Limit and Continuity

In this rst lecture, we study the functions, that is the way in which one quantity
y depends upon some other quantity x, according to y = f (x). In particular, we shall
study those functions for which y varies continuously with x, in the sense that a small
change in x results in a small change in y. First, let us consider some examples:

Example A

Example B

Example C

x
x

f (x) = x2

f (x) =

x2 , x = 0
1, x = 0

f (x) =

1,
x0
1 , x < 0

The function in Example A should certainly be considered to be continuous. There

are no breaks or jumps in its graph, and it is clear that a small change in x produces
small change in x2 . In Example B, at x = 0, y = 1, a slightly change in x away from 0
will result in a sudden jump in the value of f (x) to a value near 0. The graph is broken
at x = 0, so that Example B is not a continuous function. Example C illustrates a
function which is not continuous because of the jump at the origin.
In this lecture we study the behavior of f (x) when x approaches a value, say, a.
approach does not mean equal
Two ways to approach a given value:
(i) approach from right, (ii) approach from left.

From right
From left

1.5
0.5

1.1
0.9

1.01
0.99

1.001
0.999

The arrow on the left points to the right in the above diagram indicates that x approaches the value 1 from the left. Likewise, the arrow on the right points to the left
indicates that x approaches the value 1 from the right.
Example 1
Consider the function f (x) = 2x + 1, what happen to f (x) when x get closer and closer
to 3?
x
f (x)
2.5
6
2.9
6.08
2.99 6.89
2.999 6.998
Table 1: f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer to 3 from left.
x
f (x)
3.1
7.2
3.01
7.02
3.001 7.002
3.0001 7.0002
Table 2: f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer to 3 from right.
The table in above shows that the function f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer and
closer to 3 from left and right.
Denitions:
Left-Hand Limit (LHL)
If f (x) gets closer to L as x approaches a from the left, we say that L is the left-hand
limit of f (x) at a and we write
lim f (x) = L

xa

or

lim

xa, x<a

f (x) = L

The symbol x a indicates that we consider only values of x that are less than a.
Right-Hand Limit (RHL)

If f (x) gets closer to L as x approaches a from the right, we say that L is the right-hand
limit of f (x) at a and we write
lim f (x) = L

xa+

or

lim

xa, x>a

f (x) = L

The symbol x a+ indicates that we consider only values of x that are greater than a.
Example 2
Consider
g(x) = x2
What happen to g(x) when x gets closer and closer to 3?

2.9

x
g(x) = x2
2.9
8.41
2.99
8.9401
2.9999
8.9994
2.9999999 8.999999
lim g(x) = 9

x3

x
g(x) = x2
3.1
9.61
3.01
9.0601
3.0001
9.0006001
3.0000001 9.0000006
3

3.1

lim g(x) = 9

x3+

As x gets closer to 3 separately from left and right, the function g(x) will separately
approaches 9. Therefore, the limit of g(x) = x2 as x approaches 3 from either sides is 9.
This is illustrated in the diagram below:

g(x)

x
3

Example 3
Consider
f (x) =

1 , x 0
1,
x>0

What happen to f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0?

x
f (x)
-0.5
-1
-0.1
-1
-0.01
-1
-0.001
-1
As x approaching 0 from left we see that f (x) approaches -1, i.e.
lim f (x) = 1

x0

x
f (x)
0.5
1
0.1
1
0.01
1
0.001
1
As x approaching 0 from right we see that f (x) approaches 1, i.e.
lim f (x) = 1

x0+

f (x)

1
x

0
1

The limits of f (x) from the left and the right are not equal, thus we may conclude
that LIMIT DOES NOT EXIST as x 0.
Question: When does the limit exist?
The limit of a function exists when

lim f (x) = L

lim f (x) = L

xa+

xa

equal

that is to say that the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left is equal to
the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right. This can be written as
lim f (x) = L

xa

This means that we make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be
suciently close to a (on either side of a) but x = a. In other word, in nding the limit
of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to a, we never consider x = a. In most of the cases,
f (x) need not even be dened when x = a. The thing that we only concern is how f (x)
is dened near a regardless of what happens at a. Conversely, if
lim f (x) = R

and

xa+

lim f (x) = L

xa

where R = L, then the limxa f (x) does not exist.

