Teaching Models

1 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
TASK I: ARTICLE REVIEW

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A model of teaching may be defined as a blueprint designed in advance for
providing necessary structure and direction to the teacher for realizing the stipulated
objectives (Joyce and Weil, 1972). Educators use models of teaching to meet learning
needs of heterogeneous groups. There are a wide range of students learning style and
preference present in a classroom. Therefore, there is a need for educators to be aware of
individual differences in order to match their teaching model used in the classroom to
enhance students learning.
It would be not enough for a teacher to know only one or two teaching models,
because education has so many different types of approach and context. There is no one
models for all. A thorough knowledge of a number of models could lead to greater
teacher flexibility and efficiency. Understanding of several models could facilitate the
ability to adapt those models or to combine them with others, and offer valuable
approaches that enrich a teacher's repertoire (Zhang and Collis, 1995).

2.0 THE FOUR FAMILY OF MODELS
The models of teaching have been grouped into four families that share
orientations toward human beings and how they learn. These are the social family, the
information-processing family, the personal family, and the behavioral systems family.

2.1 THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS
The models in this family are designed to teach students the skills of learning through
thinking. They aim at increasing students ability to seek and master information,
organize it, build and test hypotheses, apply what they are learning in their independent
reading and writing and their exploration of themselves and the world around them. The
models in this family emphasize "Ways of enhancing the human being's innate drive to
make sense of the world by acquiring and organizing data, sensing problems and
generating solutions to them, and developing concepts and language for conveying them"
(Joyce and Weil, 1992, as cited in Zhang and Collis, 1995).

2.1.1 Inductive Thinking Model
This model attempts to increase the individuals ability to seek and master
information, organize it, build and test hypotheses, and apply what has been learned in
independent reading, writing, and the exploration of themselves and the world about them.
This model is designed to help develop inductive mental processes, especially the ability
to categorize and use categories. The model has a cooperative system, but the teacher is
the initiator and controller of activities. They match tasks to students level of cognitive
activity and determine students readiness.
In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction makes use of student
noticing. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with
examples, the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is
used. Basically, inductive reasoning goes from particular to general. This model can be
used effectively for teaching science concept and grammar.

Syntax
The essence of the inductive process is the continual collecting and sifting of
information; the construction of ideas, particularly categories, that provide conceptual
control over territories of information; the generation of hypotheses to be explored in an
effort to understand relationships better or provide solutions to problems; and the
conversion of knowledge into skills that have practical application (Joyce, 2009).
The sequences of different activities make syntax of the teaching strategies. Each
and every strategy has its three phases as under:
(i) Concept Formation:
Phase One: Enumerate and list
Phase Two: Group
Phase Three: Label, categorize
Concept formation includes identifying and numerating the data that are
relevant to a problem, grouping those items according to some basis of
similarity and developing categories and labels for the groups. The teacher
tries to encourage the students to find out, enumerate and make the list of

significant information related to a problem. On the basis of similarity, the
students further try categories and label for the groups.
(ii) Interpretation of Data
Phase Four: Identify dimensions and relationships
Phase Five: Explain dimensions and relationships.
Phase Six: Make inferences
This teaching strategy depends on the whole mental operation consisting the
process of interpreting, inferring and generalizing. The teacher may use the
questions to elicit the activities for identifying points.
(iii) Application of Principles:
Phase Seven: Hypothesize, predict, consequences
Phase Eight: Explain and/or support the predictions and hypotheses
Phase Nine: Very the prediction
At this stage, the teacher induces the students to explain new phenomena.

I nstructional and Nurturant Effects
This model is designed to instruct students in concept formation and at the same
time teach concepts. It nurtures attention to logic, language and the meaning of words,
and the nature of knowledge.

2.1.2 Concepts Attainment Model
This model is designed primarily to develop and achieve reasoning skill but also
for concept development and analysis. Concept attainment is the search for and listing of
attributes that can be used to distinguish exemplars from non-exemplars of various
categories (Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin, 1967 as cited in Joyce et al., 2009). This
model helps the individual learn categories and study how to learn and apply them. The
structure is moderate whereby teacher controls the sequence, but open dialogue occurs in
the latter phase.
The principle of reaction of this model include give support and help students
balance one hypothesis against another; focus attention on specific features of examples;

assist students in discussing and evaluating their thinking strategies. This model is
particularly effective in meeting the objectives related to comprehension, comparison,
discrimination, and recall.

Syntax
As stated by Joyce (2009), the concept attainment model consists of three phases.
(a) Phase one: presentation of data and identification of concept
Teacher presents labeled examples. Students compare attributes in positive and
negative examples and generate a hypothesis about the nature of the concept.
(b) Phase two: Testing attainment of the concept
Students identify additional unlabeled examples as yes or no. Teacher confirm
hypothesis, names concept, and restates definitions according to essential
attributes.
(c) Phase three: Analysis of thinking strategies
Students describe their patterns. They discuss role of hypotheses and attributes as
well as type and number of hypotheses.

The concept attainment strategy is designed for instruction on specific concepts
and on the nature of concepts. Besides, they also provide practice in inductive reasoning
and opportunities for altering and improving students concept building strategies. The
strategies nurture an awareness of alternative perspectives, sensitivity to logical reasoning
in communication, and a tolerance of ambiguity (Joyce, 2009).

2.1.3 Picture-word inductive model
This instructional approach focus on the use of familiar pictures of objects,
actions and scenes (Calhoun, 1999). It is an inquiry-oriented strategy that uses pictures to
elicit words from learners from children's listening and speaking vocabularies. This
model is designed by Calhoun aiming at primary level beginning readers and older
beginning or early stage readers (Joyce & Weil, 2009). Teachers use the PWIM with

classes, small groups, and individuals to lead them into inquiring about words, adding
words to their sight-reading and writing vocabularies, discovering phonetic and structural
principles, and using observation and analysis in their study of reading, writing,
comprehending, and composing.
This model can be used to teach phonics and spelling both inductively and
explicitly. However, the model is designed to capitalize on children's ability to think
inductively. The PWIM enables them to build generalizations that form the basis of
structural and phonetic analysis. And it respects their ability to think. Thus, a major
principle of the model is that students have the capability to make generalizations that can
help them to master the conventions of language.

