Grounding Fundamentals Course Presentation

Grounding Fundamentals
Instructor: Allan Bozek, P.Eng.

www EngWorks ca www.EngWorks.ca
1 5
EIC
CEUs 1. 5 CEUs
Introduction
Introductions Introductions
Please introduce yourself name, job title and
experience experience
Sign-in sheet circulated, everyone please sign
in and return
Emergency response requirements
Please turn off all cell phones or turn to silent Please turn off all cell phones or turn to silent
mode
Washrooms and Breaks
2 www.EngWorks.ca Grounding Fundamentals 2
Safety Topic
Static Electricity and Refuelling y g
www.EngWorks.ca Grounding Fundamentals 3
Safety Topic
Static Electricity and Refuelling y g
Some statistics
Petroleum Equipment Institute reports 175 fires since
1992 1992
50% of the accidents occurred when the refueler returned
to their vehicle
Women account for 75% of all static ignition fires Women account for 75% of all static ignition fires
Safety Guidelines when refueling
Turn off engine
D 't k Don't smoke
Never re-enter your vehicle while refueling.
Do not overfill or top off your tank
If a fire starts
Do not remove the nozzle from the vehicle or try to stop
the flow of gasoline. Immediately leave the area and call g y
for help
Learning Objectives
1. To understand why we ground
2 To describe the difference between grounding and 2. To describe the difference between grounding and
bonding
3. To apply the safety requirements as defined by the 3. To apply the safety requirements as defined by the
Canadian Electrical Code and the IEEE as they
relate to grounding
4. To select the appropriate systems grounding
scheme for an industrial facility
Sizing of components
How it impacts the overall design of a facility
Learning Objectives
5. To implement a static electricity control and
lightning protection system g g p y
6. To avoid the problems typically associated with the
grounding of sensitive electronic systems g g y
Ground loops
Methods of noise mitigation
7. To design a ground grid for a high voltage industrial
substation
Concept of ground potential rise and touch and step
potential
Agenda Overview
1. History of Grounding
2 System grounding 2. System grounding
Generator and UPS systems grounding
3 Equipment bonding 3. Equipment bonding
4. Static Protection
5 Lightning Protection 5. Lightning Protection
6. Grounding of Electronic and Instrumentation
Systems Systems
7. Station Ground Grid Systems Design
8 T t i l 8. Tutorial
Introduction
Section 1
Edison's Pearl Street Generation Station
Pearl Street Generation
station was initially station was initially
constructed in 1882 to
provide DC current for
lighting systems in New
York's financial district
Edisons Floating Approach to DC
Systems y
Original design used an earth ground for DC
lighting systems lighting systems
Several incidents associated with stray
currents forced Edison to revise his plan currents forced Edison to revise his plan
One dead horse
W k b th ti t ti ld f l Workers nearby the generating station could feel
the current
Believed the there was a devil in the wire Believed the there was a devil in the wire
Edisons Floating Approach to DC
Systems y
Current Flow
G
L
L
+
Gen
L
L
Intended
Return
Path
-
Unintended
Return Path
Human Sensitivity to Electricity
Physiological Reaction to y g
Electric Current
Range from minor muscular
contraction to ventricular
fibrillation
Function of body weight y g
Current magnitude
Current duration
H b d b id d 1000 i t
Human body can be considered a 1000 resistor
Human Sensitivity to Electricity
Direct Current Alternating Current
Human Response
(ma)
g
(ma)
Men Women Men Women
Slight Sensation on Hand
1 0.6 0.4 0.3
Let Go Threshold
6.2 3.5 1.1 0.7
Shock Not Painful
9 6 1.8 1.2
Painful Shock Muscular
62 41 9 6
Control Loss
Severe Shock
Breathing Difficult
90 60 23 15
Edison's Isolated 3 Wire System
Edison later adopted a 3-
wire system that did not
Positive
y
rely on a earth path for
return
G1
L
L
+
100V
Allowed two circuits to be run
with three wires
Circuit was isolated from
G1
-
+
Neutral
200V
Circuit was isolated from
ground
All currents within the circuit
G2
L
L
+
-
100V
could be measured and
accounted for
Negative
Shock Current Path
A shock current path
requires two points
Single point of
contact
q p
One point for the current
to enter and the second
to exit to exit
Voltage difference is
required for current to
flo
G1
L
N l
flow
An isolated system under
normal operating conditions
Neutral
Isolated Ground
S t
insures a single point of
contact
System
No Shock Current Exists
Shock Current Path
Under fault conditions,
an isolated system
Single point of
t t A id t l
an isolated system
ground creates a shock
hazard
contact Accidental
Ground
G1
L
Neutral
Alternate circuit path
leads to shock hazard leads to shock hazard
Ground Fault Detection
An isolated system cannot detect the presence
of a ground fault of a ground fault
F
u
s
e
Accidental
Ground
Circuit protection
cannot detect
G1
L
Neutral
the accidental
ground
System Overvoltage and Surges
An isolated system cannot dissipate a high
voltage surge voltage surge
Usually results in equipment damage
Lightning
Equipment insulation
is stressed as the
F
u
s
e
Lightning
Strike
is stressed as the
high voltage surge
finds its way to
G1
L
Neutral
ground
The Intentional Grounding of Circuits
Elihu Thompson
Founder of Thompson-Houston
Industries
Later merged with Edison General and
became General Electric
Author of over 700 patents
