Chemical Technology - SD Senthil's Home Page

SD Senthil's Home Page
Navigation
Home
Apple iPhone on BSNL
AdSense Vs. Affiliate
Aspen Plus
Aspen HYSYS
BSNL Mobile Device
Settings
Chemical Engineer
Chemical Engineering
Today
Freelance
Make Money Online
Mobile Balance Transfer in
India
Ponniyin Selvan
Process Design Practices
by Cilliers Kruger
Trace E-Mail Sender
Web Links
Contact Us
Sitemap
days since
On Web
Chemical Technology
TOPIC 1: CHEMICAL PROCESSING, UNIT OPERATION &
UNIT PROCESS
Chemical Process Selection, Design and Operation
Adequate and flexible initial design is essential for the promotion of a
chemical plant organic product or inorganic product.
In older days it was classified as inorganic chemical technology and organic
chemical technology. Subsequently the oxford university made it as chemical
works organization and management.
Some factors that must be considered in planning a plant are discussed in this
section. The Process Engineer is an expert in the current aspects of chemical
process design. Practical experience is a must if the senior design engineer is
able to foresee and solve the problems of production, such as maintenance,
safety and obeying the government, environmental by loss and control.
Experience consultants either individuals or professional consulting firms are
able to advise, design and for erection of chemical plants.
Chemical Process Control and Instrumentation
Automatic and Instrument control chemical processes are common and
essential. Instruments should not be chosen simply to record a variables, of
the process. But their function is to assure consistent quality by sensing
controls, recording and maintaining desired operating conditions. Instruments
are the essential tool for modern processes. They are classified as
1. Indicating Instruments 2. Recording Instruments 3.
Controlling Instruments
Two types of Instruments are currently used as analogue and digital.
Analogue Instruments such as pressure spring thermometers and Bourden
Gauges shows results by mechanical moments of some type of device which is
directly proportional to the quantity measured.
On the other hand, digital devices are converts the quantity measured into a
signal and electric circuits converts the signal to read the numerical values
forward by control. Now the computers can monitor and regulate outputs from
both the analogue and digital devices according to a prearranged program,
also general conventional digital inputs are required. Chemical analytical
control has been used in day to day factory procedures for analysis of
incoming raw material or outgoing products. Thus quality chemicals are
produced more in these days reliably their when human analysed control were
Chemical Technology - SD Senthil's Home Page https://sites.google.com/a/sdsenthil.com/www/chemical-technology
1 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
used.
The latest advancement are the chromatography system, many spectroscopy
have been automated an install of on-line basis for the process to run
continuously without the problems encountered manually before.
Role of Chemical Engineers
Chemical Engineers are trained primarily to work in chemical industries. some
of the vital role of the chemical engineers are as follows;
Chemical Process Economics
Engineer are totally different from Scientist by their customers of cost of
production and profit generator. Therefore the objective of engineer should be
to deliver safely the best product or most efficient service at lower cost to the
employer and the public who consumes the product.
Material Balance
Yield and conversion are the chemical prospects from the basis for the
material balances which is useful for cost determination.
Materials and their quantities from the standard practices are tabulated in the
flow charts, energy given are observed for the chemical reactions and energy
is frequently a major cost in chemical plants but it often possible by altering
the process procedures by using modern separation technologies like RO
and Advanced Separation Processes to produce high quality chemicals with
low energy consumption.
Plant Location
The location of the chemical plant is decided ourselves by the availability of
raw materials, transportation, market and power. Now the environmental
constituents, water supply, availability of efficient labor, cost of land and waste
disposal facilities form the criteria for the plant location.
Construction of Plant
For small and large companies construction engineering organizations are
available that will built a plant and participate in its design. Some large
chemical companies have their own civil construction department and starts
their own plants.
The advancement of this is the worker who is going to operate the equipment
can be more intimately corrected to the constructions and be familiar
themselves for the future alternatives, expansion or modifications.
In built-in plants the top engineers are chartered engineers qualified for the
development activities. They have been trained and suitably examined to
guarantee technical competency and owe personal responsibility. They are
now called as functional consultants and registered firm for dealing with legal
aspects with proper training.
Research and Development
adequate and skilled research with patent protection is necessary for future
profits. In the chemical process industries one of the outstanding tactics is
rapidly changing processes, new raw materials and new markets. Research
2 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
creates these changes and the factory will have a competitive progress. This
research brings about development and the adoption of ideas, concepts,
methodologies form the production of the industry. The results and benefits of
research establishes the developing coutry on the road of progress and raise
the level of life of common man.
Chemical Engineer in coming years
Resources particularly energy and feed back for the Fertilizers and
Heavy Chemical Industries.
1.
Infrastructure for Transportation and Telecommunications. 2.
Protection of the Environment. 3.
Development of Agro Industries where utilization of waste from Agro
industries and exploitation of value added products from wastes.
4.
Transformation of Rural Economy, Industrialization and Privatization
where the profits are less and consumption is more.
5.
Problems of less Technical context are, 6.
The Centre Vs. States
Command Economy Vs. Liberalisation & Privatisation
Internal Budget and External Balances
World Trade Globalization and relevant to India
Problem of Indian competitiveness
The latest research and development have classified the following new
industries;
Cryogenics in Chemical Technology 1.
Chemicals from Sea 2.
Air as a Chemical Raw Material 3.
NUPLEXES ( Nuclear Power Agro Industrial Complexes ) 4.
Proteins from Petroleum Fermentation and Single Cell Proteins from
Animal horns.
5.
Food Industries 6.
Coal Chemicals 7.
Newer Petrochemicals 8.
Pesticides 9.
Pharmaceuticals Industries 10.
Metallurgical Industries 11.
Water treatment & Air Pollution Control 12.
The chemical process industry had its growth from pre scientific chemical
industries followed by scientific chemical industry. The growth with restrains,
green challenge to chemical industry and the modern separations process
involved in the indian chemical industry seen today.
We define Chemical Engineering as a synthesis of chemistry and engineering.
A Chemical Engineering therefore carries out on a large scale reactions
developed in the laboratory by the chemist.
The Major Areas of Work within Chemical Engineering are,
Research
Process Development
Process Design
Evaluation of Design
3 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Plant Design
Construction
Production Supervision
Plant Technical Services
Sales of the Product
The Research is divided into three categories like Fundamental Research,
Exploratory Research and Process Research.
S.No. Industry Typical Products End User

1 Inorganic
Chemicals
H
2
SO
4
Fertilizers,
Chemicals,
Petroleum Refining,
Paints, Pigments,
Metal Processing and
Explosives
HNO
3
Explosives &
Fertilizers
NaOH Rayon, Film
Processing,
Petroleum Refining,
Pulp & Paper
Industry, Lye,
Cleaners, Soap &
Detergents, Metal
Processing
2 Organic Chemicals Acetic Anhydride Resins, Plastics &
Nylon
Ethyl Alcohol Antifreeze agents,
Cellophane,
Dynamite & Syn.
Fibres
Formaldehyde Plastics
Methanol Mfr. Of
Formaldehyde,
IMS(Industrial
Methylated Solvent)
& Antifreeze agent
4 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
3 Petroleum&
Petrochemicals
Gasoline Motor Fuels
Kerosene Fuel
Oil Lubrication &
Heading purposes
Ammonia Fertilizer &
Chemicals
Ethanol Acetaldehyde
solvents & other
miscellaneous
chemicals
Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate Detergents
Styrene Syn. Rubber,
Polymers & Plastics
4 Pulp & Paper Paper Books, Records &
Newspaper
Cardboard Boxes for packing
Fiber Board Building materials
5 Pigments & Paints Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Pigments for paints,
inks, plastic, rubber,
ceramics and
linoleum
TiO
2
Carbon Blade Drying Oil
Lead Chromate
Linseed Oil
Phenolic Resins Basic kequer
warmish & enamels
Alkyl Resins Ion exchange resins
and constituents of
enamel
5 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
6 Rubber Natural
Rubber(Isoprene)
Automobile tyres,
moulds, sheets,
footwear and
insulation
Syn. Rubber
(Neoprene)
Butyl Rubber
7 Plastics Phenol Formaldehyde Various users in all
areas of everyday
life
Poly Styrene
Polymethyl
methacrylate
PVC
Polyethylene
Polyster
8 Synthetic Fibers Rayon Clothing
Nylon
Acrylics
Polyster
9 Minerals Glass & Ceramics Windows, containers,
bricks & pipe tubes
Cement Concrete for
construction of
buildings, highways,
etc.
Coal Fuels, coke and its
by-products
10 Cleansing Agents Soaps & Detergents House hold cleaning
& Industrial
cleaning. Sodium
alkyl aryl sulfonate
is also used as
wetting agent.
6 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
11 Bio Chemicals Pharmaceuticals &
Drugs
Health & Medicine
applications
Fermentation product
like penicillin
Medical use
Ethyl Alcohol Solvent and
Beverages
Food Products Human sustance
12 Metals Steel, Cu, Al &
Zirconium
All the Building
materials, machinery
etc.
Uranium Nuclear fuel

