3
Beryllium sulfate Al(OH)3
Magnesium hydroxide CuSO4
Calcium sulfate NaOH
Lead (II) nitrate CuNO3
Copper (II) hydroxide FeSO4
Tin (IV) carbonate Pb(CO3)2
Iron (II) sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Lead (IV) nitrate Sn(NO3)2

Molecular compounds
Definition
Covalent bonding is when electrons are shared within the bond
Molecular compounds contain covalent bonds and are composed of two non-metals. Their
characteristics are that they generally have low melting points, and they dont conduct electricity.
Lesson I
What happens when neither element is strong enough to pull an electron away from the other?
Example
In the case of two hydrogen atoms, neither is able to pull away from the other, therefore they combine
to make H2, sharing the two electrons among themselves.
Note
Electrons are always shared in pairs
Example II
In the case of Hydrogen and oxygen, oxygen needs two more electrons, and hydrogen only has one
electron. The one oxygen would bond with two of the hydrogen atoms, making H2O, also known as
water.
Writing formulas for molecular compounds with single bonds
First, write the symbols, starting with the symbol of the element closest to the left of the periodic table.
Then write the combining capacity, which has the same value as the ionic charge, but without + or -.
Then crossover to produce the subscripts
Example
Carbon and Sulfur
CS
C(4)S(5) -note that the numbers in the brackets should be written above the symbols
C5S4
Keep in mind that molecular compounds can have single double or triple bonds
Naming molecular compounds
The ending s of molecular compounds must end with -ide, also, the compound names begin with the
element to the left of the periodic table.
When naming the compounds, prefixes are used to specify the number of atoms present for each
molecule.
The prefixes
Mono-, which can be dropped if it is the fist element
Di-
Tri-
Tetra-
Penta-
Hexa-
Hepta-
Octa-
Nona-
Deca-
Try these
NO____________________
N2O___________________
NO2___________________
N2O3__________________
N2O4__________________
N2O5__________________
C5S4___________________
SO2____________________
SF6____________________
CCl4___________________
NI3____________________
Diatomic molecules
Some elements commonly form compounds with two atoms, all of which are gasses, with the exception
of bromine and iodine.
These elements are
Hydrogen (H2)
Oxygen (2)
Fluorine (2)
Bromide (2)
Iodine (2)
Nitrogen (2)
Chlorine (2)
These are written as the element, followed by Gas, keep in mind the exceptions of bromine iodine
Try these:
H2____________________
Br2___________________
Nitrogen gas____________
Fluorine gas____________
Molecules with common names
Water H2O
Ammonia NH3
Hydrogen peroxide H3O2
Methane CH4
Ozone O3



Try these
Name Symbol Symbol Name
Carbon Dioxide CF4
Silicon Dioxide NH3
Water Pbr3
Carbon Disulfide O3
Sulfur trioxide F2 (gas)
Ammonia CS2
Carbon Tetrachloride N2O4
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
Methane CO
Ozone (Trioxide) SiC
Diphosphorus trioxide P2O5
Nitrogen trioxide CH4
Nitrogen monoxide SO3
Chlorine dioxide H2O
Dinitrogen oxide SiO2
Carbon monoxide PCl5
Arsenic tribromide I2 (gas)
Phosphorus pentabromide NO2
Dinitrogen tetroxide SF4
Silicon carbide H2 (gas)

Chemical equations
Introduction
Chemical reactions can be written as equations . The format in which these are displayed is:
Reactant(I) + Reactant (II) Product(I) + Product (II)
: Reacts to produce
The products will be new substances of different properties.
Word equations
Word equations are written out by name, not by chemical formula:
Water Oxygen gas + Hydrogen gas
Whats going on here?
Water is being split into oxygen gas and hydrogen gas through electrolysis
Skeleton equations
Reactants and products are written out in their equations
H2O O2 (g) + H2 (g)
Note (I): This is not balanced
Note (II): Sometimes, especially for gaseous substances, the states of the elements are written after the
chemical formulas.
Gas: (g)
Solid: ( s)
Liquid: (l )
In solution: (ag)
The law of conservation of matter
Matter cannot be created or destroyed.
Therefore, the number of atoms must be equal in both sides of the
Sometimes the number of atoms will not be equal in a reaction, so one must balance the equations.
Balancing chemical equations
Take H2O O2 + H2
This is not a balanced equation, and therefore, one must balance it. When one balances, their objective
is to ensure that the left side equals the right side.
Understand that the chemical composition CANNOT be changed (ex: H2O cannot be changed to H2O2,
you may note that this results in a change from water to hydrogen peroxide)
To balance equations, use a co-efficient, in front of an atom to balance. Never change subscripts.
Example
In the case of H2O H2 + O2 Not balanced
Add a co-efficient of 2 to H2O and H2
This becomes 2H2O 2H2 + O2