Advocated AC systems should
be intentionally earthed be intentionally earthed
Proposed as a safeguard against a
breakdown in insulation of a
primary circuit conductor
Proposal created a large amount of
controversyy
Grounding Premise
An intentionally grounded circuit provides a circuit
path back to the source in the event of an p
accidental ground
Allows the circuit protective devices to function p
preventing the circuit from becoming a safety
hazard
Low Impedance
path to source
G1
L
F
u
s
e
Accidental
Ground
path to source
allows fuse to
operate
G1
L
Neutral
History of Grounding
Practice of earthing the secondary (neutral)
conductor was banned by the New York Board of conductor was banned by the New York Board of
Fire Underwriters
Speculation that Thomas Edison was behind the p
scenes with his patented 3 wire un-grounded circuit
AIEE (Precursor to the IEEE) recommended that
low voltage AC systems be grounded where a low voltage AC systems be grounded where a
reliable ground connection could be secured
Advocated a solid connection without a fuse on the
t l i neutral wire
History of Grounding
NFPA later resolved that grounding the secondary
circuit was the only way of absolutely insuring the
f t f th i it safety of the circuit
The debate continued from 1903 1913 when it was
passed into law
Secondaries of all circuits 550V or less must be grounded
Recommended that all circuits 300V or less be grounded
Original rule has not been changed in substance Original rule has not been changed in substance
since the original 1913 rule in the NEC
Section 10 of the CEC Part 1 also adheres to the
fundamental premise of the rule
Canadian Electrical Code - Part 1
CSA C22.1-06
Minimum safety standards
for installation and
maintenance of electrical
equipment
Compliance will ensure a
safe installation
Section 10 deals Section 10 deals
specifically with grounding
and bonding and bonding
Significant re-write in 2006
Minor updates in 2009 p
Canadian Electrical Code - Part 1
CSA C22.1-06
Scope and object: Rules 10-000 and Rule 10-002
Protect life from the danger of shock g
Limit the voltage on a circuit
Facilitate operation of protective devices
System and circuit grounding: Rules 10-100 to
10-116
All circuits must be grounded with the exception of:
Electric Arc furnaces
Cranes installed in Class III locations Cranes installed in Class III locations
Isolated systems in patient care areas
Circuits less than 50V
CEC Handbook
Provides background
information and commentary
th R l f th C di on the Rules of the Canadian
Electrical Code, Part I
Intended to provide a clearer Intended to provide a clearer
understanding of the safety
requirements of the Code
I t i f ti Incorporates information on:
Rational
Intent Intent
Field Considerations
IEEE Standard 142
(Green Book) ( )
Recommended practices and
methods associated with
grounding
Systems grounding
Equipment grounding and bonding Equipment grounding and bonding
Static and lightning protection
Grounding electrode design
Grounding of electronic equipment
Applies to industrial and
commercial power systems commercial power systems
Utility grounding methods are not
covered
Recommended Purchase
Commonly Used Grounding Terms and
Definitions
Neutral Point
Neutral Conductor
Metallic
Neutral Ground
Device
Metallic
Enclosure
Grounding
Conductor
Bonding Conductor
Stray Current
Earth
Grounding
Electrode
Earth
Conducting body of varying resistance
Earthing A connection to earth Earthing A connection to earth
Interchangeable with the term ground
Earth
Earth
Ground
A conducting connection by which an electrical circuit
is connected to earth
Grounding Electrode a conductor buried in earth and
used for collecting or dissipating ground current to earth
Grounding Conductor conductor used to connect the g
service equipment to a ground electrode
Grounding G g
Conductor
Grounding
Grounding
Electrode
Bonding
Low impedance path created by joining all non-
current-carrying metal parts to ensure electrical
ti it continuity
Bonding Conductor conductor that connects the non-
current carrying parts of electrical equipment, raceways or
enclosures
B di C d t Bonding Conductor
(Equipment ground conductor)
Neutral Point
The point of a symmetrical system which is normally
at zero voltage g
Neutral Conductor a system conductor, other than a
phase conductor that provides a return path for current to
the source the source
Neutral Point
Neutral Ground
Neutral Conductor
Device
Definitions
Ground Fault Current ground current resulting
from any phase-conductor-to-earth fault y p
Normal brief flow of current that occurs until the
protective device opens
Abnormal continuous flow of current from a phase
conductor to ground
Often referred to as the Zero Sequence Current Often referred to as the Zero Sequence Current
Neutral grounding devices include grounding
resistors, grounding transformers, ground-fault resistors, grounding transformers, ground fault
neutralizers, reactors, capacitors, or a combination of
these components
Ground Fault Current
Metallic
Intended
G d F lt
Metallic
Enclosure
Neutral Ground
Device
Ground Fault
Current Path
Ground Fault
Earth
Stray Current
The uncontrolled flow of current over and through
the earth
results in undesired safety and system performance
characteristics
Stray Current
Earth
Stray Current
Earth
Systems Grounding
Section 2
Purpose of a Systems Ground
System grounding, or the intentional connection