The largest tonnage inorganic chemicals is H
2
SO
4.
It is consumed by industry
in the manufacture of other products. Thereby it reaches the public knowledge
vary scarely. Large quantities are consumed by petroleum and metal
industries. The important organic chemical include alcohols, dyes, dye
intermediates used to produce other chemicals. Ethyl alcohol was initially
produced by bio chemical fermentation before the second world war.
But now it is produced primarily from petroleum on the latest discovery of
natural gas. The important petroleum products are gasoline, lubricants,
petrochemicals, other fuels and miscellaneous chemicals. Since the second
world war petrochemicals have assumed a commander role in the economy.
The largest petrochemical ammonia is produced by reaction of H
2
from natural
gas or petroleum with N
2
available in the Air.
This Ammonia reacts with CO
2
to produce Urea in a fertilizer plant. Normally
there are five different units in the fertilizer manufacture from coal based
mines.
Oil & Gasification plant 1.
Benfield De-sulphurization plant 2.
Ammonia plant 3.
CO
2
plant 4.
Urea plant 5.
The tendency of Urea is to form BIURETS which are used as regenerator salts
in the metallurgical applications. Many plastics and synthetic detergents are
produced with the help of oil refineries.
Unit Operation
The basic physical operations of chemical engineering in a chemical process
plant, that is distillation, fluid transportation, heat and mass transfer,
evaporation, extraction, drying, crystallization, filtration, mixing, size
7 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
separation, crushing and grinding, and conveying. In simple terms, the
operation which involves physical changes are known as Unit Operation.
Distillation is a unit operation is used to purify or separate alcohol in the
brewery industry.
1.
The same distillation separates the hydrocarbon in a petroleum
industries.
2.
Dry grapes and other food products or similar drying of filter precipitate
like rayon industry where yarn is produced.
3.
Absorption of oxygen from air in a fermentation process of a sewage
treatment plant and half hydrogen gas in a process fr liquid
hydrogenation of oil.
4.
Evaporation of salts solutions similar to evaporation of sugar solution in
the industry.
5.
Settling and sedimentation of suspend solids similar to minimizing and
sewage treatment plant.
6.
Flow of liquid hydrocarbon in a petroleum refinery and flow of milk in a
daily plant for the solidification in spray dryer.
7.
Classification of Unit Operations
Fluid Flow : Concerns the principle that determine the flow or
transformation of fluids from one point to another. The fluid can be a
liquid or a gas. This unit is entirely based on Bernoulli e's equation
followed by continuity correlation.
1.
Heat Transfer : Deals with principles that govern accumulation and
transfer of heat and energy from one place to another. The three
concepts followed here are conduction, convection and radiation.
2.
Evaporation : A special case of heat transfer which deals with the
evaporation of volatile solvent such as waste from a non-volatile solute
such as salt or any other material in the solution. The evaporation of
trichloro-ethylene a cleaning agent in the automobile service industry
and acetone in the case of glassware in a chemical process industries
follow this unit operations.
3.
Drying : An operation in which volatile liquids (usually water) are
removed from solid material.
4.
Distillation : An operation where a components of the liquid mixture
are separated by boiling because of their difference in vapor pressure.
5.
Absorption : A process whereby a component is removed from gas
mixture by treatment with liquid.
6.
Liq-Liq Extraction : A process in which a solute in a liquid solution is
removed by contact with another liquid solvent that is relatively
irreversible with solution.
7.
Liq-Solid Leaching: It involves treating a finely divided solid with a
liquid that dissolves and removes a solute contain in the solid.
8.
Crystallization : The removal of a solute such as a salt from solution
by precipitation in the industries for large scale operations, electrostatic
precipitation is operated for this concept.
9.
Mechanical physical separation: This involves separation of solids, 10.
8 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
liquids or gases by mechanical means such as filtration, settling, size
reduction which are classified as separate unit operations.
The outline of unit operation defines the settling tanks for
sedimentation, filter press for separations, pressurized spheres for
ammonia storage, pellatising for fertilizer compounds, pneumatic
conveyors for cement industry, bucket wheel elevators for
thermal power stations and belt conveyors for core industries and
many more in operation.
Stacks
Gases are discharged into the ambient atmosphere by stacks (referred to as
chimneys in industry) of several types.
The chemical process steps involved the following;
Preparing the Reactors 1.
React them 2.
Separate the Products 3.
Purify the Products 4.
The purpose of chemical industry is to start from one and other chemical raw
material arrive at a consumer product through a group of physical and
chemical products. Therefore it is called as a creative industry rather than
assembly industry.
This mainly fall into inorganic, natural products, organic chemicals and
metallurgical industry.
Unit Processes
Processes that involve making chemical changes to materials, as a result of
chemical reaction taking place. For instance, in the combustion of coal, the
entering and leaving materials are differ from each other chemically. Coal and
Air enters, and flue gases and residues leave the combustion chamber.
Combustion is therefore a unit process. Unit processes are also referred to as
chemical conversions. In simple terms, the process which involves chemical
changes are known as Unit Processes.
Together with unit operations (physical conversions), unit processes (chemical
9 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
conversions) form the basic building blocks of a chemical manufacturing
process. Most chemical processes consist of a combination of various unit
operations and unit processes.
1. Alkylation:
Addition of alkyl radical (CH3) with side chain final product. This
alkylation process is widely used in organic chemicals and petroleum
industries. The reaction is given as,
C=C-C-C + C-C-C

2. Amination by Ammonolysis:

Cl-CH
2
CH
2
Cl + 4NH
3
------->NH
2
CH
2
CH
2
NH
2
EDC Ethylene Diamine
This reaction is used in manufacture of dye stuffs, organic chemicals
and synthetic fibres.
3. Amination by Reduction:
CH
3
CHNO
2
CH
3
+ 3H
2
------> CH
3
CHNH
2
CH
3
2 Nitro Paraffin Iso Propylamine
This unit process is also used in the manufacture of dye stuffs and
organic chemicals.
4. Amino Oxidation:

CH
3
CH
2
CH
3
+ NH
3
+ 1.5 O
2
-----> CH
2
:CHCN + H
2
0
Propylene Acrylonitrile
This reaction is used in the manufacture of plastics and synthetic
fibres.
5. Calcination:

CaCO
3
---
Heat
---> CaO + CO
2
Limestone Lime

This reaction is used in the cement industry.
6. Carbonylation:

CH
3
OH + CO -----> CH
3
COOH
Methanol Acetic Acid
This is used in the manufacture of organic chemicals.
7. Carboxylation:
10 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
This reaction is used in the organic chemical industry.
8. Combustion:
CH
4
+ O
2
------> CO
2
+ 2H
2
O ( Process Heating )
9. Condensation:
C
6
H
5
CHO + CH
3
CHO ------> C
6
H
5
CH:CHCHO + H
2
O
Benzaldehyde+Acetaldehyde Cinnamaldehyde
10.Cracking or Pyrolysis:
C-C-C-C-C-C-C --------> C-C-C + C=C-C-C
This reaction is used in petroleum destruction and distillation of coal.
1. Fluid - Solid Contact:
Represented by fixed bed reaction. It is most widely used in catalytic
reactor used with precious metal catalyst to minimize attrition losses. The
catalyst used in the form of pellets. It can represented by the following figure.
This is used in the packed column. The design of the column is determined
by the breakthrough curve, equilibrium line for the given system of adsorbent
and adsorbate's. The volume of the reactant coming from the top and the
volume of which the product leaves the column, residence time, distribution
decides the dimensions of the column. It is contrary to the fluid bed reactor
where the bed is fluidized. Once the minimum fluidized velocity is reached
the porosity of the bed is faster in a fixed bed reactor but varies from
the fluidized bed where the porosity changes according to the height of the
bed.

2. Fluid - Solid Separation: (Centrifugation)
This operation separates very finely divided solids from liquid or mixture of
liquid and liquid emulsion.
11 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
3. Wet Scrubber:
It is an effective means of removing suspended particles from gas string by
contact with liquid shower.
When solids are used in the place of liquid the operation is called Dry
Scrubber. In the manufacture of MEK, wet scrubber is used and in
other selected process industries Dry Scrubbers are used,
Scrubber just washes away the impurities and separate the product for
further purification.
4. Filter Press:
It is the simplest type of pressure filtration. the two important parts of the
filter press are plates & frames and fabric used in between the two are made
of variety of corrosion resistant materials. In the laboratory scales asbestos
cloth are used for filtration at different pressures.
The operation decides the value of specific cake resistance, filter medium
resistance and compressibility of the chemical namely Kieselghur a specific
compound in the nature of diatomacceous earth which are used in the
application of bio-physics and cyrstallography.
5. Fluid Storage:
Tanks are widely used for storage of liquids of all types and atmospheric
pressure when the liquid is highly volatile there is a floating roof which acts
as lid for chemicals as and when the vapour pressure at which signifying the
12 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
boiling point of liquid the roof changes its position and deserves the liquid
from going out to the atmosphere.
6. Pressurized Spheres:
Pressurized spheres are used for pressurized storage of liquefied gases or
high vapors. The pressure permits safe storage with no vapor losses. This is
seen in the fertilizer plant where ammonia is stored in spheres.
7. Gas-Liquid Contact: (Absorption)
The best example is Absorption. It is used for taking a soluble gas in a
solvent liquid and producing a solution plus an exit gas. Hydrogen Sulphide is
removed from hydrocarbon by the absorption process.
13 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
8. Adsorption:
It is classified into physiorption and chemisorption according to the process
applied. The former one is almost a physical change or physical
transformation while a later represents a chemical reaction which is a
irreversible one. the common effluent treatment plants of varies nature lied
textile effluents, sewage treatment, ETP plants in chemical industry, removal
of hazardous solid wastes, etc are dealt with adsorption method and
the adsorbent is regenerated over a period of time and used again and again.
9. Heat Exchangers:
The various cooling towers of natural draft and forced draft are example of
industrially applied H.Es. These are common facilities in the thermal power
stations and in chemical industries the application of shell & tube heat
exchangers are widely used. this is an excellent application of heat transfer
from one medium to the other.
10.Membrane Separation:
Dialysis is used to separate metals in solution having widely different
molecular weight. for example caustic from sugar solution or cellulose.
11.Size Reduction:
This involves crushing, grinding, pelletizing and prilling. Pelletizing is used
in pharmaceutical industries and prilling used the manufacture of Urea.
Modern chemical processes are offer extremely complex operations involving
100s of pieces of equipment. without a systematic approach it would be
14 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
impossible to analyses an existing process or to design equipment process.
The typical chemical process is analyzed with the following interdependent
considerations like,

- Mass & Energy Balance
- Thermo chemistry
- Unit Operations
- Plant Equipment
- Ancillary Equipment
- Process Plant Diagram
- Instrumentation Control
- Economics
which deals with net profit before taxation profit after
taxation dividend paid to the public and share holders. Once the process as
been developed and completed attention can be made to access
the various liabilities, resource and assets.
Alternatives and the remaining choices can be ranked in the order of
desirability. They are as follows;
- Effectiveness for reducing waste
- Technical Risk
- Extended of current views in the facility
- Industrial Precedent
- Capital and Operating cost incurred
- Effect of the Quality of the product
- Impact of Plant Operations
- Required time for Implementation
- Other aspects important in the particular situation according to the
industrial
Conservation of Energy:

dE = Q - W This is a steady state batch process.
dH = Q - Ws Thia is for flow process.