Strategies for balancing equations
Start from left to right
Do one element at a time.
Dont forget to change only the co-efficient; do not change subscripts

Chemicals in life
Macro minerals

Many metals are prominent in our bodies, they are essential for a healthy, functioning body.
Minerals, a commonly used misnomer, our body doesnt require any rocks or stones to function,
they actually need ionic compounds, like table salt or NaCl.
Many of the below minerals are beneficial to our bodies during exercise.
Calcium
Calcium makes up approximately 1.67% of a human body
Calcium helps strengthen our bones and teeth, it improves nerve conduction, muscle
contraction, energy production, immunity, and it prevents blood clotting
Green leafy vegetables, like lettuce and spinach, as well as dairy products are excellent sources
of calcium
Phosphorous
Phosphorous makes up approximately 1.14% of a human body
Phosphorous, like calcium helps strengthen our bones, and phosphorous also is good for cellular
function, and is a vital ingredient in cell membranes
Dairy product, fish, eggs and meats are all excellent source of phosphorous
Potassium
Potassium makes up about 0.342% of a human body
Potassium improves muscle contraction and nerve impulses
Fruits and vegetables are excellent sources of potassium
Sulfur
Sulfur makes up about 0.228% of a human body
Sulfur is vital for producing protein
Meat, meat by-products (dairy products, eggs), garlic and onions are excellent sources of sulfur
Chloride
Chloride makes up about 0.152% of a human body
Chloride helps us maintain our bodys electrolyte and fluid balances, and our digestive juices
Table salt is an excellent source of Chloride
Sodium
Sodium makes up about 0.137% of a human body
Sodium helps us balance water in our tissues
Table salt is an excellent source of sodium
Magnesium
Magnesium makes up about 0.053% of a human body
Magnesium is good for enzymes in our body, that help us break down food into energy
Leafy greens, fish, nuts, beans and whole grains are excellent sources of Magnesium


Micro minerals
The human body requires small amounts of some essential minerals, called micro minerals
Iron
Iron makes up about 0.00638% of a human body
Iron is important for hemoglobin function and synthesis, enzyme actions in energy production,
the production of collagen and elastine, and is also important for neurotransmitters
Meats, especially organ meats, fish and spinach are good sources of iron
Fluorine
Fluorine makes up about 0.00395% of a human body
Fluorine is important because it binds the calcium in our bones and teeth
Fluoridated water and toothpaste are excellent sources of fluorine
Zinc
Zinc makes up about 0.00465% of a human body
Zinc is good for our eyesight, immunity, and many enzyme activities
Whole grains, brewers yeast fish and meat are all good sources of zinc
Copper
Copper makes up about 0.000137% of a human body
Copper is important of hemoglobin synthesis and function, collagen production, elastin
production, neurotransmitter production, and melanin formation
Organ meats, shellfish, nuts and fruits are all good sources of copper
Iodine
Iodine makes up 0.0000228% of a human body
Iodine regulates metabolism, as par of thyroid hormones)
Seafood and Iodised salt are good sources of iodine
Selenium
Selenium makes up about 0.0000228% of a human body
Selenium is important for our metabolism
Vegetables like broccoli, onions, celery, garlic and cabbage, as well as whole grains, brewers
yeast and organ meats are good sources of selenium
Manganese
Manganese makes up about 0.00000198% of a human body
Manganese serves many roles in the human body (none were specified in class)
Grains and nuts are both good sources of manganese
Molybdenum
Molybdenum makes up about 0.0000122% of a human body
Molybdenum is important for detoxification of hazardous substances
Organ meat, grains, leafy vegetables, milk and beans are good sources of molybdenum
Chromium
Chromium makes up about 0.0000091% of a human body
Chromium stimulates enzymes that use glucose for energy
Whole grains, brewer's yeast, spices and meats are good sources of chromium
Ions in our tap water
Water often contains dissolved minerals, and these are what makes water from one municipality taste
different in another. Most water contains some ions that shouldn't be in it, and may actually be
detrimental to our health.