f h t l d t t th i f of a phase or neutral conductor to earth, is for
the purpose of controlling the voltage to earth,
or ground within predictable limits or ground, within predictable limits
Most system faults are ground fault related
IEEE 142 Green Book
Most system faults are ground fault related
Systems Ground
A systems ground will:
Control the voltage to ground to prevent stressing g g p g
equipment insulation
Allow the operation of ground fault detection protection
d i devices
Reduce the risk of fire and shock hazard to persons who
might come in contact with live conductors might come in contact with live conductors
In some cases provide service continuity
Allow the ground fault to be isolated and repaired at a convenient
ti time
Concept of a System Ground
A grounding system
consists of all
Systems
Ground 1
interconnected grounding
connections in a specific
Y
Ground 1
Systems
Ground 2
power system and is
isolated from adjacent;
grounding systems through
Y
Y
Y
Systems
grounding systems through
a high impedance
Isolation occurs via an
M M
M
Y
Y
Y
Systems
Ground 3
Isolation occurs via an
ungrounded transformer
winding connection
PP
Systems
Ground 4
Transformer Winding Connections
(delta) Connections
Isolates the power system p y
from ground
Important is creating zones of
protection
Y (wye) Connections
Y point provides a neutral point
for managing ground faults for managing ground faults
Opportunity for multiple
voltages
System Grounding Classifications
Ungrounded
Solid Ground
Resistance Ground Reactance Ground
System Grounding Classifications
Systems Grounding
Ungrounded Grounded
Impedance
Grounded
Solid
Grounded
Resistance
Reactance
Low
Resistance
High
Resistance
Reactance Tuned
Reactance
Reactance
Ungrounded
Historically was used on power systems where a
high level of process continuity was required g p y q
Exists in many process facilities designed prior to 1980
Advantages g
Single ground fault does not does not allow current to flow
Allowed for a controlled shutdown for fault repairs
f Eliminates the need for elaborate protection schemes
Grounding system cost is minimized A
N
G
B
C
Ungrounded
Disadvantages
On a ground faults, the voltage to ground for the remaining g , g g g
phases is elevated by 73%
Higher insulation rating required for system components
T i t lt b bl Transient overvoltages can be a problem
Voltages up to 6X system voltage stresses insulation eventually
leading to a second ground fault and subsequently a phase to
phase fault
Ground Fault Voltage Shift
Normal Operating Conditions
A
A
I
A
N
V
AG
I
A
I
B
B
C
I
B
I
N
A
B
C
V
CG
V
BG
I
C
C
A
C
B
C
C
I
C
N
V
AN V
CN
A
V
CA
V
AB
V
AG
G
V
BN
If C
A
= C
B
= C
C
then I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
= 0
B
C
G
V
CA
AB
V
BC
V
CG
V
BG
N
A B C A B C
Ground Fault Voltage Shift
Ground Fault Phase C
A
V
AG
I
B
I
G
A
V
BG
B
C
G
V
CG
=0
I
A
B
V
B
I
A
I
N
A
V
CA
V
AN
C
C
A
C
B
I
B
N
V
BN
I
G
I
A
+ I
B
= I
G
B
C
CA
V
AB
V
V
CG
=0
V
AG
N
G
V
CN
B
C
G
V
BC
V
BG
Intermittent Ground Faults
Intermittent or restriking
type ground faults on
A
yp g
isolated grounded
systems can cause severe
A
B
I
A
N
system overvoltages
Up to 6 or 8 times line to
line voltage
B
C
C
A
C
B
I
B
I
G
line voltage
Will eventually lead to an
insulation failure resulting in
G
Breakdown in insulation
g
a phase to phase fault
Must be detected and
corrected ASAP
results in phase to phase
fault I
G
= I
SC
corrected ASAP
Ungrounded System
Ground Fault Detection Scheme
10-106 Alternating-current systems (see Appendix B)
(2) Wiring systems supplied by an ungrounded supply shall ( ) g y pp y g pp y
be equipped with a suitable ground detection
device to indicate the presence of a ground fault.
Ground
L L L
0V
Light Dims
Or
Extinguishes
Fault
Extinguishes
Ground fault Detection Scheme
Solid Ground
A solid grounded system is one in which the neutral
points have been intentionally connected to earth points have been intentionally connected to earth
ground with a conductor having no intentional
impedance
Often referred to as effective grounding
N
A
N
G
B
C
Solid Ground
Uniground System
Used in Industrial Systems
Multi-grounded System
Used by Utilities in Rural
Distribution Systems Distribution Systems
Solid Ground
Advantages
Partially reduces the problem of transient over-voltages
R d d i l ti l l i d Reduced insulation level required
Ground faults do not shift the system neutral
Simple ground relay schemes provide for circuit protection
Disadvantages
Damage at the fault may be excessive
Arc flash hazard due to high ground fault current levels
Difficult to coordinate ground fault protection
Magnitude of the fault current is unknown
CEC Definition
Effective Grounding - a path to ground from circuits,
equipment, or conductor enclosures that is q p ,
permanent and continuous and has carrying capacity
ample to conduct safely any currents liable to be
imposed upon it
CEC Rule 10-500 in Appendix B states that the complete fault
path of the circuit conductor together with the bonding return path of the circuit conductor, together with the bonding return,
should have an impedance that allows at least five times the
current setting of the overcurrent device to flow when a fault of
negligible impedance occurs
Solid Ground
A
N
B
C
N
I
O/C fuse may not
V
AN
N
V
BN
V
CN
I
G
O/C fuse may not
clear arcing ground fault
High
G
High
Impedance
Ground fault
High Resistance Ground
System is grounded through a high-impedance
resistor