Syntax
The sequence for carrying out PWIM in the classroom is shown below:
(a) Select a picture;
(b) Ask students to identify what they see;
(c) Label the picture parts;
(d) Read and review the picture chart;
(e) Ask the students to classify the words in several groups;
(f) Read and review the word chart;
(g) Add words
(h) Have students think of a title for their picture-word chart, and
(i) Ask students to generate the phrases/sentences.

The model is designed to teach students learn how to build their sight
vocabularies; to inquire into word and sentence structures; generate writing; create an
understanding of the reading or writing connection; develop skill in phonetic and
structural analysis; develop interest and ability to express through writing; increase
reading of nonfiction; develop cooperative skills in working with others in the
reading/writing area (Joyce 2009).

2.1.4 Inquiry Training Model
Inquiry training is designed to bring students directly into the scientific process
through exercises that compress the scientific process into small periods of time. The
training has resulted in an increased understanding of science, more creative thinking,
and skills for obtaining and analyzing information The students are active learners
involved in exploration, questioning, problem solving, inductive reasoning, invention,
labelling, and discovery. Inquiry encourages a system of cooperation, intellectual
freedom and equality.
The inquiry process will help students approach future problems with confidence
in their abilities to seek out the solution; to begin to consider success and failure as
information rather than reward or punishment; practice the process to develop the ability
to sense the relevance of variables, make intuitive leaps, and put problems into forms
with which they know how to work; and improve their memory process because when
they integrate material into their own cognitive structure, thus material is made more
readily retrievable.

Syntax
Inquiry training includes five phases:
(a) Phase one: Encounter with the Problem
Teacher gives the problem situation in the classroom. The teacher explains the
procedures of inquiry. At this phase, the teacher formulates objectives and also
the procedures of yes and no question. On the basis of simple ideas, they make a
very simple inquiry at the initial stage. This includes logical phenomena which
conflict with the reality. It is a discrepant event.
(b) Phase two: Data Gathering-Verification
The learners try to collect information about the problem on the basis of
observation, the learners got many experiences with the available information in
their surroundings.
(c) Phase Three: Data Gathering Experimentation
At this phase, the learners introduce some latest elements into the situation to
observe if the activity appears differently. The teachers role is to restrain students

whenever they assume that a variable to has been disapprove when it has not.
Teacher also develops the inquiry by increasing the obtained different kind of
information.
(d) Phase Four: Organizing, formulating and explanation
Students formulate various rules or explanations on the basis of information
collected by them. The students could leave the essential details at the time of
providing explanations or formulating rules. The teacher may ask more students
to provide their rules and explanations for revealing the level of differences.
(e) Phase Five: Analysis of the Inquiry process
The teachers direct the learners to make the analysis of their ways of inquiry. The
most effective questions might be ascertained by the learners. This phase is
important so that the students can make further improvement based on the
feedback.

The instructional effects include the promotion of strategies of inquiry which are
process skills that include observation, collecting and organizing data; identifying and
controlling variables; formulating and testing hypotheses and explanations; and making
inferences. This model nurtures active and autonomous learning, verbal expression and
listening skills, tolerance of ambiguity, persistence, logical thinking, and attitude that all
knowledge is tentative.

2.1.5 Memory Model
Memory models, which include a Link, Loci, Memory through Motion, and
Names and Faces, provide techniques to which both teachers and students can improve
their memory skills. An increase in the ability to memorize increases learning power,
saves time, and leads to a better storehouse of information. The social system is
cooperative. Teacher helps the student identify key items, pairs, and images, and offering
suggestions. The familiar elements must be primarily from students storehouse of
material.

Syntax
(a) Phase One: Attending to the Material
The learners focus on the learning material and organize it in a way that helps
them to remember. Generally, it emphasis on what need to be remembered the
major ideas and examples. This can be done by using technique of underlining,
listing and reflecting.
(b) Phase Two: Developing connections
At this phase, several memory techniques should be used to develop connections
with what is to be learned. It includes using techniques such as link words,
substitute words, and key words for long or complex passages. It is to connect the
new materials to familiar words, pictures or ideas, and to link images or words.
(c) Phase Three: Expanding sensory images.
At this phase, the images can be enhanced by asking the student to associate them
with more than one sense and use techniques of ridiculous association and
exaggeration. The images can be revised for greater recall power.
(d) Phase Four: Practicing recall.
Students are asked to practice recall of the material until it is completely learned.

This model is specifically designed to increase the capacity to store and retrieve
information. This model nurtures a sense of intellectual power-- a growing consciousness
of the ability to master unfamiliar material, as well as imagery skills and attention to
ones environment

2.1.6 Synectics
This model encourages creative thought by developing information-processing
skills. It enhances the ability to go beyond the known and synthesize fresh ideas and
solutions. This model encourages openness, non-rational, and creative expression.
Synectics uses group interaction to stimulate creative thought through metaphorical
analogies. The Synectics model is particularly effective for those objectives related to
exploration, comparison, identification, and insight.

Syntax
Syntax for creating something new is:
(a) Phase I: Description of the Present Condition
The teacher has students describe situation or topic as they see it now.
(b) Phase II: Direct Analogy
The teacher suggests an analogy and asks students to explain it
(c) Phase III: Personal Analogy
Students 'become' the analogy they selected in phase two.
(d) Phase IV: Compressed Conflict
Students point out the similarities between the new material and the direct
analogy.
(e) Phase V: Direct Analogy
Students generate & select another direct analogy, based on the compressed
conflict.
(f) Phase VI: Re-examination of the Original Task1
Teacher has students move back to original task or problem & use the last analogy
and/or the entire Synectics experience.
(g) Phase VII: Generating Analogy
Students repeat the analogy process in small groups, this time creating their own
analogies.