Arsenic
Arsenic can cause kidney damage, diarrhea, muscle tremors and convulsions
It can get in our water through industrial waste dumping
Cadmium
Cadmium can cause kidney damage, and reduced brain and lung function
It can get into our water from sources that have been affected by mining or quarrying, it can
also get into our water from smoldering in pipes
Mercury
Mercury can cause kidney damage, nervous system disorders and blood poisoning
It can get into our water through paper milling
Lead
Lead can cause nervous system damage, and is highly toxic to infants, pregnant women and
symptoms of lead poisoning are vomiting, staggering walk, muscle weakness, seizures, and can
eventually lead to comas
Lead leaches from lead pipe and lead based solder in pipe joints
Fluorine
Although our bodies need a small amount of fluorine, too much can cause skeletal damage
Fluorine is added to our drinking water by municipalities, and can also be found in toothpaste.
Acids and bases
Acids
Acids are compounds that increase the amount of hydrogen ions in water
Ex: HCL: The hydrogen atom dissolves from the chlorine atom to form two ions in water.
HCL(aq) --> H + Cl
Polyatomics in acids
Some polyatomics will also form acids in water.
Example
NO3 + H --> HNO3
Try these
Acetic acid: HCH3COO
Nitric acid: HNO3
Nitrous acid: HNO2
Chloric acid: HCLO3
Carbonic acid: H2CO3
Sulfuric acid: H2SO4
Sulfurous acid: H2SO3
Phosphoric acid: H3PO4
Characteristics of acids
Sour taste
Water soluble
Good at conducting electricity
Corrosive in high concentrations
Represented by 0-6 on a pH scale
Making acids
Acids are made with non-metals
These non-metals can be combined with oxygen through combustion, and this will react with water to
form an acid
Example I
S+ O2 -->SO3
C + O2 --> CO2
Example II
SO3 + H2O --> H2SO4
CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3
Note: These equations can work both ways, go to types of reactions (Below) for more information.

The composition of bases
Bases increase the amount of hydroxide ions in water
Ex: NaOH
NaOH (aq) --> Na + O
Metals can join with OH to form bases
Ex: Ca + OH --> Ca(OH)2
Try these
Potassium hydroxide________________________________________KOH
Aluminium hydroxide________________________________________Al(OH)2
Iron (II) Hydroxide __________________________________________Fe(OH)2
Copper (I) Hydroxide________________________________________CuOH
Characteristics of bases
Bitter taste
Water soluble
Slippery texture
Conducts electricity
Represented by numbers 8-14 on the pH scale
Making Bases
Bases are made with metals
Metals can be reacted with water (if reactive enough) to form bases
Ex: K + H2O --> H2O + KOH
If the metals do not react in water, they can be combined with oxygen (by combustion) to form a metal
oxide and then added to water to form a base.

Metal oxides are always solid
Try these

Symbol
Acid or Base Name
KOH base potassium hydroxide
H2SO4 acid Sulfuric acid
H2CO3 ACID hydro carbonic acid
NaOH base sodium hydroxide
HCl acid hydrochloric acid


Neutrality
Neither an acid or a base, and represented by 7 on a pH scale.
when they combine, hydrogen ions form the acid combine with the hydroxide ions to form the base,
making water. This reduces the number of H and OH in both solutions, making them more neutral.
Example
HCl +NaOH
H + Cl + Na + OH --> H2O +NaCl
Indicators
We can identify acids and bases using indicators. An indicator will change colour in the presence of
hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions.
List of indicators most commonly known
Indicator Color in acid Color in base
litmus red blue
phenolphthalein colorless pink
Bromothymol blue yellow blue

The pH scale
pH stands for power of hydrogen, meaning the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
The scale:
Acidic Neutral Basic
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