High-impedance grounding typically limits ground fault
current to 25 A or less
Typically used on low voltage (600V or less) systems
under 3000 Amps
N
A
G
B
C
2 - 25A
Scheme
1000 KVA Xfmr
25kV 600V
51G AL
25kV 600V
5.75% Z
Y
5 Amp
NGR
NGR
5A
75kVA
Starter
45kVA
5A
M
M M
LP
HTP
U
/
H
25HP
Injection
Pump
75HP
Recycle
Pump
30kW Lighting
150HP
Cooling
Fan Heat Trace
75kVA
X 2
X 2
Ground
u p Pump
Unit
Heater
Panel
Fan Heat Trace
Panel
Fault
Advantages
Allows system to operate under a ground fault condition y p g
Reduces arc flash energy associated with a ground fault
Insures a ground fault of a known magnitude
Aids in protective relay coordination and limiting equipment
damage
Reduces transient ground fault overvoltages Reduces transient ground fault overvoltages
Allows easy identification and isolation of the ground fault
location
Disadvantages
Neutral shift on ground fault
Low Resistance Ground
System is grounded through a low-impedance
resistor
Low-resistance grounding typically limits ground fault
current to 400A or less for a short period of time (10 sec)
Typically used on medium and high voltage industrial
power distribution systems
N
A
G
B
C
25 - 400A
Low Resistance Ground
Advantages
Allows protective relay devices to quickly clear a ground p y q y g
fault
Limits damage to equipment and reduces overheating and
h i l t d t mechanical stress on conductors
Disadvantages
Ne tral oltage shift of limited d ration Neutral voltage shift of limited duration
Low Resistance Ground Scheme
Trip Upstream Breaker
Y
51
NGR
Trip setting ~ 20%
of NGR rating
Y
400A NGR
13.8kV
NGR
400A
Trip Downstream Breaker
M
51
Y
600V
5A NGR
SGR
(Secondary Ground
Resistor)
XFMR
M
M
Alternate Arrangement
LR Grounding Resistor
Connection to Neutral
Point on
Transformer
Connection to ground
Resistors
Current Transformer
51
NGR
400A
LR Grounding Transformer
Ground resistor
SGR
XFMR
51
SGR
(Secondary Ground
Resistor)
XFMR
Grounding Transformer
Alternate Grounding Schemes
Corner-of-the-Delta System
Applicable to low-voltage
I
A
pp g
systems
Not widely used in industrial
t
B
C
systems
Delta One Phase Grounded
I
Delta One Phase Grounded
at Midpoint
Applicable to single phase
240V
Applicable to single phase
120/240V loads
G
240V
120V 120V
Reactance Grounding
Ground fault current is a
function of the neutral
reactance
Typically results in higher
N
ground fault currents than a
resistance grounded system
25 60% of three phase fault
51
Reactor
5 60% o t ee p ase au t
current
Primarily used by Utilities on
multi grounded systems on
I
G
multi-grounded systems on
systems above 5kV
Seldom used in industrial
plant applications
Resonant Grounding
Tuning reactor is used to ground
the neutral point to ground
Reactor is tuned to match the system
capacitance
Results in a very low value of ground
N
fault current
75% of line to ground faults are self-
extinguishing
C l t l i d t
51
Reactor
Complex controls are required to
constantly match the reactance to the
system capacitance
P i il d h d d
I
Ground Fault
Neutralizer
Primarily used on overhead and
transmission lines above 15kV
Rarely used in industrial applications
I
G
Grounding System Comparison
Condition
Un-
grounded
Solid
Ground
Low
Resistance
High
Resistance g
Immunity to transient
overvoltages
Worst Good Good Best
Arc Fault Damage Arc Fault Damage
Protection
Worst Poor Better Best
Safety to Personnel
Worst Better Good Best
Service Reliability
Worst Good Better Best
Continued operation
Better Poor Poor Best
after initial ground fault
Ground fault locating Not
Possible
Good Better Best
Ground Fault Sensing
www.EngWorks.ca Grounding Fundamentals
65
Ground Return
Ground fault current is Ground fault current is
measured in the neutral to
ground connection
Phase A
Applicable only at a
source transformer or
generator
51G
Phase B
Phase C
Neutral
g
Often used for ground
fault alarm sensing on LV
di t ib ti t distribution systems
Zero Sequence Relay
Measures zero sequence or Measures zero sequence or
ground currents by sensing the
magnetic fields surrounding
th h d t l
Phase A
the phase and neutral
conductors
Should cancel under normal
Phase B
Phase C
Neutral
conditions
Often used in motor protection
and feeder breaker relays
51G
and feeder breaker relays
Differential
Phase current and neutral Phase current and neutral
current values are measured
and ground fault current is
l l t d th diff
Phase A
calculated as the difference
Used in applications where
current transformers are
Phase B
Phase C
Neutral
required for phase overcurrent
relays
Hi h i d t ti
51G
Phase C
High accuracy in detecting
ground faults
Detection Scheme
1000 KVA Xfmr
25kV 600V
51G AL
25kV 600V
5.75% Z
Y
5 Amp
NGR
Pulsing Resistor
NGR
5A
Pulsing reading
on phase indicates
75kVA
Starter
45kVA
Clamp
On CT
on phase indicates
ground fault
M
M M
LP
HTP
U
/
H
25HP
Injection
Pump
75HP
Recycle
Pump
30kW Lighting
150HP
Cooling
Fan Heat Trace
75kVA
X 2
X 2
Ground
u p Pump
Unit
Heater
Panel
Fan Heat Trace
Panel
Fault
High Resistance Ground fault Detection
System y
Ground Fault Relay Settings
Alarm only on continuous rated ground resistor
applications pp
Alarm setting at 80% of maximum current level allowed by
ground resistor
Above system charging current level
Trip on short time duty ground resistor applications
High resistance ground applications High resistance ground applications
Trip at 80% of maximum current level allowed by resistor
Low resistance ground applications g pp
Trip at 20% of maximum current level allowed by ground resistor