Q--> Heat energy transfered across system boundary.
W-->Work energy transfered across system boundary.
Ws->Mechanical work energy transfered across system boundary.
E--> Internal energy of the system.
dE, dH--> Changes in Internal Energy & Enthalpy during the process.
we are already classified the various unit operations and below is a particular
basic column of mass transfer equipment.
15 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
1. Distillation:
It is classified into Batch and Continuous Fractionation.
a. Batch Fractionation:
Used for intermittent operation and handling of small volume of feed
and products.
16 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
b. Continuous Fractionation:
These are used for high volume continous seperation of complex
mistures such as petroleum fractions connected to appropriate
pumps, re-boilers, condensers, scrubbers, strippers and finally automatic
controls.
2. Drying of Solids:
Spray Dryer , Rotary Dryer & Tunnel Dryer are some example of these
types.
3. Evaporation:
Open pan evaporators and multiple effect evaporators as used in sugar and
salt industries for example. Among these halogen family we have technology
to separate chlorine and fluride but production of bromine from the 'sea
brine'is almost not put into practice as the bromine chemicals is highly
corrosive and necessary precaution has to be laid out for practical purpose.
4. Extraction:
Liquid - Liquid Extraction
Solid - Liquid Leaching are examples for this process
5. Fluid Handling Equipments:
Centrifugal pumps
Reciprocating pumps
Jet ejectors
6. Fluid - Solid Contacting:
Fixed Bed
Fluidized Bed
Moving Bed, etc.
7. Fluid - Solid Separation:
Centrifugation
Settling Tank / Sedimentation
Wet Scrubber / Dry Scrubber
Crystallization
17 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Rotary Filter
Filter Press
Cyclone Separator
Electro-static Preciptator
Bag Filter
Thickeners based on Kynch Theory
8. Fluid Storage:
Gas Holders
Tanks
Pressurized Spheres
Underground Caverns which are used for the purpose of Natural Gas
Storage.
9. Gas - Liquid Contact:
Absorption
Stripping
10.Heat Exchangers:
Fired Heaters
Re-boilers
Condensers
Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers
Jacketed Kettle
Quenching applied in conventional Heat Transfer and Metallurgical
Operations.
11.Membrane Separation:
Dialysis
Gaseous Diffusion
12.Mixing:
Agitation
Solids Blending
13.Size Reduction & Enlargement:
Crushing
Grinding
Pelletizing
14.Solids Handling:
Pneumatic Conveying - Juices transfered to 200 km in Brazil
Bucket Elevators - Coal Industries
Screw Conveyors - Tooth Paste, Turbine Liquids
Belt Conveyors
15.Solid - Solid Separation:
Screening
Elutriation
Froth Rotation
18 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Jigging
Magnetic Separation
CHEMICAL REACTORS
The Reactor is the heart of the chemical process. The design of an industrial
chemical reactor must satisfy the requirements in four main areas.
Chemical Factors 1.
Mass Transfer Factors 2.
Heat Transfer Factors 3.
Safety Factors 4.
1. Chemical Factors:
This involve the kinetics of the reaction weather it's first order or second
order and based on this chemical reaction engineering is built on the design
must provide sufficient residence time to proceed the reaction for the required
degree of reaction and conversion to product.
2. Mass Transfer Factors:
The reaction rate of homogeneous reaction may be controlled by the rate of
diffusion of reactants rather than the chemical kinetics of Langmuir isotherm
and Frendlich isotherm.
3. Heat Transfer Factors:
These describes weather the reaction is exothermic or endothermic. In
Exothermic, heat is released outside and In Endothermic, heat is absorbed by
reactants. The value of heat of reaction is necessary to operate the chemical
reactor.
4. Safety Factors:
This involve the confinement of any hazardous reactant and products as well
as the control of reaction and process conditions.
Based on these factors the Reactor Types as follows;
a. Mode of Operation - Batch or Continuous
b. Phases Types - Homogeneous or Heterogeneous
c. Reactor Geometry - Flow Pattern & Process of contacting the phases.
The five major classes of Reactor;
i. Batch
ii. Stirred
iii.Tubular
iv.Packed Bed (Fixed)
v. Fludised Bed
Compounds like pigments, dye stuffs, pharmaceuticals and polymers are
manufactured by Batch Processes.
The Latest Heat Exchangers are Direct or Contact Exchangers In addition to
19 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Double Pipe Exchanger, Shell & Tube Exchanger and Plated Frame Exchanger.

Go to www.sdsenthil.com

TOPIC 2: CHLOR ALKALI INDUSTRY, INDUSTRIAL ACID,
CEMENT, GLASS & CERAMICS AND PULP & PAPER
Sodium Chloride
Sodium chloride is the basic raw material for many chemical compounds such
as NaOH, Na
2
CO
3
, Na
2
SO
4
, HCl, Na
2
PO
4
, Sodium Chlorate, Sodium Chlorite
and its source of many other products through its derivatives. Practically all
the chlorine products in the world is manufactured by electrolysis of Sodium
Chloride (NaCl), a common salt is manufactured in three different ways;
Solar evaporation of sea water 1.
Mining of rock salt 2.
From well brines 3.

1. From saturated Brine by Multiple Effect Evaporator Process
Brine contains water 73.5%, sodium chloride 26.3%, calcium sulphate
0.12%, calcium chloride 0.003%, magnesium chloride 0.007%.
The flow sheet of process is given below;
Process:
The Brine is first aerated to remove most of the H
2
S. 1.
Addition of chloride will remove H
2
S by displacement reaction. 2.
20 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Brine is then pumped to settling tank where it is treated with caustic
soda and soda ash to remove calcium, magnesium and ferric ions.
Caustic soda and soda ash are blended in the miser to be taken to
settling tank.
3.
In the Multiple Effect Evaporator (MEE) water is removed and salt
crystals are removed as slurry.
4.
The slurry is sent to washer, where the salt crystals are washed with
fresh brine.
5.
The washed slurry is filtered, mother liquor is return to the evaporators
and salt crystals from the filter are dried and screened.
6.
Salt thus produced from the typical brine is 99.8% purity or even
greater.
7.
The finest grade (some times made by grinding) is a flour salt, the next
coarsest is table salt and finally the industrial salt.
8.
The Iodine salt has the following composition;
Potassium Iodide (KI) : 0.01%
Stabilizer Na
2
CO
3
: 0.1%
Sodium Thio Sulphate : 0.1%

2. From Saturated Brine by Open Pan Process
Process:
Salt in the form of hopper-like crystal (grainer salt) is made by causing
the salt crystal to form on the surface of brine held in an open pan.
1.
The grainer is a flat open pan 4.5 to 6.0 m width and 45 60 m long
and about 60cm deep. Beneath the pan steam coils system provided for
reciprocating the flakes for salt removal.
2.
The saturated brine mixed with circulating brine from the grinder is
treated to 120
0
C at which temperature calcium sulphate is soluble and
remove at that temperature.
3.
The precipitated calcium sulphate is removed from gravellier which
consist of bed of stones.
4.
The purified brine is flash cooled to remove the remaining calcium
sulphate.
5.
The slurry is then pumped to the grinders where evaporation takes
place at 96
0
C.
6.
A wet salt crystals obtain from the grinder are centrifuged, dried and 7.
21 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
screened.
When the incoming brine has been treated salt of 99.98% sodium
chloride can be obtained.
8.

3. From Rock Salt Mining
About 35% of salt produced comes from mines of 8 different stages which are
operated to produce rock salt. The salt deposits varying color from light
reddish brown to half grey. The purity is 98.5%. After the rock is blasted
loose they are crushed and then screened at the surface level. The remaining
process is the series of grinding, screening to obtain the salft of crystal of
various sizes.