The pH scale is what we call a log scale, meaning logarithmic.
Each step on the pH scale represents a 10x change in concentration of hydrogen ions
Ex: pH 3 is 10x more acidic than pH 4
pH 3 is 100x more acidic than pH 5
Types of reactions
Many chemical reactions (although not all of them) can be classified into one of four major categories, In
each case the reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.
Synthesis
A synthesis reaction also called an addition or combinations reaction, is a reaction in which atoms and
molecules join together to produce larger molecules.
Equations for synthesis reactions are usually of the type:

A + B --> AB
Example
2H2 +O2 --> 2H2O
Decomposition
Decomposition are just the opposite of synthesis reaction. in the case one compound decomposes, or
breaks down in two.
Equations for decomposition reactions are usually of this type:

AB --> A + B
Example
2H2O --> 2H2 +O2
Single displacement
Displacement reactions involve a change of partners. In these reactions, one atom or group of atoms is
replaced by another atom or group of atoms.
Equations for displacement are usually of the type:

A + BC --> AC + B
Example
Cu + 2AgNO3 --> Cu (NO3)2 + 2AG
Double displacement
Double displacement reactions involve a joint exchange of partners. In other words, both of the
compounds changed their partners to produce two new compounds.
Equations for double displacement:

AB + CD --> AD + CB

Example
2KI + Pb(NO3)2 --> PbI2 + 2KNO3
Practice
Balance and classify the reaction of these equations
Cu + O2 -->CuO _____________________________________


Al + Fe2O3 --> Al2O3 + Fe _____________________________________


Ag + S --> Ag2S _____________________________________


H2O + Electricity --> H2 + O2 _____________________________________


FeS + HCl --> FeCl2 + H2S _____________________________________

NaCl --> Na + Cl2 _____________________________________

NaOH + HCl --> NaCl +H2O _____________________________________

Zn + HCl --> ZnCl2 + H2 _____________________________________

Write balanced chemical equations for the following
The decomposition reaction of hydrogen sulfide

_____________________________________________________________________
The single displacement reaction of copper (II) and silver nitrate

_____________________________________________________________________

The synthesis reaction of sodium and fluorine

_____________________________________________________________________

The double displacement reaction of aluminium sulfate and calcium hydroxide

_____________________________________________________________________
Single and double displacement relations
Write the balanced equations and the type of displacement reaction

BaO + Mg -->_______________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________

CaOH + HCl --> _____________________________________________


Type of displacement reaction__________________________________

MgCl2 + Sr -->______________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________
Ca + H2O --> _______________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________

NaOH +HBr --> ______________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________
KOH + HF --> _______________________________________________
Type of displacement reaction__________________________________
Ag2SO4 + Cu(NO3)2 --> ______________________________________
Type of displacement reaction__________________________________