Low Resistance Ground Detection
Scheme
Trip Upstream Breaker
Y
51G
NGR
p p
Trip setting ~ 20%
of NGR rating
Y
400A NGR
NGR
400A
Trip Downstream Breaker
Trip
13.8kV
51G
Trip Trip Trip
51G
Trip
ZCT
ZCT
M
51G 51G 51G
M
51G
ZCT - Zero Sequence CTs
ZCT
ZCT
ZCT
ZCT
GF Relay Time Coordination Curves
Settings for ground-fault
relays can be relays can be
determined during the
relay coordination study y y
GF curves are plotted on
the coordination
diagrams
Set parameters include
ti d t l l time and current level
Ground Fault coordination curves
Ground Fault coordination curves
CEC Requirements Associated CEC Requirements Associated
with Systems Grounding
74
CEC Code Requirements
10-1102 Installation of Neutral Grounding Devices
1) Neutral grounding devices can only be installed on 1) Neutral grounding devices can only be installed on
systems where line to neutral loads are not served
No single phase loads from a resistance grounded system
2) S t ith lt 5kV h ll b d i d 2) Systems with voltages > 5kV shall be de-energized on
detection of a ground fault
a) Electrical systems operating at 5 kV or less are permitted to remain ) y p g 5 p
energized if the ground fault current is controlled at 10A or less
i. Audible alarm is required
3) Where line-to-neutral loads are served, the
system must be de-energized on occurrence of a: system must be de energized on occurrence of a:
1) Ground fault
2) Grounded neutral on the load side of the NGR
3) Break in the continuity of the conductor connecting the
NGR to ground
Apparent conflict between subsection 1) and subsection 3)
NGR with Isolated System Neutral
A
HT
Ckt
HT
Ckt
HT
Ckt
N
HT HT HT
HT
Trip main breaker
51
B
C
HT
Ckt
HT
Ckt
HT
Ckt
HT
Ckt
NGR
I
G
Rule 10-1102 requires the system to
be de-energized on detection of
G
g
ground current
Neutral Ground Devices
10-1104 NGRs must be approved for the application
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 0.4 Bonding and Grounding of Electrical
E i (P i G di ) Equipment (Protective Grounding)
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No.14 Industrial Control Equipment
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 94 Special Purpose Enclosures
Must be continuously rated where provisions are not made to
interrupt the fault
Maximum temperature allowed is 375C Maximum temperature allowed is 375C
Where not continuously rated, the time rating of the device
must be coordinated with the protective devices of the system y
Must have an insulation voltage equal to the line-to-neutral
system voltage
Location of Grounding Devices
10-1106 All live parts must be enclosed
Must be placed in a location accessible to qualified Must be placed in a location accessible to qualified
personnel
Must be placed in a location where it can dissipate Must be placed in a location where it can dissipate
the heat under ground fault conditions
Warning signs must be provided indicating the g g p g
system is impedance grounded and located at:
Transformer or generator, or both
Consumers service switchgear
Supply authorities metering equipment
Grounding Conductors
System grounding conductors must be copper
Solid grounded systems sized as per CEC Table 17 g y p
Based on the ampacity of the largest service conductor
No splicing is permitted
NGR Conductors
10-1108 conductors connecting the NGR to the Neutral
point of the system must be identified as white or p y
grey
Must not be grounded
Sized to conduct the rated current of the device
No less than #8 AWG
Conductor connecting the NGR to the system ground Conductor connecting the NGR to the system ground
electrode may be insulated green or bare
Made of copper pp
NGR Conductors
Bonding of Conduit Enclosing a
Grounding or Bonding Conductor g g
Magnetic effect of metal conduit can increase the impedance
of the grounding circuit by a factor of 40!
Not an issue with PVC or aluminium conduits Not an issue with PVC or aluminium conduits
Problem can be mitigated by bonding the grounding
conductor to the metal conduit at both ends
Allow the metal conduit to carry a portion of the ground current Allow the metal conduit to carry a portion of the ground current
New CEC rule 10-806 makes this mandatory
Sizing and Specification of Neutral Sizing and Specification of Neutral
Ground Resistors
NGR Sizing Criteria
NGRs are sized based on the following criteria
Charging current Charging current
HRG - Maximum ground current must be greater than
3X the charging current for the system
LRG Charging current not a factor
Temperature rise
Based on how long the fault is allowed to persist
Continuous
E t d d ti (1 i t ) Extended time (1 minute)
10 seconds
NGR Sizing Criteria
R
NGR
=
V
LL
R
NGR

3I
G
R
NGR

X
CO
3
I
G
3I
CO
NGR

3
51
NGR
I
R
NGR
= Resistor Size (Ohms)
W
NGR
= I
G
2
R
NGR
I
G
NGR
( )
I
G
= Maximum Ground Current (Amps)
I
CO
= System Charging Current (Amps)
W = Resistor Size (Watts)
W
NGR
= Resistor Size (Watts)
NGR Sizing Criteria
Secondary Ground Resistor y
R
SGR
=
R
NGR
N
2
51
N =
V
LN
(Pri)
V
LN
(Sec)
SGR
XFMR
I
SGR
= NI
G
KVA = P
NGR
=
I
G
V
LN
(Pri)
R
NGR
= Equivalent Primary Resistance (Ohms)
R
NGR
= Equivalent Primary Resistance (Ohms)
I M i G d C t (A ) I
G
I
SGR
N = Turns ratio
P
NGR
= Resistor Power Rating (Watts)
Charging Current - Estimation
Resistor must be sized to ensure that the ground
fault current limit is greater than the system's total g y
capacitance-to-ground charging current
System
Voltage