4. From Sea Water by Solar Evaporation
Annual Evaporation exceeds precipitation, the statistics of 125mm of rain
corresponding to 840mm evaporation.
By-products of Normal Salt (also called as value added products)
Manufacture of sodium sulfates from salt and sulfuric acid
2NaCl + H
2
SO
4
---> 2HCl + Na
2
SO
4
Na
2
SO
4
+ 10H
2
O -> Na
2
SO
4
+ 2HCl
Hargreaves-Robinson Process
Sulphur Di-oxide, air, steam are passed over specially prepared porous
common salt. The reaction is as follows;
2NaCl + SO
2
+ 1/2O
2
+ H
2
O ---> Na
2
SO
4
+ 2HCl

Bleaching Powder
Formulae: (CaOCl
2
).H
2
O
Equation: Ca(OH)
2
+ Cl
2
---> CaOCl
2
.H2O
The reaction is a low temperature reaction at 50
O
C in a counter current action
by passing chorine through a rotating steel cylinder with lifting blades which
slower the solid through the path of the gas. When allow to stand in air the
bleaching powder absorbs CO
2
liberating HOCL (Hypochlorous acid). Other
organic acids also liberates same compound. The reactions are,
2CaCl (OCl) + CO
2
+ H
2
O ---> CaCl
2
+ CaCO
3
+ 3HClO
2HClO --> 2HCl + O
2
After this formation bleaching powder liberates calcium chloride and oxygen.
22 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
When dissolving in water the reaction gives ionized calcium chloride and hypo
chloride. The reaction is,
2CaCl (OCl) ---> 2Ca
2+
+ 2Cl
-
+ 2OCl
-
The OCl
-
ion decomposes by liberating oxygen. However the acidity of the
product is determined by the % of chlorine in the compound, which is defined
as weight of chlorine that will exerts the same action as the chlorine
compound what we choose.
In the case of Bleaching powder, average chlorine is the same as the % of
chlorine in the compound. In the case of calcium hypo chloride the % of
chlorine is 47.6% if the chlorine content rises to 99.2% in the compound.
These values are obtained as soon as the freshly prepared compound from the
process is finally taken.

Sulfuric Acid
Lead Chamber Process
Contact Process
Lead Chamber Process
Essentially this process consists of oxidizing a mixture of sulfur dioxide and
water to sulfuric acid using nitric oxide as an oxygen carrier. The reaction is,
H
2
O + SO
2
+ NO
2
----> H
2
SO
4
+ NO
This Nitric Oxide (NO) combines with oxygen to from nitrogen dioxide which is
used again in the process. The formation of NO
2
is given by,
2NO + O
2
----> 2NO
2
23 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
The process consists of three stages.
The first stage takes place in the Glover tower. This tower is packed with acid
resistant bricks over which a constant stream of sulfuric acid made by mixing
the output of lead chambers (65% Acid) and the Gay-Lusaac Tower (70%
Acid) combines with oxides of Nitrogen. Then the hot mixture of SO
2
and Air
from the furnace is fed into the base of Glover Tower and comes into intimate
contact with the descending acid of low concentration. Acid results the gases
from the burners are cooled from 500
0
C to about 90
0
C and the oxides of
nitrogen are extracted from the acid and carried over to the other chambers.
In addition the acid undergoes the concentration of 70% by the time it
reaches the base of the Glover Tower. Some of the spent acid after coming
from the Glover Tower is also sold commercially for processed where that
concentrated acid is required.
The second stage takes place in the lead chamber from which the process
derives its name. Water is spread from the roof on to the mixture of gases are
SO
2
and NO
2
. They slowly react together under carefully controlled conditions
of humidity and temperatures producing 65% H
2
SO
4
which is collected on the
shop floor. Lead is used in the material of construction as it is not corroded by
acid. The humidity is controlled by the variations in the dry bulb temperature
and wet bulb temperature observed in the psychometric chart available in the
process plant.
The third stage takes place in the Gay-Lusaac Tower which is designed to
recover as much as possible of the Oxides of Nitrogen from the gases leaving
to the chambers after thoroughly washing with cold concentrated acid.
The main purpose of this Tower is to minimize the problem of escape of NO
2
to atmosphere. But in the later stages the recovery was more important as
the efficiency was high and cost very cheap. A small loss of oxide of nitrogen
is inevitable. However it is made good by introducing additional nitric oxide
formed by catalytic oxidation of ammonia.
This chamber process produces cheap acid of doubtful purity with
concentration of 65-80% at maximum. This was used for manufacture of
fertilizers, but where more concentrated acids are required the contact
process is followed.

Contact Process
24 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM

Today contact process is the most widely used process for the manufacture of
H
2
SO
4
throughout the world. The raw materials used to make sulfuric acid are
elemental sulfur, H
2
SO
4
and H
2
S.
Till 1970, Ion Pyrites and related compounds were the predominant raw
materials. The large amount of sulfuric acid also produced as a by-product of
non-ferrous metal smelting. i.e. roasting sulfide ores of copper, lead,
molybdenum, nickel, zinc and some others. The process is dividing to the
following steps;
Generation of sulfur dioxide gas 1.
Catalytic Oxidation of SO
2
to SO
3
2.
Absorbing SO
3
to form H
2
SO
4
3.
The reactions are as follows;
S + O
2
---> SO
2
1.
SO
2
+ O
2
---> SO
3
^H = -98KJ 2.
SO
3
+ H
2
O ---> H
2
SO
4
^H = -132.5KJ (Highly Exothermic
Reactions)
3.
Properties of Sulfuric Acid
When a dilute solution of sulfuric acid is distilled a constant boiling point
mixture is obtained contains 98.3% of H
2
SO
4
. This mixture boils at 338
0
C
and has a density of 1.84gm.cm
-3
is the normal concentration acid available in
the laboratory. If the little SO
3
is dissolved in that acid 100% takes acid is
obtained and an oily liquid which freezes to crystals of white color at 10
0
C.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is highly corrosive and should always be handle
with care. It causes severe bores when contacted with the skin.

Reactions of Sulfuric Acid
25 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
It is a strong di basic acid reacting to bases to give a series of salts, like
sulphates and bisulphates. It is represented by,
H
2
SO
4
<---> H
+
+ HSO
4-
<---> 2H
+
+ SO4
2-
The dilute acid reacts with many metals forming sulphates and hydrogen. But
it does not react with lead, copper, mercury and silver. Iron reacts to give,
Fe + H
2
SO
4
----> FeSO
4
+ H
2
^
When the acid highly concentrated attacks any metals forming sulphates and
therefore silicon steel is used for construction of distillation column where
sulfuric acid is involved. Gold or Platinum have no reaction with H
2
SO
4
whereas copper forms copper sulfate with H
2
SO
4
liberating SO
2
.