Example 4
Evaluate the right-hand and left-hand limits of f (x) = x2 + 2x 1 at x = 1.
x
f (x) = x2 + 2x 1
1.1
2.41
1.01
2.0401
1.0001
2.000400001
1.000001
2.000004000001
Thus, we have
lim f (x) = 2

x1+

x
f (x) = x2 + 2x 1
0.9
1.61
0.99
1.9601
0.999
1.996001
0.9999
1.99960001
Thus, we have
lim f (x) = 2

x1

Since LHL and RHL are equal

lim f (x) = 2

and

x1

lim f (x) = 2

x1+

Therefore, the limit of f (x) does exist and can be written as

lim f (x) = 2

x1

 Example 5

2x 1 , x < 2
f (x) = 1
,
x2
x
What happen when x gets closer and closer to 2?
From left:
x
f (x)
1.9
2.8
1.99 2.98
1.999 2.998

lim f (x) = 3

x2

From right:
x
f (x)
2.01
0.4975
2.001 0.4996
2.0001 0.49998

lim f (x) = 0.5

x2+

Thus,
lim f (x) = 3

x2

and

lim f (x) = 0.5

x2+

Since
lim f (x) = lim f (x)
+

x2

x2

Therefore, the limit of f (x) does not exist. The diagram of function f (x) is shown below:
f (x)
3

0.5
2
1

Continuity
Using function notation we represent the value of the function f (x) at x = a as
f (a). Function notation gives us a nice compact way of representing function values.
To evaluate the function, everywhere we see an x on the right side we will substitute
whatever is in the parenthesis on the left side. For example, to evaluate the function
f (x) = 2x2 5x + 4 at x = 1, we get
f (1) = 2(1)2 5(1) + 4 = 1
This is represented by the diagram below:

y
2
(1, f (1))
1

0
0

Let us consider the following function:

x2 + x + 4

1
f (x) = 2 x + 1

, x < 2,
, x > 2,
, x = 2.

It can be shown that (by evaluating the LHL and RHL) the limit of f (x) exists when x
approaches 2,
lim f (x) = 2
x2

However, f (2) = 5. In this case,

lim f (x) = f (2) .

x2

This function is represented by the graph below:

y
5
4
3
2
1
x

0
0

This curve is discontinuous because there is a sudden jump/broken when x = 2.

Denition 1:
A function f is continuous at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

xa

This requires three conditions if f is continuous at a:

1. f (a) is dened (i.e., a is in the domain of f )
2. lim f (x) exists
xa

3. lim f (x) = f (a)

xa

These statements say that f (x) is continuous at a if f (x) approaches f (a) as x approaches
a. Likewise, if f (x) is dened on an open interval containing a (except at a), we say
that f (x) is discontinuous at a if f (x) is not continuous at a.

Back to the example above, if f (2) = 2, the curve becomes

y
5
4
3
2
1
x

0
0

The curve is now continuous as the broken point on the curve has been lled by the
solid dot.
Denition 2:

A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

xa+

(See Example 5 of the previous section.)

A function f is continuous from the left at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

xa

(See Example 3 of the previous section.)

Denition 3:
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the
interval.
Example 1
Explain why each of the following functions are discontinuous?
10

x2 x 2
x2

1 , x=0
2. f (x) = x2
1 ,
x=0
1. f (x) =

2
x x 2
, x=2
3. f (x) =
x2

1,
x=2
4. f (x) = [[x]]
Solution:
1. Condition 1 fails because f (2) is not dened.
2. Condition 2 fails because lim f (x) does not exist (innity).
x0

3. Condition 3 fails because lim f (x) = f (2).

x2

4. Condition 2 fails because lim+ f (x) = n but lim f (x) = n 1, thus lim f (x) does
not exist.

xn

xn

11

xn

Evaluate limit of functions

There are three ways to evaluate limits
1. Substitution
2. Factorization
3. Conjugate
Substitution method
Example 1
Given f (t) =

sin 2t
, using substitution method evaluate lim f (t).
t
t

Solution:
sin 2t
t
sin 2()
= lim
t

0
=0
=

lim f (t) = lim

Theorem 1:
A polynomial
P (x) = c0 + c1 x + + cn1 xn1 + cn xn

is continuous everywhere, i.e., it is continuous on R = (= , ).

Remark: For all continuous functions, we can evaluate limit using Substitution
method.
Denitions:
For any polynomial functions
P (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn
where c0 , c1 , c2 , are constant. For any real number of a,
lim P (x) = lim (c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn )

xa

xa

= c0 + c1 a + c2 a2 + + cn an
= P (a)
12

 Example 2
Given f (x) = x2 x 2, using substitution method evaluate lim f (x).
x2

Solution:
lim f (x) = lim (x2 x 2)

x2

x2

= (2)2 (2) 2
= 0

Denitions:
A rational function f (x) is a ratio of two polynomials
f (x) =

P (x)
,
Q(x)

Q(x) = 0

where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

Theorem 2:
Any rational function
f (x) =

P (x)
,
Q(x)

Q(x) = 0

is continuous wherever it is dened (in its domain).