Charging Current (3I
CO
) Amps per
1000 kVA of System Capacity
480 0.1 2.0
600 0.1 2.0
2400 2.0 5.0
4160 2.0 5.0
13800 5.0 10.0
Typical Charging Currents based on Voltage Level
Charging Current More Detailed Analysis
System
Voltage
Component Type Typical Charging
Current
600V Cable 3/C - 250 500MCM 0.15A/1000ft
3/C - #1 4/0AWG 0.02A/1000ft
Transformers 0.02A/MVA
Motors 0.01A/1000HP
4160V Cable 3/C - 5001000MCM Shielded 0.58A/1000ft
3/C 1/0 350MCM Shielded 0.23/1000ft
Non Shielded 0.1A/1000ft
T f 0 05A/MVA Transformers 0.05A/MVA
Surge Suppressor. 1.35A per Set
Motors 0.1A/1000HP
13800V Cable 3/C - 6001000MCM Shielded 0.65A/1000ft
3/C 250 350MCM Shielded 0.75/1000ft
3/C - #1 4/0AWG Shielded 0.65A/1000ft
Transformers 0.05A/MVA
Surge Suppressor 2 25A per Set Surge Suppressor 2.25A per Set
Motors 0.15A/1000HP
Charging Current Calculation
Example p
ROT I
G
3I
CO
I 3(4 78A) 14 34A
15A NGR more
Component Charge
C t
Qty Total
Ch i
Y
Surge
Suppressor
12 MVA
I
G
3(4.78A) = 14.34A
5 G o e
appropriate size
Current Charging
Current
Transformer 0.05A
/MVA
17.5 0.875A
Y
10A NGR
4160V
12 MVA
500MCM
Cable
0.58A
/1000ft
4200 ft 2.43A
250MCM 0.23A 600 ft 0.13A
1 5MVA
1200ft
500MCM
600ft
250MCM
Surge
2MVA
1
5
0
0
f
t
5
0
0
M
C
M
1
5
0
0
f
t
5
0
0
M
C
M
2MVA
Cable /1000ft
Surge
Suppressor
1.35A
/Set
1 1.35A
T t l 4 78A
M
600V
2A NGR
Y
1.5MVA
3000HP
Surge
Suppressor
2MVA
Y Y
2MVA
Total 4.78A
M
M
Charging Current Test Procedure
Connect an ammeter to ground
through a resistance, switch and g ,
a fuse
Increase the resistance to
maximum level and close the
di t
A
I
A
N
disconnect
Slowly reduce the resistance to
zero
Ammeter will indication charging
B
C
C
A
C
B
C
C
I
B
I
C A
Ammeter
0-10A
Ammeter will indication charging
current (3ICO)
All three phases should be
measured and the average used
C
A
C
B
C
C
G
0 10A
g
as the system charging current
G
Cable Insulation Ratings on Resistance
Grounded Systems y
Low Voltage Systems ( 600V)
100% insulation rating acceptable for all applications % g p pp
Refer to Standata CEC 12
Medium Voltage Systems (IEEE Recommendations) g y ( )
100% insulation level required where clearing time will not
exceed one minute
133% insulation level required where clearing time will not
exceed one hour
173% insulation level required where clearing time 173% insulation level required where clearing time
exceeds one hour
NGR Ratings
Based on the criteria defined in IEEE 32 - Standard
Requirements, Terminology, and Test Procedure for
Neutral Grounding Devices
Current
Current through the device during a ground fault condition Current through the device during a ground fault condition
Voltage
V = IR at 25C
May need to be de-rated at elevations above 1000m
Frequency
Circuit Voltage of System Circuit Voltage of System
Service
NEMA Type 1 for Indoor Applications
NEMA Type 3 for Outdoor Applications
NGR Ratings
Basic Impulse Insulation Level
System Insulation Class
Class BIL Class BIL
1.2kV 45
2 5kV 60 2.5kV 60
5kV 75
8 7kV 95 8.7kV 95
15kV 100
23kV 150 23kV 150
NGR Ratings
Time Rating and Permissible Temperature Rise under fault
conditions
Time Rating
Permissible Temperature Rise
(Rise Above 30C Ambient)
Ten Seconds (Short Time) (NGRs
760C
Ten Seconds (Short Time) (NGRs
used with Protective Relay)
760 C
One Minute (Short Time) 760C
Ten Minutes (Short Time) (seldom
specified)
610C
Extended Time (GF 610C Extended Time (GF
allowed to persist > 10min)
610 C
Steady State (Continuous) 385C*
*CSA permissible rise is 375C over 40C Ambient
NGR Monitoring
Broken Spot Weld
NGR Thermal Failure
Broken Resistor Wire
NGR Monitor
The NGR monitor
measures changes in NGR
resistance, current in the
neutral, and neutral-to-
ground voltage g g
Anomalies are detected and
an alarm or trip signal is
activated activated
NGR Sizing Tutorial
NGR Sizing Tutorial
Modular Substation incorporating
5 kV Switchgear and MCCs
600 V Switchgear and MCCs 600 V Switchgear and MCCs
Grounding system consists of:
Power Distribution System Ground
5kV L i t d t 5kV Low resistance ground system
600V High resistance ground system
Objective
Size the grounding resistors for the 5kV LRG system and the
600V HRG system
Assume 1.5A charging current for the 600V System
Assume 8A charging current for the 5kV System
Substation Single Line
Y
LRG NGR
M
5kV
M M M
Y
600V
HRG NGR
M M
M
M
~
=
=
~
UPS
PP
NGR Sizing Tutorial
Answers
Sizing the NGRs
R
NGR
=
V
LL
R
NGR

3I
G
R
NGR

X
CO
3
I
G
3I
CO
NGR

3
51
NGR
R
NGR
= Resistor Size (Ohms)
W
NGR
= I
G
2
R
NGR
I
G
NGR
( )
I
G
I
CO
= System Charging Current (Amps)
W = Resistor Size (Watts)
W
NGR
= Resistor Size (Watts)
HRG Sizing
ROT I
G
3I
CO
I
CO
= 1.5A
G CO
I
G
4.5 Choose 5A as the HRG Current Rating
CO
R
NGR
=
V
LL
3I
G
W
NGR
= I
G
2
R
NGR
R
NGR
=
600V
3 x 5A
W
NGR
= 5A
2
x 69.3
R
NGR
= 69.3
W
NGR
= 1733watts
LRG Sizing
ROT I
G-Trip Setting
3I
CO
to avoid nuisance tripping I
CO
= 8A
T i i i hl 20% f h LRG i i
I 120A Ch 125A h LRG C R i
Trip setting is roughly 20% of the LRG resistor size
I
G-Trip Setting
24A to avoid nuisance tripping
I
G
120A Choose 125A as the LRG Current Rating
R
NGR
=
V
LL
W
NGR
= I
G
2
R
NGR
R
NGR

3I
G
R
NGR
=
4160V
W
NGR
I
G
R
NGR
W
NGR
= 125A
2
x 19.2
R
NGR

3 x 125A
R
NGR
= 19.2
NGR
W
NGR
= 300kW
NGR
System Grounding Application Summary
Solid Systems Ground
Industrial applications 208V or less pp
Commercial Applications 600V or less
High Resistance Ground (5-15A) g ( )
Industrial applications 600V or less
CEC allows HRG to be used on applications up to 5kV