Uses
Manufacture of Phosphate, Ammonium Sulphate and production of these
fertilizers consume about 40% of total sulfuric acid manufacture. Other large
scale users are manufacture of pigments, light barium sulfate, titanium
dioxides and manufacture of viscose rayon for artificial silk, detergents,
dye-stuffs, drugs, explosives, plastics, for dissolving unsaturated hydrocarbon
during refining of petroleum, for pickling for iron steel (removing oxide layer
before galvanizing) tinning, plating & painting and finally for killing weeds for
the agricultural production.
Cement
Definition
The term Cement refers to many different kinds of substances that are used
as binders or adhesives. It refers to inorganic hydraulic cements (mostly
called as Portland cement) which are hydration form relatively insoluble water
bonded aggregation of high strength and dimensional stability. In the last
century it has been found that iron in combination with cement has proved
substantially the useful concrete for very high-rise buildings and massive
constructions. Hydraulic cements also manufactured by processing and
proportionate raw materials burning (clinkering) at a particular temperature
and grinding the resultant product to obtain the cement.
The cement consist mainly tri-calcium silicate and di-calcium silicates. The
raw material are lime stone rich in calcium and silica such as clay or shale.
Clinker Formation
Portland cements are manufactured from raw mixes including components
such as calcium carbonate, clay or shale and sand. When the temperature of
materials increases during the passage in the rotary kiln the following
reactions occur;
Evaporation of free water 1.
Release of combined water from the clay 2.
Decomposition of magnesium carbonate 3.
Decomposition of calcium carbonate 4.
26 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Combination of lime and clay oxides 5.
Finally cooling is done to maintain the phase equilibrium.
Manufacturing Processes
Wet process and Dry process plants produced Portland cement. It consist of
quarrying and crushing the rock, including control of the clinker composition
by systematic core drillings and selective quarrying.
The next process is grinding the proportioned materials to high fineness. Ball
Mills are used for the both the process to grind the material although roll
crushers are used for dry process.
The high temperature of operation vaporizes the alkalies, sulphur and halides
(rotary kilns for Wet process, Dry process , suspension free heaters or
precalciners). The grinding is done by open circuit grinding or closed circuit
grinding depending on the fine powder of cement required.
Manufacturing procedures (Wet & Dry processes)
The Wet Process is the original one is being displaced by Dry Process for few
factories because of saving energy, accurate control and proper mixing of the
raw material. The dry process plants account for 58% of the total amount
manufactured with full production capacity. It is illustrated in the following
flow chart.
27 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
In the wet process the solid materials after dry crushing is reduced to fine
powder in wet tube or ball mills and passes as slurry through bowl classifiers
or screens. The slurry is pumped to connecting tanks where rotating arms
takes the mixture homogeneous and allow the final adjustment in
composition. For this purpose some of the cement plant the slurry is filtered
in a continuous rotary filter and fed into the kiln.
The dry process is especially applicable to natural amount rock and to
mixtures of limestone, clay, shaves as slate. In this process the materials are
crushed roughly are passed through gyratory or hammer mills, dried, sized,
finally grounded followed by air separation or the pneumatic process.
Before entering the rotary kiln thorough mixing and blending takes place. The
rotary kiln where the powder material is fed the chemical reactions takes
place. Heat is provided by burning of oil, gas or pulverized coal using
preheated air obtained from cooling of the clinker from the high temperature
to lower temperature. And the length of the rotary kiln is increased the
thermal efficiency very high. Due to this process of heat transfer vaporization
efficiency also increases because of evaporation of moisture and water in the
mix. Normally the vaporization efficiency is twice the thermal efficiency for
the process of conduction into material.
Dry process kilns are 150 ft long but the wet process over 500 ft kilns is quite
common. The internal diameter is around 20 ft. The RPM is to 2 depends on
the size. The kilns are inclined so that materials fed at the upper end travel
slowly to the lower firing end (by blower) and taking 3 hours to reach he
bottom end.
To improve the economy of kiln heat water is removed from the wet slurry
before charging into kiln. Some of the equipments are employed slurry filters
and Dorr Thickeners. Efficient air pollution control equipment such as bag
houses or electrostatic precipitators are required for the process. Waste heat
boilers are sometimes used to conserve heat and particularly economical for
dry process cement. A refractory lining is given inside wall to protect the heat
form escaping outside and maintain a temperature of 800
O
C. In the recent
days computers are used to improve kiln control. The sketch of rotary kiln is
given below;
28 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
The final product form consists of hard granular masses of of the inch in
size called clinker. It is discharged form the rotating kiln into air-quenching
coolers which brings the temperature to 100
0
C. The cooling also preheat the
combustion air pulverizing followed by grinding in the tube or ball mills and
automatic packaging complete the process.
There are many types of compounds in cements according to the composition
numbering 102 types of cements according to the applications. Special
cements also manufactured for corrosive conditions and the various types of
sulphur cements, silicate cements, adhesive cements to have a few. The
industrial importance sulphur cement are resistant to solves acids, alkalis, oil,
grease or other solvents. These are employed for the joining of Tiles and Cast
Iron Pipes. Silicate cements with stand a temperature of 1000
0
F.
Glass & Ceramics
Glass
Glass was formed naturally from common elements in the earth dust long
before anyone ever thought of experimentally with this composition, moulding
its shape of putting it to the myriad of used that it enjoys the world today.
Glass technology evolved around 6000 years back and sum of the todays
principles followed the old times. This includes what is today known about the
structure of glass, its composition, properties, method of manufacture and
uses.
The term glass follows the definition of MOREY, GLASS is an inorganic
substance in a condition that is continuous and analogous to the liquid state
of the substance. But which as a result of a reversible change in viscosity
during cooling, has obtain so high a degree of viscosity has to be for all
practical rigid.
29 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Most glass particles are manufactured by a process in which raw material are
converted at high temperature to a homogenous melt that is then formed into
various articles or glass wares employed in laboratories.
The above flow diagram summarizes the details of conventional glass
manufacturing. The vapor deposition of SiO
2
from a flame fed with silicon
chloride (SiCl
4
) and oxygen is basis for manufacturing high purity glass used
for blanks that are redrawn into optical-wave guide fibers. Fused silica items
that cannot be formed from viscous melts of SiO
2
or Quartz are prepared by
vapor deposition. Raw materials are selected according to purity, supply,
pollution, potential, ease of melting and cost.
Sand is the most common ingredient. Limestone is the source of calcium and
magnesium. The reducing agent is powdered anthracite and common
colorness for glass includes Iron, chromium, cerium, cobalt and nickel.
Melting and fining depend on the batch materials interactive with each other
30 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
at proper time and on the proper order. Thus the stream must be taken to
obtain materials of optimum grain size, to weigh them carefully and mix
intimately. The efficiency of the melting operation and the uniformity and
quality of the glass product are determined in the mixing house.
Batch handling systems are widely used in the industry from manual to fully
automatic small furnaces for annual production to large continuous tank for
rapid machine forming. The two important equipments are screw feeder and
reciprocating pusher. Control devices have advanced computer assistant
operations. Radiation pyrometer with thermocouples monitor furnace
temperature. Natural gas, oil, electricity are the primary source of energy and
propane is used as a backup reserve for emergency. Molten glass is molded,
drawn, rolled and quenched depending on the desired shape and use. Bottles,
dishes, optical lenses, helix picture tubes are formed by blowing, pressing,
casting and filling the glass against mould and cool it to get the desired shape.
Art glass is made manually and an glass called FRIT is obtained by powdered
glass and quench between water cooled rollers, poured into water and then
dried. Glass optical formed as high temperature must be cooled in order to
reduce its strain and associated stress caused by temperature gradient.
The following are the types of glasses;
Flint Glass 1.
Bottle Glass 2.
Pyrex Glass 3.
Photosensitive Glass 4.
Froast Glass 5.
Ground Glass 6.
Insulating Glass 7.
Vitreosil Glass (99.9% Silica) 8.
Fused Silica Glass 9.
Optical Glass 10.
Lead Glass 11.
Colored Glass 12.
Opal Glass 13.
Fiber Glass 14.
Safety Glass and 15.
Glass Wool 16.
Ceramics
White Waxes
White wax is a generic term for ceramic products which are usually white and
of fine texture. These are based on selective grades of clay bonded together
with varying mount of fluxes and heated to a moderately high temperature in
kiln of 1200-1500
0
C. Because of the different amounts and kinds of waxes
there is a variation in the degree of vitrification. Among white wax, from
earthenware to vitrified china the degree of vitrification is the progressive
reduction in porosity provides the basis for the useful classification of ceramic
products as follows;
Earthen ware some times called as semi vitreous thinner ware is
porous, non translucent with a soft glaze.
1.
31 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
China ware a vitrified translucent ware with a medium glaze which
resist abrasion to degree which is used for non-technical purposes.
2.
Porcelain a vitrified translucent ware with a hot glaze which resist
abrasion at maximum degree. It includes chemical, insulating and
dental porcelain.
3.
Stone ware one of the oldest ceramic products developed and
rewarded as throughout porcelain.
4.
Sanitary ware formed from clay is porous and preferred for vitreous
application with a tri-axial composition.
5.
White ware white ware tiles available in number of times, classified
as floor tiles, resistant to abrasion and impervious to stain penetration
and used as wall tiles of a variety of colors and is formed small surface.
6.
To represent a typical manufacturing procedure in the ceramic group,
porcelain is chosen below. There are three lines of production.
Wet process porcelain used for production of fine grained, highly glazed
insulators for high voltage application and cast porcelain necessary for making
pieces to large are too intricate for the other two methods.
The 3 processes are based on the same raw materials. The difference in
manufacture is the drying and forming steps.
Description of Process
Raw material of proper proportions and properties to furnish porcelain of the
desired quality are weighed from overhead into the weighing car. Feldspar
clays and flint are mixed with water in the blender (clay-water mixture) and
then passed over a magnetic separator, screen and store. Most of the water is
removed by filtration. All the air is removed by the mill with the help of
vacuum operation. This produces stronger or hard porcelain. The prepared
32 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
clay is formed into blanks and hot pressed suitably. They are then dried,
trimmed and finally completely dried all under carefully controlled conditions.
The hydro separator removes the water and moisture containing impurities.
The vitrification is carried out in tunnel kilns at a particular temperature and
then porcelain articles are protected by Saggers fitted in the final stage of the
process. The glazing and firing are simultaneously done to obtain lustre or
shiny nature of the porcelain. They are immediately tested for electrical
insulation after storage for sale.
The table-ware is manufactured by more complicated procedure then
illustrated by the porcelain process. Some objects are obtained by the
porcelain process. Some objects are obtained by the potters wheel in the
conventional cottage industry employed in rural areas. For separate
application, complex shapes for chemical laboratories are manufactured by
different mould for the required applications.
Glazing is an important process in the manufacture of white wax. Some times
a glaze is a thin coating of glass melted on the porcelain surface for porous
application. The chemicals used are soda ash, potash, fluorspar, borax for this
type of special application. The temperatures for glazing is around 1050-1500
0
C.

Refractory and colorants for ceramics
It is broadly divided into two groups; one for clay based products like tiles,
sanitary wares and thinner ware and the other based on silica as a major
ingredient. In the manufacture of glasses continuous for laboratory conditions
at normal temperature and pressure color is obtained by a suspension of the
coloring medium when final stages of the product obtained.
Pulp and Paper Industry
The transmission of thought my means symbols was practiced thousands of
years back, prior to Christian era. Primitive people used to stores clay, palm
leaves, shells and bark of plants are which to inscribe information. Egypt is
the country where origin of paper took place, now there is no production in
that country of paper. On the other hand in china about 200 B.C. the paper
was manufactured and now the forerunner of the industry.
Raw Materials
The raw materials employed in the pulp and paper industry are woods, rags,
straws, bagasse, sulfur, limestone, alum, soda ash and clay. The only country
to have all the above raw material within the country is USA.
1. Wood
It is the outstanding source of cellulose in fact more than 90% of the paper
consumed in the world is made from wood fiber. Again U.S. has the
abundances of wood excepting Russia. The North American continent
processes 40% of soft wood.
2. Fibrous Raw Materials
Since 1800 where wood was first employed intensively for the manufacture
33 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
of pulp no other alternative has append so for. For this purpose the reuse of
waste paper become dominant and contributes 1/3