This model enhances the development of general creative power and creative
responses and capacity in a variety of subject-matter domains. The nurturant effects of
this model include interpersonal understanding and a sense of community; achievement
in a subject domain; and group cohesion and productivity (Miller and Anderson, 2007).
This model nurtures a sense of intellectual power-- a growing consciousness of the ability
to master unfamiliar material, as well as imagery skills and attention to ones
environment

2.5.7 Advance Organizer
Advance organisers were introduced by Ausubel (1963) who believes that the role
of a teacher is to organise subject matter and present information through lectures,
readings and providing tasks to the learner to integrate what has been learned (Joyce et al.,
2009).
Advance Organizers are organizational clues, tools that help to connect the known
to the unknown, and frameworks for helping students understand study materials. This
model designed to increase efficiency of information processing capacities meaningfully
absorbs and relate bodies of knowledge. It is designed to strengthen students cognitive
structures. Strengthening students cognitive structure in this way facilitates acquisition
and retention of new information and is one of the models primary goals.
Ausubel describes two types of organizers and identifies their optimal
applications. There are two types of organizers Expository and Comparative. The
organizers, which provide ideational anchorage, for completely unfamiliar material, are
called expository organizers. Expository Organizers are especially helpful because they
provide ideational scaffolding for unfamiliar material.
On the other hands, comparative Organizers are used most with relatively familiar
material. They are designed to integrate new concepts with basically similar concepts
existing in the cognitive structure; yet they are also designed to discriminate between the
old and new concepts in order to prevent confusion caused by similarity.

Syntax
It consists of three phases:
(a) Phase one: Presentation of Advance Organizer
Teacher clarifies aims of the lesson and present organizer. It is especially
important to prompt awareness of learner prior knowledge and experience that
might be relevant to this learning task and organizer at this phase.
(b) Phase two: Presentation of Learning Task or Material
The learning material is presented through lectures, films, scripts, discussion,
experiences, extra reading material etc. The learning is organized in logical order.
Attempts are made to maintain motivation and interest.

(c) Phase three: Strengthening Cognitive Organization:
The purpose of this stage is to anchor new material with old. This is where
integrative reconciliation is brought about. It can be done by asking the students
to prepare the summary of major attributes of new material, repeat definitions,
and ask students to differentiate the closely related subject.

The instructional effects are the ideas that are used as well as the information
presented to the students. Additionally it nurtures the ability to learn from reading,
lectures, and other media used for presentations. This model nurtures an interest in
inquiry and precise habits of thinking.

2.2 THE SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS
The models associated with the social interaction family are focused on developing the
concepts and skills needed to work in groups. The models in this family emphasize the
relationship of the individual with the society or other person. The core objective is to
help students learn to work together, to identify and solve problems, either academic or
social in nature. It emphasise the relationship to society, and to other persons, and give
priority to the importance of democratic process, and the importance of society.

2.2.1 Group I nvestigation Model
This model encourages cooperative inquiry into social and academic problems.
Teachers facilitate students in group work that incorporates the scientific methodology
for research. It is designed to lead students to define problems, explore various
perspectives on the problems, and study together to master information, ideas, and
skills (Joyce and Weil, 2004). It is designed for the development of skills for participation
in democratic social process through combined emphasis on interpersonal skills and
academic inquiry skills. Teacher plays a role as facilitator and academic counsellor.

Syntax
Joyce and Weil (2004) present the group investigation model as consisting of six phases:
(a) Phase One: Encounter Puzzling Situation
First, the teacher presents a multi-faceted problem to the class, and students
choose an interest group.
(b) Phase Two: Explore Reactions to the situation
Groups plan their investigation the procedures, tasks and goals consistent with
the chosen subtopic.
(c) Phase Three: Formulate study task and organize for study
Groups carry out the investigation as planned in the above step. The teacher's role
at this step is to follow the investigative process, offering help when required:
suggesting resources, ensuring a variety of skills is being used.

(d) Phase Four: Independent and Group Study
Groups plan their presentation. They evaluate what they have learned, and
synthesize it into a form that can be understood by the class.
(e) Phase Five: Analyse progress and process
Students analyze the required roles, organize themselves. Then, students conduct
the presentation.
(f) Phase Six: Recycle activity
Finally, the teacher and students evaluate the investigation and resulting
presentations. Throughout the process, group representatives often make reports
to the class, helping group members appreciate that they are part of a larger social
unit.

This model is a very direct and efficient way of teaching academic knowledge as
well as social process. Interpersonal warmth and trust is nurtured along with respect for
negotiated rules and policies, independence in learning, and respect for the dignity of
others.

2.2.2 Role-Playing Model
This model focuses on the study and development of social behavior and values.
Role play deals with the problems through actions, a problem is delineated, acted out, and
discussed. The Role Playing serves as a vehicle for students to i) explore their feelings ii)
gain insight into their attitudes, values, perceptions iii) develop their problem solving
skills and attitudes iv) explore subject matter in varied ways (Rajendrakumar, 2012).
This model is moderately structured. Teacher act as a guide throughout the
activity. They are reflective and supportive as well as given encouragement to the
students for free and honest expression of ideas and feelings. As stated by Joyce et al.
(2009), the teacher must adhere to the following principles: (i) Teacher should be non-
evaluative (ii) Teacher should provide avenues to explore learning (iii) Teacher should
effectively synthesis and consolidate learning.