Low Resistance Ground (100 400A)
Industrial applications 5kV 34.5kV
G d f lt t ti id d b Z S CT Ground fault protection provided by Zero Sequence CTs on
individual equipment items
GF relays set to trip at 10 -20% of maximum ground fault current
Obtaining a Systems Neutral
Application of
Grounding Grounding
Transformers
Obtaining a Systems Neutral
Often there are cases
where a systems neutral
point must be established
for the purposes of:
Servicing line to neutral
Y
Servicing line to neutral
loads
Establishing a systems
d i t t d th
13.8kV
ground point to ground the
system through a HRG,
LRG or solid ground
ti
M
connection
Example: Conversion of a
isolated ground system to a
high resistance ground system high resistance ground system
Grounding Transformers
Grounding transformers are the standard means of
obtaining a systems neutral
Provide a low impedance path for ground fault currents
Zig-Zag transformer
Oft f d t di t f Often referred to as a grounding transformer
Specialized transformer with no secondary winding
Wye-delta transformer configuration Wye delta transformer configuration
Delta winding is left unconnected
Grounding Transformer Schemes
A
BB
C
I
I
G
I
G
G
Zig Zag Transformer
Wye-Delta
Transformer
Transformer Connection
The grounding transformer
is connected to the main
bus and serves as the
return path for any
unbalanced or ground fault
Y
unbalanced or ground fault
currents
A NGR is then connected to
th t l i t f th
13.8kV
the neutral point of the
grounding transformer
establishing a connection to
d
M
ground
LRG
Specifying a Grounding Transformer
Parameters for specifying a grounding transformer
Primary Voltage y g
BIL (Basic Impulse Level) rating
Defined by IEEE standards (refer to IEEE 141 Red book)
Transformer impedance
Typically very high (up to 100%) to minimize magnetizing current
flows
Continuous neutral current rating
Applicable to four wire application
F l d d i Fault current and duration
If a LRG scheme of limited duration is used, ( typically 10 60
seconds) the grounding transformer does not need a continuous
duty rating
G di f G t Grounding of Generators
Section 3
Generator Grounding
Generators differ from transformers in several ways
Less able to withstand the heating and mechanical effects g
of a short circuit
Will have a higher initial ground fault current than three
h d t phase ground current
Can develop third harmonic voltages and currents
Less able to withstand voltage surges Less able to withstand voltage surges
Objective of Generator Neutral Grounding
Minimize the damage
associated with internal
ground faults
Limit mechanical stresses in
the generator for external
ground faults
Limit temporary and transient
overvoltages on the
t i l ti t generator insulation system
Provide a means of system
ground fault protection ground fault protection
Systems Ground Incorporating Generation
System
Ground #1
Y
NGR
M
5kV
System
Ground #2
M
Y
600V Normal Bus
G
G
M
M
G
System
Ground #3
600V Emergency Bus
Generator Ground Fault
I
GF
400A
NGR
2 X I
GF
2 X I
GF
Stator Ground Fault near
400A
NGR
I
GF
Breaker Closed
Generator terminals
Initial ground fault current results in 2 X 400A flowing into fault
Generator Ground Fault
I
GF
400A
NGR
I
GF
I
GF
400A
NGR
Breaker Open
Generator terminals
Upon breaker trip, ground fault current continues to flow due to
the residual magnetism and inertia of the machine
the residual magnetism and inertia of the machine
Ground Fault Magnitude
Magnitude of a ground fault is determined by the
impedance of the generator or transformer winding p g g
Maximum ground fault will occur on the system bus
Maximum theoretical ground fault current in the Maximum theoretical ground fault current in the
generator will occur at the generator terminals
Closer the stator fault is to the generator terminals, the
higher the fault
Resulting damage is a function of current and time
Solid System and Generator Ground
NOT RECOMMENDED NOT RECOMMENDED
Results in very high ground fault currents resulting in
extensive damage g
Risk of abnormal third-harmonic currents when more than
one generator is connected in parallel
Increased magnetic core losses in both generator and transformer Increased magnetic core losses in both generator and transformer
Low Voltage Emergency Generator
Scheme
Bonding
Conductor
Normal Bus
Emergency Bus
Normal Bus
Emergency Bus
Gnd
Gnd
Single Unparalleled Generator Grounding
Solid Grounded with Neutral
Equipment
Ground
Neutral
Ground
conductor
Neutral
Connected
To ground
3 pole
Normal Bus
Solid
Neutral
Transfer
Switch
Neutral
Conductor
Emergency Bus
51G
Emergency Bus
Gnd
N N
Gnd
Zero Sequence
CT is bypassed
resulting in false
t i
trip
Solid Grounded with Neutral
Connection of the neutral to ground at the generator
can cause problems p
Allows stray current to flow between the neutral and the
ground conductors
Allow zero sequence (ground fault current) to flow in the
neutral causing nuisance tripping of the main breaker
Prevent ground fault relays from detecting a ground fault Prevent ground fault relays from detecting a ground fault
A neutral should not be connected to ground on the
load side of a service disconnect load side of a service disconnect
Option 1 Switch Neutral
Equipment
Ground
Neutral
Ground
conductor
Neutral
Connected
To ground
4 Pole
Normal Bus
Neutral Switched
With load
conductors
Transfer
Switch
Neutral
Conductor
Emergency Bus
GFP
Emergency Bus
Gnd
N N
Gnd