Example 3
Evaluate

2x3 3x2 + 2
x2
5x 3
lim

Solution:
This function is rational, by Theorem 2 that it is continuous on its domain except
at x = 3 . Therefore
5
2x3 3x2 + 2
2(2)3 3(2)2 + 2
6
=
= .
x2
5x 3
5(2) 3
7
lim

13

 Example 4
Given f (x) =
Solution:

x2 x 2
, evaluate lim f (x).
x2
x2

What happen when we use the Substitution method? If we substitute x = 2 into

f (x) we obtain a value which is equal to zero divided by zero.
Important Remarks:
The substitution method cannot be used if the denominator of a rational function
gives 0.
Factorization Method
If a rational function is formed by some polynomial functions and if it is factorizable,
we can use the factorization method to solve the problem (Example 4 continued):
x2 x 2
(x 2)(x + 1)
= lim
x2
x2
x2
x2
= lim (x + 1) = 3
lim

x2

Conjugate Method
Quick Review:
Recall what is conjugate, for example

conjugate

conjugate

x3

x1+2

x+3

x12

Example 5
Evaluate

x4
lim
x4
x2

Solution:
As the function consists of square root, we can use the conjugate method to solve
this problem as follows:

14


x+2
x4
x4
lim
= lim

x4
x4
x2
x2
x+2

(x 4)( x + 2)
= lim
x4
x4

= lim ( x + 2)
x4

=
4+2=4
Example 6
Evaluate
lim

x3

Solution:

3x
x+12

3x
3x
x+1+2
lim
= lim

x3
x3
x+12
x+12
x+1+2

(3 x)( x + 1 + 2)
= lim
x3
x+14

(3 x)( x + 1 + 2)
= lim
x3
x3

(x 3)( x + 1 + 2)
= lim
x3
x3

= lim ( x + 1 2) = 4
x3

EXERCISES 1:
Evaluate each limit using the suitable method.
1. lim

x2

x2

x1
x1

4.

x1
x1 x2 1

x11
3. lim
x2
x2

2x + 1
x1

lim

x1/2 2x2

x2 x 2
5. lim 2
x2 x 3x + 2

2. lim

6. lim
x1

x2 1
2xx

7. Given
f (x) =

x +2,
x<1
2
x + 4 , x 1

Sketch the graph for the function f (x), and nd lim f (x).
x1

15

Rules and Theorems

Rules:
(I) Finite case
Let a, b and c be any arbitrary real numbers, and suppose that
lim f (x) = L1

xa

and

lim g(x) = L2

xa

Then
1. lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L1 + L2
xa

2. lim [f (x) g(x)] = L1 L2

xa

3. lim [cf (x)] = cL1 ,

xa

for any c R

4. lim [f (x)g(x)] = L1 L2
xa

5. lim

xa

f (x)
L1
=
,
g(x)
L2

if L2 = 0

6. lim [f (x)]n = L1 n
xa

For those who are interested to verify the rules in above, please refer to the appendix.
Example 1
Given
lim F (t) = 8 ,
t2

lim G(t) = 2 ,
t2

Compute
(i) lim[2F (t)G(t)H(t)]
t2

(ii) lim
t2

(iii) lim
t2

F (t)

F (t)
+ lim[H(t)]2
t2
G(t)

Solution:
(i) lim[2F (t)G(t)H(t)] = 2(8)(2)(0.1) = 3.2
t2

3
(ii) lim 3 F (t) = 8 = 2
t2

16

lim H(t) = 0.1

t2

8
F (t)
+ lim[H(t)]2 =
+ (0.1)2 = 3.99
t2
G(t)
2

(iii) lim
t2

(II) Innite case

When we evaluate the limit of a function, we have to nd an appropriate method if the
following indeterminate forms are encountered:
1. innity minus innity,
2. innity times zero, 0
3. innity divided by innity,
4. zero divided by zero,

0
0

Example 2
Given
lim F (t) = ,

lim G(t) = 2 ,

t2

t2

Compute
(i) lim[2F (t)G(t)]
t2

(ii) lim

t2

F (t)

F (t)
G(t)
+ lim
(iii) lim
t2 G(t)
t2 F (t)

Solution:
(i) lim[2F (t)G(t)] =
t2

(ii) lim
t2

(iii) lim
t2

F (t) =

F (t)
G(t)
+ lim
t2 F (t)
G(t)

17

lim H(t) = 0 .
t2

 Example 3
Evaluate
lim (t2 t) =?

Solution:
Since
lim t2 =

and
lim t = .