Nomenclature
Write the formulas for the following compounds

Name
Formula Name Formula
Lead (II) nitrate

Copper (I) bromide

Silicon dioxide

Beryllium phosphide

Magnesium nitrate

Aluminium nitride

Lead (IV) fluoride

Nitrogen gas

Lithium iodide Diphosphorus trioxide

Dinitrogen tetroxide

Iron (II) sulfate

Ammonia

Tin (IV) nitrate

Potassium hydroxide

Oxygen gas


Write the names of the following compounds
Formula Name Formula Name
Mg3P2

CH4

N2O4

Fe2(SO4)3

FeSO4

CuI

NaNO3

H2O

PbCl4

FeP

F2

NaOH

CaO

PCl5

Na3N





Complete Nomenclature practice
Nitrogen Gas

Copper(II) Fluoride

Sodium Bicarbonate

Aluminum Carbonate

Calcium Carbonate

Lithium Hydroxide

Phosphoric Acid

Molecular Sulfur

Oxygen Gas

Trinitrogen Tetrasulfide

Phosphorus Disulfide

Sodium Nitride

Molecular Phosphorus

Calcium Selenide

Sodium Chloride

Nitric Acid

Lead(IV) Oxide

Aluminum Phosphate

Magnesium Sulfate

Iron (II) Sulfide

Helium Gas

Hydrogen Peroxide

Calcium Hydroxide

Hydrogen Gas

Hydrofluoric Acid

Carbon TetraChloride

Sulfurous Acid

Methane

Potassium Phosphate

PCl5

Copper(I) Nitride

MgS

Fluorine Gas

PbO

Calcium Phosphate

HClO3

Aluminum Sulfide

Ni(HCO3)2

Neon Gas

Cl2

Iron(II) Sulfate

Cu2SO4

Water

CH4

Carbon Monoxide

Mg(OH)2

Iron(III) Nitride

BeO

Lead(II) Oxide

LiNO2

Dinitrogen Trioxide

HNO2

Silicon Dioxide

PBr3

Sodium Bicarbonate

FeBr3



Optics Study Document
The ray model of light
Light generally travels in straight lines, unless it encounters different mediums or optical densities.
This can be shown through optical ray diagrams:



The orange circle emits light; this light is represented by the lines ending in arrows. The arrows indicate
the direction of travel of the rays. We can use ray diagrams like these to explain and demonstrate
different phenomena we see with light, such as in mirror problems.
How do we see things? Explanation
We see things because they reflect light from other light sources into our eyes.
Most objects give off light in all directions (scatter) because they dont have a very smooth surface.
Mirrors on the other hand have a very smooth surface, so they generally give off light in one direction.
Light that scatters off of uneven surfaces is divergent light
Even surface Uneven surface (Divergent light)



Our eyes tell us where light diverges from, for example


Sun
Important terms
Opaque objects, like the cube in the diagram on page 1 absorb and reflect energy, but they do not
transmit energy.
Translucent materials, such as stained glass and wrapping paper do transmit some light, but not enough
to see through the material clearly.


Transparent materials such as glass and clear plastic transmit light freely


You may be thinking that: If light is transmitted freely through glasses, windows and other transparent
things, how come we can see them?
The answer is that light refracts, or bends and reflects off of the surfaces of these objects
It is however difficult for migratory birds to see windows at night, because of the bright indoor lights,
shining out.
Light reflection
Light behaves consistently, when interacting with a flat surface, or a Plane Mirror
The relationship between the where the light source is shone upon a mirror (angle of incidence), vs.
where it is reflects (angle of reflection) is
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
This means

A B


Basically A=B
Important terms
The normal: A line drawn perpendicular to the mirror at the point of reflection. (The blue line)
Incident ray: The incoming ray
Angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal. (Angle A)
Reflected ray: The outgoing ray
Angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal. (Angle B)
The law of reflection:
Seeing images in a mirror
Images are the optical counterparts of objects produced by an optical device, such as a lens or mirror.
Virtual images are any image formed by rays that do not come from the location of the image. Images
that we see from a plane mirror are virtual
We locate images in a mirror, the same way we locate objects in the world because our brains do not
process them differently.
The point where our brain believes an object originates from is what we can see on a mirror.
Diagram
Note: The blue line is the mirror, and the purple line is the normal.









The angle in which light reflects on to the mirror, with regards to the normal is equal to the angle in
which it reflects off of the mirror.
We can use ray diagrams to figure out if we can see something in a mirror.
Example
Raymond has a neck injury that prevents him from looking down (how unfortunate). He wants to look at
his shoes and all he has is a mirror mounted on the wall at about eye level. He is standing at a set
distance from the mirror.






Raymond cannot see his feet.
Light waves
A wave of light is a disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another, like the ripples in a
pond after you throw a stone in it.
Wavelength: The distance from one place in a wave to the same point in the next wave. Represented by
lambda ()
Frequency: The rate of wave repetition. Measured in Hz (Hertz, cycles per second) represented by F
Speed: How quickly the wave travels. (velocity) Represented by S
Frequencies and wavelength are related
As frequencies increase, wavelengths decrease
As frequencies decrease, wavelengths increase
Frequency and wavelength have an inverse relationship
The mathematical relationship between speed (v), frequency (f) and wavelength () is
Speed= frequency X wavelength
)
Example
If the wavelength is .10m and the frequency is 5 Hz, what is the speed
Given =.1 and f=5Hz
Required: v=?
)
Substitute known values


Statement
The speed of the wave is .50 metres per second
Practice
1. Two children are skipping rope in a park, they produce waves by moving the rope up and down.
If the waves are .3 metres in length and they produce the waves at .5 m/s, what is the frequency
of the waves?