of total production.
3. Non-Fibrous Raw Materials
The important material here is sulfur about 200,000 tones of sulfur has
produced for paper production. The other materials caustic soda, soda ash,
rosins and bleaching components, lime is employed for sulfite cooking process.
The mineral substances such as clay, talk, chalk, barites, zinc compounds and
titanium compounds are used for manufacture of paper as non-fibrous
materials.
Manufacture of Pulp
Wood Pulp: The process is employed in the preparation of pulp from
wood are mechanical (ground wood) and chemical (sulfite, sulfate &
soda) and a combination of mechanical and chemical known as
semi-chemical. The object of the formation of pulp is to separate the
wood into fibers. The original wood contains 50% of non-fibrous
material like lignin and inorganic matter.
1.
Mechanical Pulp: This mechanical or ground wood process is used
largely on coniferous wood (having the name from coniferous forest
past). Especially with low rosin content such as spruce, balsam and
hemlock, jack pine is used to produce pitchy hard wood. This mechanical
pulp used for newsprint, wallpaper, wallboards and paper boards. It is
sometimes mixed with chemical pulp.
2.
Chemical Pulp: It is a material which made after treating the wood
by chemical which remove the cementing material, for this pulp the
wood is cleaned thoroughly from bark & knots. The logs of woods are
conveyed to the chipper where they are forced at an acute angle against
a disc on the surface above which heavy knives are operated on. The
chipping operation produces pieces of wood of various sizes and then
classified as saw dust.
3.
Sulfite Process:
H
2
O + SO
2
-----> H
2
SO
3
Ca(OH)
2
+ 2H
2
SO
3
-----> Ca(HSO
3
) + 2H
2
O
CaCO
3
+ 2H
2
SO
3
----> Ca(HSO
3
)
2
+ H
2
O + CO
2
Sulfur is melted and then burned into Sulfur Di-oxide (SO
2
) in special rotary
burners where the supply of air is regulated to prevent the formation of
objectionable SO
2
. The gas is cooled in water immersed pipes after which it is
absorbed by;
Large absorbers containing milk of lime 1.
Through tall towers made of concrete packed with limestone over which
water trickles down.
2.
The sulfite pulp is used for wide application in newsprints, boards, wrapping
papers and certain grades of printing papers where reasonably light color and
good strength are required.
Bleach sulfite paper is used in writing, typing paper, tissues, grease proof
papers and high grades of wrapping paper.
34 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Sulfate Process:
It derives the name from fact that loss of alkali and sulfur is compensated by
sodium sulfate (salt cake) or its equivalent. The term KRAFT means strong
and applied to pulp prepared by this process for producing the strong pulp.
The raw materials used are southern pine, spruce, jack pine, and tamarack.
This is followed by cooking the chips and then washing followed by recovery of
sulfate liquor. The main reaction is;
Na
2
SO
4
+ 4C ---> Na
2
S + 4CO
Analysis of solids in sulfate process;
Solids Original smelt
(%)
Green liquor
(%)
White liquor
(%)
Na
2
CO
3
61 64 11
Na
2
SO
4
4 5 6
Na
2
S 27 31 22
NaOH - - 61
Silica 2 - -
Insoluble 6 - -
Apart from the above processes there are miscellaneous processes like soda
process, semi chemical pulp process and rag pulp process.
Grades of Paper
There are number of method by which paper may be classified;
By the type of furnish process in the paper manufacture. Eg. Sulfite
process
1.
By the property. Eg. Grease proof paper, absorbent paper. 2.
By the use to which its applied. Eg. Newsprint paper. 3.
Tissue: It is the lightest weight paper. Generally grade on a
Yankee machine like napkins, light weight wrappings and toilet papers.
Wrapping: Bags, envelopes and bread wrappers
Writing: Stationary, ledger, document and type writing sheets
belongs to this category
Printing: Newsprint, catalogue and bible papers
Books: Books & Magazines
Building: Papers mixed with asbestos employed in construction
work, sheathing papers, felting papers, dead ending felts for acoustic
properties involves and floors the auditorium.
35 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Boards: By far the largest production of the industry falls in this
class. The subdivisions are numerous like containers, binders, bottle
caps, chips and wall boards.
Research
The application of science and engineering in pulp and paper manufacture are
brought about to improve operation and progress in the manufacture for
better products and also the reduction in prices.
Consumption
Paper products and the related chemical are important to a developing nation
such as India, the per capita consumption of paper is the measure of the
educational, social, cultural and industrial activities of the country as given
below;
Country Consumption (Kg/Person/Year)
USA 206
UK 167
Japan 57
USSR 16
India 1.5
The end use distribution of paper is given below;
End Use Distribution (%)
Paper & Paper Head 65
Newsprint 20
Rayon (Chemical pulp) 15
Go to www.sdsenthil.com
TOPIC 3: OIL, SOAP & DETERGENT, PETROLEUM REFINING,
PETROCHEMICALS AND SUGAR
36 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Hydrogenation of Oils
Large amount of groundnut oil, cotton seed oil, etc are hydrogenated in
presence of suitable catalyst to obtain solid edible fat called vegetable ghee.
The purpose of hydrogenation is to increase the melting point of oil and
convert in to an edible fat. In other words, hydrogenation are hardening of oil
is a process in which various unsaturated radicals are converted into
completely saturated Glycerides. There fore the hydrogen plays an important
role in the process with a catalyst. The process is carried out by keeping the
oil at a temperature of 140-180
0
C containing finely divided liquor in
suspension by the subsequent absorption of Hydrogen.
Optimum conditions for the Process
The Hydrogen needed can be manufactured by a number of methods but
hydro carbon steam process has been widely used. The hydrogen must
be very pure. Traces of gaseous sulfur compound, H
2
S, SO
2
, Arsenic and
Chlorine compounds are strong catalyst poisons. These have to be
removed before the hydrogenation process.
1.
The oil must be pure as well as free from fatty acids. Fatty acids react
with Nickel and its oxides to form Nickel Soap which is soluble in oil. For
purification, the oil is taken in a tank fitted with steam coil are heated
to 30
0
C. Then caustic soda is added and mixture is agitated for about
20 minutes by compressed air. The moisture is removed by heating the
oil in vacuum. The moisture may be hydrolyses the oil at high
temperature and pressure to form fatty acid.
2.
In order to prevent the Pyrophoric Nickel from catching fire the Nickel
catalyst is carefully transferred to the oil out of the contact with air.
3.
In order to keep the Nickel particles in free suspension and to bring the
oil in close contact with Hydrogen, the mixture of oil catalyst and
Hydrogen is agitated.
4.
The catalyst is Nickel Oxide or Nickel Formate which is reduced to metal
by Hydrogen gas are forms Raney Nickel. The charge is kept at
maximum temperature for about one hour and then cooled. During the
cooling period the Hydrogen is passed to create the product
hydrogenated oil stored in the end of the process.
5.
37 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Recent research has shown that Palladium has been found to be more
effective then Nickel. i.e. 1 part in 1,000,000 parts of oil is sufficient. And the
reaction takes place at lower temperature and takes less time. The only
disadvantage is Palladium is costlier than Nickel, Raney Nickel and other
catalyst.
The process of Hydrogenation is exothermic reaction. There fore it is favored
by low temperature. The optimum temperature is around 150
0
C.
Apart from the above there are two processes of Hydrogenation of oil
1. Dry Process
2. Wet Process
1. Dry Process
The refined oil from the storage tank is brought into a vacuum evaporator
where it is heated at about 50
0
C at low pressure in order to expel air
moisture. By means of the pump the oil is charged into convertor by pipe
provided at the bottom of the evaporator. The convertor is a cylindrical
pressure vessel provided with Hydrogen distributor. In the bottom steam coils
for heating and circulating the oil. The Hydrogen gas is sent at a pressure of
5.6 atm. into the convertor. The steam is turned off to accelerate exothermic
reaction and convert the oil into a hydrogenated substance for further
purification process.
For the commercial value Bleaching is done for aesthetic consideration for the
market value.
2. Wet Process
In wet process Nickel salt is reduced into finely divided Nickel in the oil before
hydrogenation in a continuous process. There are two wet process are
employed, in one process Nickel Formate is used and the reduction is carried
out at 190
0
C with Hydrogen.
38 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
The advantage in this first method of the wet process is removal of CO as
waste removed from Deodorizer still as Co is a catalyst poison for the Nickel
group.
In the second method 2% Dry Nickel Formate in powder form is mixed with
100 Kg of Oil to be hydrogenated as a current of Hydrogen is passed at a
temperature of 250
0
C. The pressure is 10-12atm. Introduced by nozzles to
the convertor. After the reaction is completes, the temperature is brought
down and ascertained the completion of hydrogenation.
There are two important advantages of this process;
More active catalyst having high surface area is obtained because the
reduction of salt is carried out at low temperature.
Nickel does not come into contact with air at any stage and hence fire hazard
is avoided.
Margarine
Hardened oils are consumed as such as in India, but in Europe and America
they are converted to a butter called Margarine. It is prepared by emulsifying
about 80% fat and 15% skimmed milk, salt, vitamin A, vitamin D, a
preservative such as sodium benzoate, a yellow dye and flavoring agents.