So that
lim (t2 t) =

is an indeterminate form. But with dierent approach we can

lim (t2 t) = lim t(t 1) = lim t(t) = lim t2 =

Theorem 3:
If f (x) g(x) when x is close to a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both
exist as x approaches a, then
lim f (x) lim g(x)
xa

xa

Theorem 4: The Squeeze Theorem

If f (x) g(x) h(x) when x is close to a (except possibly at a) and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

xa

xa

then
lim g(x) = L

xa

The Squeeze Theorem says that if f (x) and h(x) have the same limit L at a, then g(x)
is forced to have the limit L at a.
Example 4
Evaluate
lim x2 sin

x0

18

1
x

Solution:
From our trigonometric knowledge
1
1
x
1
x2 x2 sin
x2
x
1 sin

Since
lim (x2 ) = lim x2 = 0

x0

x0

By using Theorem 3,
x2

1
x

x2 sin

1
x0
x
1
0 lim x2 sin
x0
x

lim (x2 ) lim x2 sin

x0

From Theorem 4 we conclude that

lim x2 sin

x0

19

1
=0
x

x2
lim x2
x0

Innite Limit and Limit at Innity

Denitions:
Let f be any function dened on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. If
limxa f (x) = , this means that the value of f increases (positive) or decreases
(negative) without bound as x gets closer and closer to a, but not equal to a.
It is important to note that the is not regarded as a number. It just to express the
values of f (x) do not approach a number, i.e., the values f (x) become larger and larger
(positive or negative) as x becomes closer and closer to a, and so limxa f (x) does not
exist.
Example 1
Consider h(t) =

2
. What happen to h(t) as t gets closer and closer to 1?
t1
2
t1 t 1

lim h(t) = lim

t1

Does any methods learn earlier work in this case? How to evaluate the limit of function
h(t) as t gets closer and closer to 1? In fact, it appears from the table of the function h(t)
as shown below that the denominator t 1 is a small negative number as t approaches 1
from the left, and h(t) is numerically large negative. Likewise, the denominator t 1 is
a small positive number as t approaches 1 from the right, and h(t) is numerically large
positive.
t
h(t)
0.9
-20
0.999
-2000
0.99999 -200000
lim

t1

2
=
t1

t
h(t)
1.1
20
1.001
2000
1.00001 200000
lim
+

t1

20

2
= +
t1

Lets sketch the graph to see how this function behaves.

h(t)

2
t1

We see above that LHL and RHL at t 1 are not equal and thus the limit of h(t)
does not exist.
Example 2
Evaluate

2
t1 (t 1)2

lim
Solution:

2
(t 1)2
0.8
50
0.9
200
0.99
20000
0.999 2000000
t

lim

t1

2
(t 1)2
1.1
50
1.01
200
1.001
20000
1.0001 2000000
t

2
= +
(t 1)2

lim
+

t1

21

2
= +
(t 1)2

As t gets closer to 1, both the LHL and RHL are approaching positive innity. Thus,
the values of the function do not approach a number, so the limit does not exist.
Denitions:
Vertical Asymptote
The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of
the following statements is true:
1. lim f (x) =

4. lim f (x) =

2. lim f (x) =

5. lim f (x) =

3. lim+ f (x) =

6. lim+ f (x) =

xa

xa

xa

xa

xa

xa

For instance, it can be seen in the Examples 1 and 2 that the line t = 1 is a vertical
asymptote.

Horizontal Asymptote
The line y = L is called the horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either
lim f (x) = L

or lim f (x) = L
x

is true.
Example 3
x
1/x
0.1
10
0.01
100
0.001 1000
0.0001 10000

1
=
x0, x>0 x
lim

The y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the curve 1/x since it satises condition 3.

22

 Example 4
lim +

x1

(x 1)
x1 (x 1)(x + 1)
1
= lim +
=
x1 x + 1

x + 1
=
x2 1

lim +

The line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote.

Example 5
Consider

x
x1
What happen to f (x) when x gets bigger and bigger and bigger.. towards INFINITY?
f (x) =

x
x1
101
1.01
1001
1.001
10001 1.0001
100001 1.00001
x

Thus,

x
=1
x x 1
In this case, the line y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote.
lim

y=1
x

23

 Example 6
Consider

2
x x + 1
What happen to f (x) when x is large?
lim

2
x+1
99
0.02
999
0.002
9999 0.0002
99999 0.00002
x

Thus,

2
=0
x x + 1
The curve 2/(x + 1) approaches 0 as x getting larger and larger. The illustration of this
case is given in the diagram below:
lim

Remark: At innity the limit of a polynomial is given by the limit of the monomial
with the highest degree.