2. Radio waves travel at the speed of light (299,792,458 m/s), and can be 30 metres long, what is
the frequency of these waves


3. Some students are dropping weights in a pool, making ripples, the ripples are moving at about 5
m/s and at a frequency of 420 Hz, how long are the ripples


4. A boat bobs up and down on a lake at a frequency of 20 Hz (cycles per minute), if the
wavelengths are .5 metres long, what is the speed of the waves

Converging mirrors
Definition
Also known as concave mirrors, converging mirrors reflect surface curves inward like a bowl.
Ray diagram terminology
1. Vertex: The middle point of a curved mirror
2. Centre of curvature: the centre of the whole circle. (If the curve of the mirror is extended, this
point will be the middle of the circle created.)
3. Principle axis: The line about which the mirror is symmetrical
4. Focus: The point at which parallel light into a curved mirror converges












Rays and the way they reflect
In concave mirrors, there are four lines that can be used to determine the reflected image
1. Lines that go through the focus will reflect parallel to the normal.
2. Lines that go parallel to the normal will reflect through the focus.
3. Rays that go through the vertex will have the same angle of incidence as the angle of reflection
4. Lines on the principle axis come back to the centre of curvature.
Generally, the fourth line does not need to be used

3.) Principle axis


2.) Center of curvature 1.) Focus 1.) Vertex










Considering that all lines start from one point, where they (all three lines) converge, meaning come
together, is where that point will be reflected to, on the other side of the parallel axis
The image must now be described, the way to describe this is with SALT, salt is
Size: Can be larger or smaller
Attitude: upright or inverted
Location: Beyond, between or in front of the focus
Type: Real or virtual
Explanation of SALT
Size is the size in comparison to the original shape
Attitude is whether it is the same way the shape is pointing or if it is flipped around
Location is where the reflected image is in comparison to the focus
Type is where the arrow is drawn in with regards to the mirror, if it is in front; it is real, if behind then
virtual
Application of salt to the above diagram
Size: Larger
Attitude: Inverted
Location: Beyond the focus
Type: Real

Diverging mirrors
Also known as a convex mirror, the reflecting surface curves outward
The line rules from converging mirrors apply to diverging mirrors, but in this instance, the focus and the
centre of curvature are on the opposite of mirror
1. Lines that are parallel to the normal will reflect at the same angle as if they go through the focus
2. Lines that align to go through the focus will come back out parallel to the normal
3. A ray to the vertex will have the same angle of incidence as that of reflection
4. A line going through the centre of curvature will come straight back










Dont forget SALT
Size: Smaller
Altitude: upright
Location: in front of
Type: Virtual
Note that if the object is on the focus, no image is formed, and if it is in front of the focus, the image
will be virtual.
Snells Law

Snells law is a formula that uses values for the index of refraction to calculate the new angle that light
ray will take after entering a different medium.
In Snells law, the indexes of refraction of the two media are

and

, the angles of incidence and

refraction are

and

The Formula for Snells law is

When encountering, use the G.R.A.S.S method and the formula, re-arrange formula if need be.
Example
Use the G.R.A.S.S method to solve for the angle of refraction
Given
Index of refraction of air

Index of refraction of still water

Angle of incidence

Required
Angle of refraction

Analysis and solution

Statement
The angle of refraction is approximately

Refraction
Lenses like those in glasses and microscopes use refraction to direct light and focus it. When light moves
through a medium that is more or less optically dense, the light will bend
Refraction properties are also used in fiber optics to transmit information. Fiber optics transmits
information at the speed of light. Fiber optics also allow the use of a higher bandwidth.
Refraction is the bending of light rays as they pass from one medium into another
Refraction occurs when light slows down or speeds up because it passes from one medium to another
medium with different optical density
Optical density, also known as the index of refraction is a measure of how much the speed of light is
slowed down in that medium. The higher the optical density, the slower light travels. This is why deeper
bodies of water seem shallower to the naked eye and straws and spoons seem to break when they enter
a glass of translucent liquid.
Light travelling from a less optically dense medium will move towards the normal
Light travelling from a more optically dense medium will move away from the normal
Finding the index of refraction
The formula for finding the index of refraction is

n is the refractive index
c is the speed of light in a vacuum
v is the speed of light in the medium the refractive index is being calculated for
Example
The speed of light in a sample of glass is