Soap Making Industry
Raw Materials
1. Source of Glycerides: The main sources of slow lathering hard oils are
tallow, palm oil, whale oil, fish oil and greases, etc. Quick lathering hard oils
include coconut oil, palm oil and kernel oil, etc. Soft oils are soya bean oil,
cotton seed oil and inedible olive oil, etc.
2.Rosin: A plant product contains mainly abietic acid. The colorless
variety of Rosin is used in the manufacture of laundry soaps and dark variety
is used in the manufacture of colored soaps. Rosin makes lather formation
39 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
faster, increases the cleaning property of the soap and softens the hard soaps.
Rosin requirement is about 50% and the grease is 23%.
3. Caustic Soda: It is available in the form of flakes, blocks and sticks as
well as in solution of sodium hydroxide in various concentrations. The caustic
product potash is involved in the manufacture of saving creams.
4. Sodium Chloride: Sodium Chloride is used for salting out about 12.5 parts
per 100 parts of oil to be saponify is used.
5. Binding Materials: Sodium Silicate, Soda Ash, Tri Sodium
Phosphate, Borax are used as Binding materials. They improve the soap
texture and prevent the formation of precipitate in hard water.
6. Fillers: The weight of the Soap is determined by fillers such as talc,
starch, glauber salt, pearl ash, etc without affecting the detergency of the
washing soaps.
7. Colouring Matter: Organic dyes and inorganic pigments are used.
As a Dye the material should be inert to alkali used in making soap and
should not separate when soap is blended in the process. Common coloring
matters are methyl violet, Bismarck brown, safframine for red, zinc oxide for
white color, chrome green for green color, cadmium for yellow color, ultra
marine for blue color, eosin for pink color, vermilon for rose shade.
Intermediate colors are obtained by blending the above colors.
8. Perfumes & Perfume Fixatives: These impart fragrance for the
soap. They may be natural or synthetic. Examples are sandalwood oil, lemon
grass oil, clove oil, eucalyptus oil, lavender oil and cinnamon oil, etc. The
synthetic perfumes are,
Jasmine (Benzyl Acetate)
Rose (Phenyl Ethyl Alcohol)
Lylac (Terpenol)
Musk (Benzoate)
Manufacture of Soap
Soap is either made by hot process or cold process. Usually laundry soaps and
bath soaps are manufactured by hot process. Transparent and other special
types of soaps are produced by cold process. In most of the cases soap
obtained by hot process settled and separated from Glycerol solution.
Subsequently Glycerol is separated out as a by-product. The hot process is
divided into tow types,
Batch Process 1.
Continuous Process 2.
The Batch Process is carried out in a soap kettle made of steel plates and
having large diameter. The kettle is supplied with steam with a mixture of
melted fats, grease, oil in a proper amount for the mixture. The amount of
caustic soda is regulated to undergo the hydrolysis reaction. The boiling is
continued until the saponification is completes. A pasting mass is formed by
conversion of Tri-stearin to Di-stearin. The final product contains soaps, water,
glycerol, unused alkalis, sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate as
impurities. After this saponification is complete and the steam is cut off with
40 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
the separation of salt on the surface for the batch process to stop and deliver
the soap product.
In the Continuous Process the raw materials oils and fats and the catalyst
usually zinc oxide are blended and fed into a hydrolyser or splitting tower
fitted with steam coils through which steam is passed for heating the charge.
The splitting of fat takes place continuously in a counter current manner and
about 250
0
C and 40 atm pressure. The fat raises again the aqueous phase
which also dissolves glycerol in reaction. The fatty acids are discharged from
the hydrolyser to a flash tank called decanter where excess of water is
separated. They fatty acids are the passed to a heat exchanger and then to a
vacuum still and distilled. The distillate is collected as overhead and bottoms
are stored for recovery. Then the distillate neutralized by caustic soda in a
continuous neutralizer. As the result of this soap is obtained which is with
drawn hot into a agitator tank. This soap contains Water, NaOH and NaCl. This
is dried in a high pressure steam exchanger by heat and pressure, finally
collected in a flash tank. The pasty mass is missed with air and cooled to 65
0
C. Here the soap is continuously extracted and collected into soap frames
where it solidifies on cooling. Then it is cut into bars as usual. The particular
process delivers the product in a day whereas the batch process operates for
few more days.
Petroleum Refining
41 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Cracking
Cracking is the process by virtue of which crude petroleum of their fractions
are decomposed by heat to produce products which have lower boiling points.
The main object of cracking is mainly the production of gasoline. The two
types of cracking are,
Thermal Cracking 1.
Catalytic Cracking 2.
1. Thermal Cracking
The main reaction is C
10
H
22
--
Cracking
-->C
6
H
12
+ C
6
H
10
Paraffin+Olefin
The crude petroleum is heated to 1000
0
F in a pipe heater. A pressure of 1000
psi is maintained and the lower molecules are further decomposed as below;
CH
4
---
Decompose
-->C + 2H
2
Gas and Gasoline in vapor form go out as two products. The vapor phase is
condensed to obtain Diesel, Petrol and then LPG in the bottling plant to serve
energy requirements. The coke deposited in the process is removed
periodically and the process which is a continuous one is sustaining for the
various fractionation products. The various other forms of thermal cracking
are as follows;
i. Viscosity Breaking
ii. Vapor Pressure Cracking
iii. Thermal Reforming
i. Viscosity Breaking: Here various oils and residues obtained after
thermal cracking are to produce various oils of different viscosity. This is
called as Viscosity Breaking. The temperature is 460
0
C and pressure is 500
psi.
ii. Vapor Pressure Cracking: Here Cracking is done in such a way there
is only vapor phase obtained after cracking. By doing so aromatic hydrocarbon
and gaseous products are obtained.
iii. Thermal Reforming: Here heavy gasoline of lower octane number is
cracked to get higher gasoline of higher octane number. The temperature is
530
0
C and pressure is 750 psi. The flow sheet of Thermal Reforming is given
below;
42 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
2. Catalytic Cracking
Gasoline produced by Thermal Cracking has octane number 72. If the octane
number is increased the yield decreases which can be rectified by use of
catalyst to increase the rate of decomposition of the hydrocarbons in the
crude petroleum. Hence gasoline produced by catalytic cracking is low in
oliefic and high in paraffinic and aromatic hydrocarbon. The advantages of
catalytic cracking are,
No fuel from outside is required for catalytic cracking 1.
All the heat required is obtained by heating the coke deposition the
catalyst
2.
The pressure is low 3.
The Gasoline has a high octane number 4.
Total yield of Gasoline is high 5.
A sulfur content of all the products is low as it is eliminated as H
2
S. 6.
Types of Catalytic Cracking
The two types of Catalytic Cracking are,
Fixed Bed Catalytic Cracking 1.
Moving Bed Catalytic Cracking 2.
The first one is a catalytic cracking where fixed bed of catalyst is used. The
catalyst in a form of granules or pellets and bed of the catalyst for fixed in the
catalyst covers. Oil vapors which are heated to the cracking temperature
through the catalyst are carbonized at which it is reactivated by burning the
carbon. Oil vapors are diverted tot eh second catalyst chamber.
Second one is a catalytic cracking where moving bed of catalyst is used. The
catalyst in the form of fine powder flows down through a hopper into a reactor
where cracking takes place. The carbonized particles of the catalyst come
down against a raising current of air to remove the carbon deposit of the
catalyst as it is burnt off.

43 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
1. Fixed Bed Catalytic Cracking Process
The fixed bed catalytic cracking method is described in the following diagram.
The charge is passed through a heater where it is heated to cracking level
then it is goes to catalyst towers. These towers have catalyst tubes and
around these tubes molten salt mixtures (mixture of sodium nitrate and
sodium nitrite) are circulated to distribute heat and maintain uniform
temperature in the reactor. The cracked vapors form these catalyst towers of
fractionators in the fractionating column to recover gases and gasoline vapors
from the top and the heavy gas/oil is removed from the bottom of the column.
Gasoline vapors are cooled and condensed in the condenser and then sent to
the stabilizer. In the stabilizer certain dissolved gases are removed and the
desired boiling range and vapor pressure is obtained. The main catalysts used
are
Bauxite pellets 1.
Silicon Nitrite complex of Alumina (SiN
2
.Al
2
O
3
) of 6 mesh size 2.

2. Moving Bed Catalytic Cracking Process
The moving bed catalytic cracking method is described in the following
diagram.
44 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Heated oil vapors go up in the reactor and catalyst comes down through the
hopper which is the significance in the moving bed catalytic cracking process.
After the cracking of vapors the spent catalyst is removed from the bottom. It
is regenerated and sent again to the catalyst hopper through the elevators.
The cracked vapors after the separation of dust separated go to the
fractionator where gas oil is separated from vapors of gas and gasoline. Gas
oil is with drawn from the bottom. The gas and the gasoline vapors are
condensed in the condenser and are separated.
Other methods of synthesis of gasoline are by polymerization, alkylation,
Fischer-Tropsch method and liquefaction of coal or hydrogenation of coal.
Normally the gases obtained from the cracking of petroleum are ethylene,
propene, butene and saturated hydrocarbons like methane, ethane, propane
and butane. Polymerization also classified by catalysis to obtain motor fuel.
Petrochemicals
Petroleum & Petrochemical Industries
Crude Oil Refining Petrochemical Products

Composition
Aliphatic Compounds are classified into n-paraffins of the formula
C
n
H
2n+2
Eg. Hexane & Heptane. The other is iso-paraffins of the formula
C
n
H
2n+2
Eg. 2-methyl hexane, a derivative of the paraffin indicated
above.
1.
Cyclic Compounds of the formula C
n
H
2n
Eg. Napthene and Benzene 2.
45 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
series of the formula C
n
H
2n-6
Eg. BTX
Asphalts contain atoms of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen and
nitrogen. Various resins are used as adhesives which are semi solids in
structure.
3.
The crude is classified into paraffinic base for aliphatic compounds, naphthenic
base for cyclic compounds and an intermediate base for both of the above.