The purpose of role playing is to help learners to understand an issue from
different points of view by acting it out either taking different roles or observing. It lets
learners develop and practice new language and behavioural skills in a relatively non-
threatening setting and can create the motivation and involvement necessary for learning
to occur.

Syntax
The Shaftels in Joyce and Weil (2009) suggest that the role-playing activity
consists of nine steps:
(a) Phase One: Warm up the group
The teacher introduces the problem to the learners who discuss the topic and
come up with real or imaginary examples. The teacher might use short film clips
or refer to television programme as illustrations. The teacher asks the learners to
predict what might be the outcomes of the situation.
(b) Phase Two: Select participants
The teacher discusses the various characters with the learners who consider what
they are like, how they feel and what they might do. The teacher could ask for
volunteers. Alternatively the teacher could allocate roles.
(c) Phase Three: Set the stage
The role players outline the scene but do not provide any dialogue, they talk
through the action. The teacher might prompt by asking a few simple questions.
(d) Phase Four: Prepare observers
Teacher allocates specific roles to observers such as commenting on the realism
or effectiveness of the actions taken, or defining the feelings characters
experienced and their thought processes. Observers comment on what the role
players were trying to achieve, what helped, what didnt and what else they might
have done.
(e) Phase Five: Enact
The role players assume their roles and live out the situation responding
realistically.

(f) Phase Six: Discuss and evaluate
If the observers are fully involved both intellectually and emotionally, the learners
may begin the discussion spontaneously. The teacher through careful questioning
could bring out different perceptions and interpretations, and then focus on the
characters motivations and the consequences.
(g) Phase Seven: Re-enact
Re-enactment could take place many times, to explore different actions and
interpretations, covering new possibilities for cause and effect.
(h) Phase Eight: Discuss and evaluate
This follows each enactment and learners consider whether the outcome or
solution is acceptable and realistic.
(i) Phase Nine: Share experiences and generalize
The teacher shapes the discussion so the learners begin to develop generalisations
about approaches to situations and the consequences of the approaches taken.

As stated by Joyce (2009), role-playing helps learners in the following aspects:
(a) Develop skills to analyse personal values and behaviour;
(b) Develop strategies for problem solving especially in the area of interpersonal or even
personal conflicts; and
(c) Develop the empathy for others.
Nurturant effects include the acquisition of information about social problems and
values, and comfort in expressing ones opinions.

2.2.3 Jurisprudential Inquiry Model
This model is concerned with learning to think about social policy. It utilizes the
case study method of law to explore social problems and policy. Students identify the
problem, look at various options and come to understand policy formulation. This model
can be used in any area where there are public policy issues for instance ethics in science,
business and sports etc. It is built around the analysis of case studies containing problems

that can only be solved by clarifying values and resolving conflicts and competing
demands.
As the students are researching, discussing, and debating, the teacher should
encourage the students to commit themselves to one side of the issue, but be supportive if
they change their minds when confronted with new evidence, and encourage them to
consider other points of view. At all times, the teacher should remain neutral on the issue,
encourage differentiation of positions, and promote synthesis of the different positions
presented to the class. This model intended to develop students competency in social
dialogue, enhances students involvement in social issues and social action, and develop
students in value synthesizing attitude.

Syntax
(a) Phase one: Orientation to the Case
The initial step of this model introduces students to the selected issue. For
example, discussing an incident in the lives of students, school or community.
After that, teacher review the facts by outlining the events in case.
(b) Phase two: Identifying the Issues
The students, working in their cooperative teams, use the library and other
resources to gather, clarify, and synthesize facts about the issue. The students
begin to identify values and value conflicts and raise questions about opposing
views.
(c) Phase Three: Taking Position
At this stage, students are asked to articulate position on the issue and state the
basis for their positions.
(d) Phase Four: Exploring the Stance, Patterns of Argumentation
Teacher asks for the basis or reasons for the positions. Students are asked to
establish the point at which value is violated. Students clarify the values conflict
through analogies. At the same time, students are asked to prove desirable or
undesirable consequences of a position and set value priorities.

(e) Phase Five: Refining and Qualifying the Position
During this time the students clarify their best arguments in support of the side of
the issue they represented.
(f) Phase Six: Testing Factual Assumptions behind Qualified Positions
The students take what they have learned and apply it to their surroundings.
Students must be able to see the value in the science they have learned and see
that, with this knowledge, they can have an impact.

Instructional effects include the mastery of the framework for analyzing issues.
Included is the ability to identify policy questions; application of social values to policy
stances; application of social values to policy stances; the use of analogies to explore
issues; and ability to identify and resolve definitional, factual, and value problems.
Nurturant effects include the capacity for social involvement and a desire for
social action; the values of pluralism and a respect for the point of view of others. It
advocates the triumph of reason over emotion in matters of social policy.

2.3 THE BEHAVIORAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS
This family attempts to build efficient environments for sequencing activities and for
shaping behaviour by manipulating reinforcement. These models were guided and
developed from an analysis of the processes by which human behaviour is shaped and
reinforced, and are based on behaviour modification, behaviour therapy, and cybernetics
theories. This family of models attempts to change the behaviour of the learner or
transmit the culture by teaching skills and knowledge. For instance, the learner is
considered to be a system that can be influenced by feedback. It is based on the concept
that information and abilities are best learned by doing. Teachers guide students through
tasks or processes step by step and give corrective feedback to establish understanding
and comprehension. It emphasis on the process itself is important to bring about
understanding.

2.3.1 Mastery Learning
Mastery Learning is an instructional strategy based on the principle that all
students can learn a set of reasonable objectives with appropriate instruction and
sufficient time to learn. It put the techniques of tutoring and individualized instruction
into a group learning situation and brings the learning strategies of successful students to
nearly all the students of a given group.
Carroll suggested that instruction should focus more on the time required for
different students to learn the same material. In Carolls view, student with very low
aptitude with respect to a particular kind of learning simply take a much longer time to
reach mastery than students with a higher aptitude. It means that students differ in the
amount of learning time they need. Carroll identified two factors that affected the
learning rate of a student, perseverance of the student, and the opportunity to learn.
Bloom suggested that although students vary widely in their learning rates and modalities,
if teachers could provide the necessary time and appropriate learning conditions, nearly
all students could reach a high level of achievement (Guske, 2010). In other words, all
learners can have the potential to learn any instruction given if they are given sufficient
time and quality instruction.