Calculate the reflective index of the glass using the speed of light in a vacuum

using
GRASS
Given
The speed of light in the sample

The speed of light in a vacuum

Required

Analysis and solution

Manipulate the equation to solve for other variables

Different sources of light
Incandescence: The act of generating light through being heated
Incandescent light bulbs contain a filament that generates light when heated
Triboluminescence: The act of generating light through friction
The ionization of nitrogen through friction is a strong reaction that creates some light
Electric Discharge: Discharge between electrodes creating visible streamers of ionized particles
Lightning is an example of Electric Discharge, electrodes in clouds create flashes of light
Phosphorescence: The act of emitting light from stored energy
Glow in the dark materials are generally phosphorescent
Chemiluminescent: The emission of light from a chemical reaction
Glow sticks are an example of Chemiluminescence, numerous chemicals combine to generate
light

Climate Change
The Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect happens when sunlight passes through the atmosphere. Some of the solar
radiation is absorbed, while the rest reflects back as infrared radiation
Some of the infrared radiation is contained within the atmosphere, because of greenhouse gasses.
Gasses like carbon monoxide, methane and ozone trap some of the radiation. This heats the
atmosphere.
Although this is good, because it ensures that our planet stays at a good temperature, too many
greenhouse gasses will cause the temperature to rise
The carbon cycle

CO2
Air and Water
Photosynthesis
Organic
compounds of
autotrophs
Consumed by
heterotrophs
Organic
compounds of
heterotrophs
Cellular
Respiration
Cellular
respiration and
Burning
Decay of
organics
Carbon Gas Emissions
Carbon offsets
Individuals or corporation can purchase carbon offsets to reduce their carbon footprints. These offsets
compensate for their greenhouse gas emissions by contributing money or resources to improve a
carbon sink.
The money provided has various uses; the main uses are development of renewable energy and re-
forestation.
Emissions trading
Governments can legislate the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. A government may decide on the
annual amount of carbon Dioxide that each company can emit. If a company reduces its emissions to
under the government rate, they can trade the surplus allowance of carbon to other companies who
have exceeded their maximums.
Carbon Tax
A fee that is payable from an individual or company for creating greenhouse gasses. It is considered a
tax for polluting our atmosphere. The government collects these taxes and uses them to neutralize the
amount of harm being done to the atmosphere.
The effects of climate change in the atmosphere
Heat waves
A hot, humid and often smoggy air mass in an area is a heat wave. Heat waves are becoming more
frequent, wide spread and severe than in the past. As air becomes warmer, soil, lakes and rivers will
become warmer, potentially causing a shift in climate zone borders.
Drought
With no seasonal precipitation, water sources recede, soil and crops dry up, and animals die, leaving the
population with inadequate food and water supply.
Floods
When the air temperature warms up rapidly in spring, the snow can melt too quickly for the rivers and
streams to handle the run off. These seasonal floods can damage property, crop land and habitats.
Floods are becoming much more frequent and severe.

The effects of climate change on wildlife
The territory of some animals and plants are shifting, this threatens many organisms.
There has been a decline in fish stocks, such as pacific salmon due to increasing ocean temperatures
Because of artic sea ice melting, polar bear populations have been decreasing, and the bears have been
found more south than ever before
Other organisms however benefit from increased temperatures
Free living jellyfish populations have increased in coastal areas of oceans
Many organisms gain a larger habitat because of the warming.
Evidence of climate change
Ice cores: Ice contains bubbles of air, and samples of water that give clues about weather patterns in
certain years, seasons and periods
Tree rings: Because each tree ring is formed each year, the size of these rings can give clues to weather
patterns in a certain year. A larger ring means that there were better growing conditions at the time
Ice Cover: Measuring the amount of ice, and its receding/expanding gives climatologists key information
about climate change
Climoraphs: Show average monthly and yearly precipitation and temperatures. They demonstrate how
the climate patterns are changing
Extreme weather events: Climate change causes more extreme and frequent weather patterns,
tornadoes, hurricanes and intense storms are a product of global warming.