The petroleum refinery products are classified as;
Gas Fraction Eg. Natural Gas, whose main composition is methane
and the second one is LPG
1.
Light Distillates Eg. Petroleum & Kersosene 2.
Intermediate Distillates Eg. Diesel 3.
Heavy Distillates Eg. Wax & Lubricating Oil 4.
Residue Eg. Grease & Asphalt 5.
The normal refinery processes for the manufacture of various products are
done by physical changes like distillation, absorption, extraction, adsorption,
crystallization, heat transfer and fluid flow to name a few. Similarly the unit
processes involving chemical changes are pyrolysis, reforming,
polymerization, alkylation, isomerisation, sulfur removal, hydrogenation, etc.
Lighter most products ----> Methane ----> Methanol, Chloromethane
Naphtha ---
Steam/Cracking
---> Ethylene ----> Ethyl Oxide, Acetaldehyde
Propylene ---> Iso-propanol, Cumene,
Polypropylene
C
4
, C
5
Series -----------> Butane -----> Butadiene
Hydrocarbons --
Reforming
--> Benzene ----> Ethyl Benzene, Maleic
Anhydride
Toluene -----> Nitro Toluene, Phenol
Xylene ------> Phthalic Anhydride,
Terephthalic Acid
Manufacture of Chloromethane
Methane on chlorination yields successfully the chloromethane by substitution
of hydrogen atoms by chlorine. The flow sheet of the industrial manufacture is
given below;
46 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Reactions
CH
4
+Cl
2
--> CH
3
Cl+HCl -
Cl2
--> CH
2
Cl
2
+HCl -
Cl2
--> CHCl
3
+HCl ---
Cl2
-->
CCl
4
+HCl
Methane Methyl Chloride Methylene Chloride Chloroform CTC
These compounds of the chlorination reaction are used as industrial solvents
and intermediates in the manufacture of organic compounds for dye and
dyestuffs manufacturing plants. Similarly we have production of ethylene
oxide in a fluidized bed reactor to produce the product and used for
manufacture of ethylene glycol. The reaction is exothermic and the heat
generated may be used for other purposes like heat exchangers of the type of
shell & tube, etc. Acetaldehyde manufactured from ethylene by exothermic
reaction with palladium chloride catalyst in a series of strippers and
distillation columns for the manufacture. Isopropyl alcohol is manufactured
from propylene by reaction with industrial acids to form the product. Cumene
is another petrochemical manufactured from benzene by packed bed staged
reactor at a temperature of 250
O
C in the presence of phosphoric acid.
Butadiene is another compound obtained from C
4
H
10
to produce finally
styrene and rubber for the polymer industry. Phthalic anhydride and maleic
anhydride are produced from tubular reactor by the production of isomers and
dehydration reaction to form compound polyesters. Phenol is a very important
compound obtained from Toluene by series of distillation column and used in
the manufacture of phenol-formaldehyde resins, molding products, electrical
applications and other various uses in the polymer industries.
47 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Petrochemical Industry in India
It is still in a incipient state born much later than petroleum industry around
1966, the growth it made in the last two years because of technology is very
much encouraging. The modest beginning of petrochemical industry started
with coming of an ethylene plant of capacity 20,000 TPA by a naphtha cracker
by Union Carbide in 1968. National Organic Chemicals Limited (NOCIL) soon
followed the development and established 60,000 TPA naphtha cracker units
at Thane in Maharashtra by 1968. Indian Petrochemical Limited (IPCL) in
Baroda in the year 1971, with an investment of 1000 crores of rupees to
establish a cracker unit indigenously. Subsequently ONGC which was
responsible for exploration and production of Oil and Natural Gas made an
active role in the aromatic ester plant by the side of Gujarat Refinery.
The development of IPCL fulfills the growth of 32 complexes all over India for
the expansion of petro products. By eighth plant Rs. 5000 crores was
exclusively invested by IPCL for the growth of engineering plastics. The
products like alloys, poly carbonates, carbon filaments, oil blends and other
polyester products where diversified by the various companies listed above.
Sugar Industry
Today Sugar is so plentiful and so cheap that we take it granted and overlook
how much science and industry accomplished in making refined sugar
available to us. Primitive man had to depend on roots, fruits and saps from
certain trees for any sweetness for his diet. The term sugar refers the
chemical sucrose.
Sources of Sugar
Sugar Cane: It was first cultivated in India from where it spread
eastward to China, westward to Arabia, Egypt, Spain and finally to the
new world. The sugarcane (saccharim officinaram) is a tall perennial
grass having numerous bamboos like stems which grow to a height of
12 feet or more. The period of growth is normally 15-18 months, but
because of the advent of the fertilizers the period shortened and a
crushing season of 6 months every year is maintained for the
production of sugar.
1.
Sugar Beet: While we can guess regarding the original cultivation of
sugarcane the situation is different with reference to sugar beet. The
2.
48 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
juice of the beet contains a sugar identical with that of the cane at this
discovery was put into practical use.
Steps in sugar manufacture
The sugar is synthesized by the growing plant and the processing in the
factory is only a succession of separations whereby the sugar is separated
from the constituents of the plant.
Separation of the juice from the fiber by pressure 1.
Clarification is a removal of impurities that interfere with subsequent
evaporation and crystallization
2.
Removal of water by evaporation 3.
Conversion of the sugar from the dissolved condition to a solid crystal
form
4.
Separation of the crystal sugar from the mother liquor followed by
molasses obtained from centrifuge.
5.
Drying and packing of sugar 6.
Clarification
The juice extract from the cane are strained to remove dirt particles, fiber or
pulp after this juice is ready for clarification. The purpose of clarification is to
free the juice as far as possible from all constituents except sugar without
altering the sugar itself. Lime is one for the first chemical to be used are
universal basis for this clarification since it is both effective and economical
for the cost. The main purpose of lime is to neutralize the acidity of juice and
converts many of the organic acids into insoluble calcium salt. Thus
clarification remains an essential and integral part of the manufacture of
sugar.
The flow process of liming is given below;

Analysis of typical cane molasses

Composition Percentage (%)
49 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Water 20
Sucrose 30
Raffinase 0
Invert Sugar 32
Ash 6
Organic non-sugars 12
Evaporation
The juices from the clarification must now be evaporated in order to produce
crystal sugar. Today evaporation is conducted by steam-in evaporators. In the
first stage of evaporation the juice is concentrated to 50%-60% sugar. This is
made in MEE (Multiple Effect Evaporator) which are very effective and by
efficient use of steam.
Crystallization
At this stage the evaporation is continued to the point where sugar crystals
formed and separate from remaining water and impurities. There are various
types of crystallizers namely horizontal, cylindrical or U shaped kerns
equipped with stirring paddles. After stirring the mixture are cooled to take
advantage of the lower solubility of sugar at lowest temperature.
Refining
The raw cane sugar is subjected to further refining operation before it is ready
for consumption. Adsorption of impurities is followed by crystallization. The
refining process takes place in the following sequence.
Affination 1.
Melting 2.
Defecation 3.
Purification with Bone-char or active carbon 4.
Filtration 5.
Crystallization 6.
Centrifuging 7.
Finishing 8.
In affination process the raw sugar is mixed with syrup which softens and
dissolves the molasses without eroding the sugar crystals. In the defecation
process sufficient lime is added to make the solution alkaline and the
alkalinity is neutralized with calcium phosphate or phosphoric acid. The
precipitate of calcium phosphate or phosphoric adsorbs most of impurities.
Bone-char Treatment
50 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
Composition Percentage (%)
Carbon 10
Tri calcium phosphate 83
Calcium carbonate 4
Iron, Nitrogen, Silica, Calcium Sulfide Traces
The purpose this treatment is primarily to remove color, organic and inorganic
substances from the raw sugar solution. Active carbon is used for refining of
sugar. It is generally employed from producing a refined, granulated sugar.

By-products
Molasses: This is basically used for cattle feed. Although it has the
limitation of providing only carbohydrate high protein yeast can be made from
molasses and inorganic nitrogen salts, can serve as a basis for the protein
content in the cattle feed. The recent development is industrial alcohol
produced from molasses can be used as motor fuel. Such a development can
simplify the world production of molasses.
Bagasse: The quantity is 28,000,000 Tonnes of Bagasse per year. It is
right now used in sugar factories as fuel developing co-generation plant for
producing power, manufacture of plastics, paper pulp and wall boards.
Conversion of sugar to other products
Sugar represents practically a chemically pure product available at low cost
and it is natural to find that serious study has given rights to development of
processes to convert sugar into other products. The various conversions for
molasses can be applied for sugar but extensive development can takes place
parallel to the potential molasses, bagasse and press-mud whose original
name is Filter Cake. Some undertakings compile the manufacture of sugar
with the production of ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, acetone by fermentation.
Press-mud (Filter cake): Press-mud or Filter cake is the solid substance
obtained after juice clarification. It is almost brown color and it was used as
manure for the sugar cane field itself. A sugar factory crushing 2500 TPD of
sugarcane generates 75 Tonnes of Filter cake. There are about 500 sugar
mills generating sugar in India with crushing capacity ranging from 2500 -
5000 TPD. The recent research on the exploitation of press-mud or filter cake
shows the presence of sugar, proteins, fiber, wax and other mineral salts.
Sugar is present a 0.5% in press-mud. The Protein content is 3%. The Fiber is
35%. The Wax is 12%. And the remaining is moisture or water. These
components can be extracted and used for the increased use of sugar
industry. The fiber part of the waste is dried and converted to carbon called as
Adsorbent Carbon as they can substitute the role of active carbon in the
adsorption operations. Though in the potential of press-mud it is estimated
that we can have 750 crores of rupees provided to national exchequer
51 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM
annually. These constituents are downstream of multi component sugar
industry by-product. They can be applied for fluoride removal to eliminate
skeletal flurosis and in the Drugs & Pharma Industry for the production of anti
cancer drugs, already in commercial operation in a country like Japan.
To Continue please visit:
http://sites.google.com/a/sdsenthil.com/chemical-technology
This site has been developed and maintained by S.D. Senthil Kumar, Process Engineer, India.
Sign in | Recent Site Activity | Report Abuse | Print Page | Powered By Google Sites
DownloadChemicalTechnolog Senthil Kumar,

v.19
52 of 52 29-Mar-14 7:36 PM

Chemical Technology - SD Senthil's Home Page

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Chemical Technology - SD Senthil's Home Page

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

SD Senthil's Home Page

Você também pode gostar

Chemical Technology - SD Senthil&#39;s Home Page

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Chemical Technology - SD Senthil&#39;s Home Page

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

SD Senthil's Home Page

Você também pode gostar

Chemical Technology - SD Senthil's Home Page

Chemical Technology - SD Senthil's Home Page