Syntax
(i) Teachers clearly state the objectives representing the purpose of course.
(ii) Teachers organize the important concepts and skills they want students to
acquire into learning units, each with their own objectives and assessment.
(iii) Learning materials and instructional strategies are identified; teaching,
modeling, practice, formative evaluation, re-teaching, reinforcement, and
summative evaluation are included.
(iv) Each unit is preceded by brief diagnostic test, or formative assessments.
Following high-quality initial instruction, teachers administer
a formative assessment that identifies precisely what students have learned
well and where they still need additional work.
(v) The results of formative tests are used to provide supplementary instruction,
or corrective activities to help the learner overcome problems.

This model allows struggling students an opportunity to master critical concepts
before new content is introduced. Besides, feedback that is given during this process is
helpful for the student. It also develops self-initiation and self-direction of learning.
Furthermore, each pupil will be able to develop a demonstrable degree of mastery.

2.3.2 Direct instruction Model
Direct instruction is skills-oriented, and the teaching practices it implies are
teacher-directed. These teaching functions included teaching in small steps with student
practice after each step, guiding students during initial practice, and ensuring that all
students experienced a high level of successful practice. It is a highly structured model
used most effectively when teaching basic skills such as reading and mathematics when
the tasks to be learned can be broken into small discreet pieces. This model is also
effective when teaching cognitive objectives related to recall and recognition of facts and
data. Psychomotor skills, such as holding a pencil, playing the violin, and throwing a
baseball are also effectively taught through this model (Gunter et.al. 1995).

Syntax
(a) Phase One: Orientation
Teacher establishes content of the lesson. Teacher makes connections between
what is already known and what is to be learned by reviewing previous learning.
The teacher explains clearly the learning objectives and learning outcomes for the
session and explains how they fit into the topic/course as a whole.
(b) Phase Two: Presentation
Teacher explains the new concept or skills and provides demonstration and
examples. During the demonstration the teacher explains clearly and carefully,
describing the process, both how and why, and explaining by thinking out
loud throughout the demonstration. The material should be organized step by
step with each step building on the last. After that, teacher checks to see that
students have understood the new information before they apply it in the practice
phase.
(c) Phase Three: Structured Practice
The teacher leads students through practice examples, working through each step.
The teacher checks and corrects any errors at this stage.
(d) Phase Four: Guided Practice
Students practice on their own with support. At this phase, teacher access students
abilities to perform the learning task. Teacher also monitors students work,
providing corrective feedback through praise, prompt and leave.
(e) Phase Five: Independent Practice
Learners could work individually or in pairs with supervision as required. The
teacher checks and corrects learners work and provides positive feedback.
Teachers could ask learners to check and review each others work.

The instructional effects of this model include mastery of content material and
skills; Student motivation; and self pacing ability. Through success and positive feedback
this model enhances self-esteem (Miller and Anderson, 2007).

2.3.3 Simulation Model
Simulation is a representation of reality in which learners can receive instruction
and acquire concepts and skills. It represents the natural way of learn by doing.
Instruction is designed to create an environment for the learner in which full feedback
takes place. Learning objectives and learning outcomes are concerned with acquiring
concepts, performing tasks and solving problems in simulated realistic conditions.

Syntax
The simulation model has four phases, as defined by Joyce et al (2008): orientation,
participant training, the simulation itself and debriefing.
(a) Phase One: Orientation
The teacher presents the topic to be explored and the concepts within the
simulation. The teacher could provide an overview and explanation to
contextualise the simulation.
(b) Phase Two: Participant Training
The learners begin to get involved in the simulation. The teacher explains all the
rules, roles and procedures for the simulation and could organise a brief practice
or dry run so the learners understand exactly what they need to do.
(c) Phase Three: Simulation Operation
Students take part in the simulation, and the teacher acts as referee and coach. The
teacher could stop the simulation at various points to provide feedback or
clarification and so that learners can evaluate their performances.
(d) Phase Four: Participant Debriefing
Teacher helps student to summarize the events and their perceptions. At the same
time, they analayse the process of simulation and compared it to the real world.
They could relate the activity to the course content or reappraise and redesign the
simulation.

The instructional effects of this model include the acquisition of skills and
concepts and knowledge of political and economic systems. It nurtures the development

of concepts and skills; critical thing and decision making; empathy; knowledge of
political, social, and economic systems; awareness of the role of chance; facing
consequences; and a sense of effectiveness.

2.4 THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS
The models in this family focus on the individual and give emphasize on the development
of integrated feeling, thinking self the personal identity. They shape the environment
around the capacity for self-education and the need to develop self-awareness and
understanding. The personal family models begin with the perspective of the individual
and allow teachers to impact self awareness so that learners become responsible of their
own growth. The emphasis of this model is on developing an individual into an integrated
confident and competent personality. They attempt to help students understand
themselves and their goal, and to develop the means for educating themselves.

2.4.1 Non-directive Teaching Model
The non-directive model brings student and teacher together in a cooperative
effort to guide the student to autonomy as a learner. The teacher acts as a facilitator
providing coaching assistance whereas student initiates. In this model, the teacher
reaches out to students, conducts empathetic communication which nurtures and
develops the students self-confidence and direction to help students define problems and
take action to achieve solutions. We use nondirective techniques when we are counselling
the students, synectics to enhance creativity, classroom meetings to build the community
of learners.