24

 Example 7
1
x
2
2
x
2x
2x
1
1
= lim 2x2 1
2
x
2x 2x
= lim 2x2 =

lim (2x2 x 1) =

lim 2x2 1

Example 8
Evaluate

2x3 5x2 3
x
x3 1
What is the horizontal asymptote?
lim

Solution:
2x3 5x2 3
=
x
x3 1
lim

3
5
x3 2 x x3
x
x3 1 x13

lim

5
2 x x33
1
x
1 x3
2
= lim
=2
x 1

lim

Now, we consider the highest degree terms.

2x3 5x2 3
2x3
= lim 3 = 2
x
x x
x3 1
Thus, y = 2 is the horizontal asymptote.
lim

Example 9
Evaluate
lim

What is the horizontal asymptote?

Solution:
lim

9x4 5x2 3
3x3 1

9x4 5x2 3
=
3x3 1

9x4
x 3x3
3x2
= lim
x 3x3
1
= lim = 0
x x

25

lim

Thus, y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.

EXERCISE 2:
Evaluate the limit and nd the vertical/horizontal asymptote.
1.

lim +

x2

x2

x
4

x
x x2 4

2. lim

2x2 + 3x 1
x 3x2 2x + 4

3. lim

4. Find lim C, where a and C are constants.

xa

26

Appendix
Note: This section is for reference only.
Proof of rule 1 (Sum Rule):
Let > 0 and consider |[f (x) + g(x)] (L1 + L2 )|. By the triangle inequality that
|[f (x) + g(x)] (L1 + L2 )| |f (x) L1 | + |g(x) L2 | .
Now choose 1 > 0 and 2 > 0 so that
0 < |x a| < 1
and 0 < |x a| < 2

|f (x) L1 | < /2 ,
|g(x) L2 | < /2 .

Next put = min(1 , 2 ). If 0 < |x a| < , both conditions above come into operation and so
|[f (x) + g(x)] (L1 + L2 )| |f (x) L1 | + |g(x) L2 | < /2 + /2 = ,
i.e., f (x) + g(x) L1 + L2 , as required.
Proof of Rule 3 (Coecient Rule):
If c = 0, the function cf (x) is just the constant zero function and the result is clear. So assume
c = 0. Let > 0. Choose > 0 such that
0 < |x a| < |f (x) L1 | <

.
|c|

It follows that
|c f (x) cL1 | = |c| |f (x) L1 | < |c|
i.e., 0 < |x a| < |(cf )(x) cL1 | < , as required.

= ,
|c|

Proof of Rule 2 (Dierence Rule):

By using Rule 3,
g(x) = (1) g(x) 1 L2 = L2 .
Then, by using Rule 1,
f (x) g(x) = f (x) + g(x) L1 + (L2 ) = L1 L2 .

27

Proof of Rule 4 (Product Rule):

Write
f (x)g(x) L1 L2 = [f (x) L1 ]L2 + f (x) [g(x) L2 ] .
Then
|f (x)g(x) L1 L2 | |f (x) L1 ||L2 | + |f (x)| |g(x) L2 | .
Since limxa f (x) = L1 , there exists > 0 such that 0 < |x a| < |f (x) L1 | < 1, which in turn
implies that |f (x)| |f (x) L1 | + |L1| < 1 + |L1|. So 0 < |x a| < |f (x)| < K, where K = 1 + |L1|.
Combining with the earlier inequality shows that if 0 < |x a| < , then
0 |f (x)g(x) L1 L2 | |f (x) L1 ||L2 | + K |g(x) L2 | .
As x a, |f (x) L1 | 0 and so |f (x) L1 ||L2 | 0, by Rule 3. Similarly, |L1 | < 1 + |L1 | 0 as
x a. Therefore, by Rule 1, the right-hand side of inequality above tends to 0, as x a. It follows
by the squeeze theorem that |f (x)g(x) L1 L2 | 0 as x a, i.e., f (x)g(x) L1 L2 .
Proof of Rule 5 (Quotient Rule):
We write

1
1
|g(x) L2 |

=
.
L2
g(x)
|L2 | |g(x)|

There exist > 0 such that 0 < |x a| < |g(x)| > |L2 |/2. For such values of x then
0

1
1
2

|g(x) L2 | .
L2
g(x)
|L2 |2

As x a the right-hand side of this inequality tends to 0 (by using Rule 3). So by the squeeze theorem
1
1

0,
L2
g(x)

i.e.,

1
1

.
g(x)
L2

From this result and Rule 4,

f (x)
1
1
L1
= f (x)
L1
=
,
g(x)
g(x)
L2
L2
as required.

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