Syntax
The nondirective interview has a sequence divided into five phases of activity:
(a) Phase I: Defining the helping situation.
The instructor encourages the students to express their expressions freely.
(b) Phase II: Exploring the Problem
Students are encouraged to define problem and teacher accepts and clarifies
feelings.
(c) Phase III: Developing insights
Student discuss problem and support is given by the teacher.

(d) Phase IV: Planning and Decision Making
Students plans initial decision making. Teacher clarifies possible decision.
(e) Phase V: Integration
Students gains further insight and develop more positive actions. Teacher is
supportive.

The activities of this model are determined by the learner as he or she interacts
with the teacher and other learners. The instructional effects are dependent on its success
in nurturing more effective self-development. The model can be thought of as entirely
nurturant in character dependent for effects on experiencing the Nondirective
environment rather than carrying content and skills through specifically designed
activities. The nurturant effects of this model include self-development; personal
awareness; and a variety of social and academic goals.

2.4.2 Developing Positive Self-concepts
Self concept is a persons perception of him or herself. The enhancement of
students self-concepts is valued as a goal of education, and as a moderator and perhaps a
cause of scholastic achievement.

Students can learn, not only academic content and social skills, but how to
become integrated selves that reach out into the world and reciprocally contribute to and
profit from their transactions with it. (Joyce at. el, 2009).

Understanding differences in personalities can help the teacher develop a learning
community that is sensitive to students and responsive to their needs. Joyce, Weil and
Calhoun mention that the Omnivores are self-actualizing, the Passive-Consumers feel
competent but dependent, and the Reticent-Consumers feel that they live in a threatening
world. Thus, it would appear that the Omnivores are the only ones that will develop
positive self-concepts.

Since the learning community influences how students feel about themselves,
how they interact, and how they learn, it is important that the environment be welcoming
to all types of individuals. There are a few suggestions that can help foster growth in all
students: teacher should have high expectations for all students and push all towards
excellence; the teacher should model activity and openness and encourage students to
reach out the world; provide continuous and positive feedback to students.

3.0 CONCLUSION
The study of teaching models is essential for educator to explore different
teaching strategies, pedagogical and curricular design, instructional materials and
learning sources, and even the design of learning environments. An intelligent use of
these approaches enables the teacher to adopt him to the learning needs of the students.

References:
Carnine, J., Silbert, E.J., Kame'enui, S. G. (2004). Direct Instruction Reading edition.
Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/what-direct-
instruction/
Guskey, T. R. (2010). Lessons of Mastery Learning. Interventions That Work, 68(2). 52-
57. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-
leadership/oct10/vol68/num02/Lessons-of-Mastery-Learning.aspx
Huitt, W. (2003). Models of teaching/instruction. Educational Psychology Interactive.
Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved
from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/instruct/instmdls.html
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of Teaching. United States of
America: Pearson Education. Inc.
Miller, A.S., Anderson, S.E. (2007). Development of a Matrix of Teaching Models Based
on Instructional and Nurturant Effects. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED497958.pdf
Mujibul, H. S. (2013). Nondirective Teaching Model: An Effective Way of Counseling.
GRA Global Research Analysis, 2(4). Retrieved from
http://theglobaljournals.com/gra/file.php?val=NjU4
Rajendrakumar, P. (2012). Effectiveness of Role Playing Model (RPM). Indian Streams
Research Journal, 2(8). Retrieved from www.isrj.net
Satheesh, K. (2009). Teaching and Learning Models. Educational Technology For all.
Retrieved from http://sathitech.blogspot.com/2009/03/teaching-and-learning-
models.html
Shamnad, N. (2005). Effectiveness of Concept Attainment model on Achievement in
Arabic Grammar of Standard IX students. School of Pedagogical Science:
Mahatma Chandhi University. Retrieved from
http://arabicuniversitycollege.yolasite.com/resources/Faculty/NS/Dissertations/Eff
ectiveness%20of%20Concept%20Attainment%20Model%20on%20achievment%
20in%20Arabic%20grammar%20of%20standard%20IX%20%20Students.pdf

Zhang, J. P., Collis, B. (1995). A Comparison of Teaching Models in the West and in
China. Journal of Instructional Science and Technology, 1(1). Retrieved from
http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/e-jist/docs/vol1no1/article3.htm

TASK II: Planning, designing and implementing a teaching-learning model

1.0 Description of the Learners Learning Concern.

This science lesson is designed for students in the age of 8 who study in 3K at
SJK(C) Chung Hua Engkilili. There are 21 pupils in the mixed ability class.

Students who perform well take part actively in the class. Generally, they are
innovative and participating actively in scientific inquiry. They are eager to ask questions
in the Science lesson whenever they were puzzled. They do not easily give up on finding
solutions for the problems they face. They always show their effort by doing research on
the questions until they get the answer. Most of them are independent learners and able to
solve problem independently. They have good observation on things happened in their
surrounding and they like to discover by their own.

Besides, they love to do with hands-on activity and experiments. They are willing
to contribute materials or specimens voluntarily during hands-on activity or experiments
as requested by teacher. Not only that, they are able to create model such as model of
respiration system to share and explain about the models to their friends in class. They
did show enthusiasm and curiosity towards Science worlds. It can be seen through their
active participation in the activities held by Science committee in the schools such as
Science invention competition, handmade recycled materials for selling, planting
vegetables competition, decorating Science board with recycled materials and so on.

These students are able to understand concept deeply and pose higher
achievement. This can be shown by their performance in the monthly and yearly
assessment in school as well as practical assessment (PEKA). They did very well in both
assessments.

Students who perform average in the class are better in memorizing facts but
weak in application. They are weak in Science process skills such as observation,

categorising, analyzing, and communicating skills. This is shown by their score in the
paper test assessment and practical assessment (PEKA). They did well in the paper test
assessment but perform low achievement when comes to practical assessment. These
students did raise questions in class but not frequently. They do not have good
questioning skills and seldom figure out answers by their own. They used to be spoon
feeding rather than exploring by them. Hence, sometime they are passive in learning and
cannot work independently.

They have lower ability to explain the concept compared to good performance
students. However, they show their interest during group work. This might due to
language barrier. After a verbal interview with the language teacher, it is found that this
group of learners shows low ability and test score in language. The language teacher also
mentioned that this group of students seldom express their thought and give opinion in
class. Due to language barrier, they are lack of confidence to present and raise question in
the class.

There are 5 poor learners in the classroom who are passive in Science learning.
They are lack of confidence to work independently and have less social interaction in the
classroom. They do not interact with people, share their insights or contribute to the
conversation. In addition, they are weak in questioning and problem solving compared to
the good learners. This is due to the problem they faced in communication skills. They
only do what is required of them and they do not participate in class. They also show
short attention span in the Science class. Hence, this group of learners is disadvantaged
and they have less understanding in the content area.

These students received low or failing grades, which in turn caused them to lose
confidence in their ability to do well in Science. As a result, they developed a sense of
inferiority and became discouraged. They quietly take in new information and knowledge,
but they typically do not engage with the information they get.

2.0 Description and Justification of the Choice of Model.

The model I have selected to design the lesson plan is the inquiry training model
which is one of the models from information-processing family. Inquiry training is
designed to bring students directly into the scientific process through exercise that
compress the scientific process into small periods of time (Joyce, Weil and Calhoun,
2009). Schlenker (1991) cited in Joyce et al. (2009) reported that inquiry training resulted
in increased understanding of science, productivity in creative thinking and skills for
obtaining and analysing information.

Inquiry training was developed by Richard Suchman (1962) to teach students a
process for investigating and explaining unusual phenomena. The general goal of inquiry
training is to help student develop intellectual discipline and skills necessary to raise
questions and search out answers stemming from curiosity (Joyce, Weil and Calhoun,
2009).

The theory given by Suchman indicate that people inquire naturally when they are
puzzled, they can become conscious of and learn to analyze their thinking strategies, new
strategies can be sought directly and added to the students existing one, cooperative
inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the tentative, emergent nature
of knowledge and to appreciate alternative explanations.

Inquiry training model gives more emphasis on developing awareness of and
mastering the inquiry process. Inquiry training model of teaching has five phases which
are encounter with the problem data gathering verification, data gathering
experimentation, formulating an explanation, analysis of the inquiry process

The teachers role is to construct the problem situation, to referee the inquiry
procedures, to respond to students inquiry probes with the necessary information, to help
students establish a focus in them, and to facilitate discussion of the problem situation
among the students.

Inquiry training teaching model allow students questions and curiosities to drive
curriculum. Inquiry training capitalizes on their natural energetic explorations (Joyce et
al., 2009). It begins with gathering information though applying the human senses
seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. It also involves learners in developing
questioning, research and communication skills. Besides, learners involve in solving
problems or creating solutions.

I chose inquiry training model to implement in the lesson in order to address the
average group of students in 3K who are weak in scientific process skills. This model
intended to develop their ability in creative and critic thinking as well as problem solving
skills. Through this model, students are encouraged to interact with others and express
their ideas. This will be able to improve on their communication skills too.

Inquiry training model encourage students take part actively in scientific process.
This encourages students-centered learning in the Science class. Thus, students from the
average group will be able to develop deep understanding of content knowledge rather
than rote memorizing via meaningful learning.

At the same time, this model intended to address the learning concerns of the
students from poor group who are passive in Science learning. Based on the model, it
promotes active role of students. Students learn by doing so that they have better
attention span through an attractive activity. Inquiry training begins by presenting
students with puzzling event. Suchman believes that individuals faced with such a
situation are natural motivated to solve the puzzle. The models also help this group of
learners to build self confident and to elaborate and explain on problems. Students are
expected to be curious, active, and creative, solve problem and independence in learning
through the inquiry model.

In addition, group investigation model from the social family was integrated into
the lesson plan too. As Lesh and Doerr (2003) described, collaboration can increase
motivation and perseverance, since, working collaboratively provides a diversity of

personal cultures and experiences from which the group can draw to make sense of the
situation.

Thus, through the implementation of group investigation model, it is expected that
good performing students in the classroom are able to lead and guide poorer students in
the inquiry process. Involving in the group investigation result in rich discussions and
hence deepening student understandings. It aims to motivate and develop thinking skills
as well as collaborative skills in passive learners.

All in all, in a rapidly changing information environment, memorizing facts and
information is not the most important skill. What is needed is an understanding of how to
get and make sense of the mass of data. Educators must move toward the generation of
useful and applicable knowledge. This is a process supported by inquiry learning.

3.0 MODELS OF INQUIRY TRAINING LESSON PLAN
Subject Area: Science Specific Content: Magnet
Grade Level: Year 3 Length of Lesson: 60 minutes
Learning Objective:
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to distinguish between magnets and
non magnets.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
1. Demonstrate that certain materials are attracted to magnets and some are not after
the experiment.

Prerequisite Knowledge or Behaviours Needed:
Students already learned the proper way to handle magnets properly.
Students know some metal attract materials. They learned about metal and non metal.

Materials:
Variety of objects including some that will and some that will not be attracted
by a magnet (paper clip, nail, aluminiums can, tin can, spoon, coins, pieces of
cloth, piece of paper, small comb)
Strong magnet.

Phase One: Confrontation with the Problem (5 minutes)

The teacher presents a discrepant event, which motivates the students to find out the
answer. Students are introduced and confronted with the puzzling situation.

Procedures:
1. Teacher prepares probes to use in the set induction before the lesson:
Begin by cutting a piece of string about 2/3 the length of the jar (from
bottom to top).

Tie the paper clip to one end of the string.
With the pencil, draw a small ghost image on the white construction paper
Cut out the ghost image.
Insert the ghost cut-out into the paperclip
Tape the free end of the string to the inside of the bottom of the jar.
Tape the magnet to the inside of the jar lid.
Place the lid on the jar and turn it upside down so that the paper clip with
ghost hangs from the string.
Carefully turn the jar right side up. The paper clip will be pulled by the
magnet and the ghost will remain upright. It will appear that the paper clip
is suspended in the air, and that the ghost is magically floating.
2. Teacher shows a magic as set induction - Ghost Floating as describe above to
begin the lesson.
2. Teacher presents the problem: Why was the ghost floating magically?
3. Teacher explain the inquiry procedures to the students

Observing this event, the students are surprised and a question comes to their mind,
"How can this happen?" or "Why does the paper ghost behave in this manner? In this
way, they are naturally motivated to solve the puzzle. The goal is to arouse students
interest and curiosity in the lesson and promote students thinking towards the
problems presented. It also helps students to develop skills necessary to raise
questions and search out answer stemming from their curiosity. Students use the
technique of inquiry training to find out why things are as they are.

Phase Two: Data Gathering Verification (10 minutes)

In order to find out the answers for this question then the teacher explains the
procedure of inquiry. Now the students have to ask questions to the teacher, which
can be answered only in the form of "Yes" or "No. Students gather information by
asking question about the magic or problem they see or experience.

Procedures:
1. Teacher ask children to formulate hypothesis by asking eliciting question:
What can you see from the magic shown?
Do you have any ideas on the floating ghost?
Can you guess what is inside the jar?
2. Teacher allows students to ask question on the puzzling event.
3. Teacher introduces the students with the rules of questioning.
4. Students begin to identify the materials that make up the ghost and the events
that took place by asking question to the teacher.

The students ask question based on their hunches and assumptions and also modify
their questions on the basis of information they get from the teacher while answering
other's questions. This continues till the students find out the answer. Though the role
of teacher is very important in this process, it is the students who are fully involved in
finding out the solution. In this stage, students are taught to verify the facts of the
situation and identify the identity of the objects, the events and the conditions
surrounding the puzzling event. They begin to develop hypotheses and it guide further
inquiry. This activity gives the students and experience in collecting information
(through asking questions, listening to others, by experimenting) as well as generating
and testing hypotheses.

Phase Three: Data Gathering Experimentation (20 minutes)

In this phase, students conduct experiments to test the hypotheses. Students design an
investigation.

Procedures:
1. Teacher divides the class into groups, providing each group with the materials and
several magnets.
2. Students are going to be investigator that discover what the magnets do and how
they affect other objects.

3. Students hang out a pair of magnets and discover what the magnets do when place
them close to each other.
Teacher asks:
What happens when you put the two magnets together?
Do the magnets act differently if you put different ends of the magnets towards one
another?
4. Students discover how magnet affects other objects.
Teacher asks:
Why do you think that the magnet will attract these objects?
What are we supposed to do with the objects?
[Put the objects and the magnets close together and see what happen.]
What we are supposed to record on the chart?
[Write what happened when the magnet and objects are placed close together.]
5. Students predict which materials will be attracted by the magnet and which will
not. Students devise charts on which to record their predictions.
6. Have group members take turns testing each object with the magnet. On their
charts, they record what was attracted by the magnet and what was not. Were their
predictions confirmed?

Students are actively seeking solutions, designing and asking new question. Students
learn to think and problem solve.

Phase Four: Organising, Formulating an Explanation (15 minutes)

After the experiments, teacher calls on the students to organize the data and to
formulate an explanation. Together with the group, they can shape the explanation
that fully responds to the problem situation.
Procedures:
1. Students talk about their observation, that is, what happened when you placed
the magnet near to the other object.
2. Students explain the results of their experiments.

3. The explanation should include reasons that the specific materials with which
students experimented were or were not attracted by a magnet.
4. Have students share their explanations with their groups.
Teacher guide students explanation by asks questions:
Which objects were attracted to the magnet?
Which objects were not attracted to the magnet?
Are there any differences or similarities?
What is the same and different about the objects that makes them attracted to
the magnet?
Were most of the objects attracted to the magnet?
What were the objects that are attracted to the magnet made of?
5. Finally, teacher guide students to solve the puzzling situation.
Can you explain why the paper ghost in jar is floating?
Now, do you know what is the paper ghost made of?

Students actively involved in making observations, collecting and analyzing
information, synthesizing information, and drawing conclusions. In this way, they are
developing useful problem-solving skills.

Phase Five: Analysis of the Inquiry Process (10 minutes)

In this phase, students examining the process they have worked through - considering
the stages of the process and the effectiveness of the different questions which have
been asked.
1. Teacher asks the students to analyze their pattern of inquiry. The teacher analyses
the process of inquiry by asking the following questions.
What kind of questions did you ask first?
Did those questions help you in getting the answer to your problem?
What hypotheses did you frame after gathering certain facts?
How did you arrive at the solution?
2. Students discuss ways that they could have improved their inquiry.

References:
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of Teaching. United States of
America: Pearson Education. Inc.
Nada, S. A. (1998). Inquiry Model and Lesson Plan. Instructional Procedures. Retrieved
from:http://www.nadasisland.com/nada-inquiry.html
Lesh, R. & Doerr, H. (2003). Beyond constructivism: Models and modelling perspectives
on mathematics problem solving, learning, and teaching. Mahwah, NY: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Mujibul, H. S. (2013). Inquiry Training Model of Teaching: A Search of Learning.
International Journal of Scientific Research, 2(3). Retrieved from
http://theglobaljournals.com/ijsr/file.php?val=NjEz

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1 HMEF5123 MODELS AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

TASK I: ARTICLE REVIEW

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