Option 2 Connect Generator Neutral
with Transformer Neutral
Equipment
Ground
G t
Ground
conductor
3 pole
Generator
Neutral connected
to transformer
neutral in transfer
Normal Bus
Transfer
Switch
neutral in transfer
switch
Neutral
Conductor
Emergency Bus
51G
Emergency Bus
Gnd
N N
Gnd
Zero Sequence
CT read full
neutral current
l
value
Additional References
IEEE 446 Orange Book
Provides application information pp
for the system grounding and
transfer switching of standby
generators 600V or less generators 600V or less
High Resistance Grounded g
HRG
HRG
HRG
Bonding
Conductor
Normal Bus
Emergency Bus
Normal Bus
Emergency Bus
Gnd
Gnd
HRG Source and Generator Grounding
HRG
HRG
HRG
Advantages
Ground fault current limited to a very low value y
Disadvantage
Selective tripping on downstream breakers is not practical
LRG Source and Generator Grounding
LRG
LRG
LRG
Advantages
Allows selective tripping of downstream feeders
Disadvantage
Damage can occur to the generator from high ground fault currents
Variations in fault current can cause relay coordination problems Variations in fault current can cause relay coordination problems
LRG Source and HRG Generator
Groundingg
HRG
LRG
HRG
Advantages
R d d l l f f lt t t th t i i i i d Reduced level of fault current to the generators minimizing damage
Disadvantage
System is high resistance grounded when the generator is operating
alone makes selective tripping impossible
Source and Generator Grounded with
Artificial Neutral
LRG
Advantages
All ith t t id Allows either source or generator to provide power
Disadvantage
Damage can occur to the generator from restriking and intermittent
ground faults
LRG Source and Hybrid LRG/HRG
Generator Groundingg
HRG
LRG
LRG
HRG
LRG
Ground fault will cause
t b k t generator breaker to
trip and open LRG
circuit
Advantages
Allows generator to operate without the source transformer energized
Disadvantage
Additional complexity in the grounding and relaying system Additional complexity in the grounding and relaying system
Unit Connected Generator Grounding
HRG
LRG LRG
LRG
Advantages
Allows generator to operate without the source transformer energized
Disadvantage
Cost of the additional transformer Cost of the additional transformer
E i t B di Equipment Bonding
Section 4
System Grounding
Grounding and bonding have distinct meanings
within the context of the CEC
Grounding refers to a conductive path direct to the
grounding electrode g g
Low impedance path to ground
Conductors are sized to carry the expected fault current
Insure the operation of protective devices in the circuit
should a fault occur
Equipment Bonding
Refers to the interconnection and connection to earth
of all normally non-current carrying metal parts y y g p
Insures that all metal parts remain at ground potential
Reduces the shock hazard to personnel
Provides a low impedance return path for ground currents
Allows the circuit protection device to operate
Minimize the fire and explosion hazard Minimize the fire and explosion hazard
Reduce accumulated static charges
Ground Return Path through Earth
Insufficient current to operate protection device
~
Line
Metallic Enclosure
S V
Neutral
Ground
Fault
Neutral
Short circuit must
take high impedance
High Impedance Ground Path
take high impedance
path to source
Ground Return with Metallic Path
High Current Operates Protection Device
~
Line
Metallic Enclosure
S V
Neutral
Ground
Fault
Neutral
Low Impedance Path through Bonding Conductor
High Impedance Ground Path
Low Impedance Path through Bonding Conductor
Bonding Fundamentals
To reduce electrical shock exposure:
the impedance of the bonding conductor must be capable p g p
of carrying the fault current
Must provide a lower impedance than all other parallel
th paths
For fire protection:
M st be able to cond ct the a ailable gro nd fa lt c rrent Must be able to conduct the available ground fault current
without excessive temperature rise or arcing
Joints and connections are critical components
Overcurrent Protection Operation:
Provide a low impedance current path back to the source
Bonding CEC Requirements 10-400
All exposed non-current carrying metal parts of fixed
equipment q p
Supplied by a conduit wiring system
Supplied by a wiring system that contains a bonding
conductor
Located in a wet location
In a hazardous location In a hazardous location
Operates at more than 150V to ground
Examples Examples
Distribution equipment, motor and generator frames
Lighting fixtures housings Lighting fixtures housings
Bonding Methods
Bonding conductor in a cable or raceway
Rigid metal conduit
Bonding conductor is required if the conduit is in underground service
or installed in concrete slabs
EMT conduit EMT conduit
Bonding conductor required if installed in concrete or masonry slabs
Sheath of a mineral insulated cable if manufactured of copper
or aluminum
CEC Not acceptable
Metal armor of liquid tight flex or cable assemblies Metal armor of liquid tight flex or cable assemblies
Conduit made of stainless steel
Bonding Methods - Effectiveness
Cable or Conduit DC Resistance
/1000ft
Voltage Drop
V/1000A/100ft
1-1/4 Rigid Steel Conduit
0.0108 11
1-1/4 EMT
0.0205 22
1-1/4 Flexible Conduit
0.435 436
3/C St l A d C bl
55
3/C Steel Armored Cable
55
3/C Steel Armored Cable with Ground
Conductor
11
Conductor
3/C Aluminum Armored Cable
0.286 151
3/C AluminumArmored Cable with
12
3/C Aluminum Armored Cable with
Ground Conductor
12
Bonding Conductors
Bonding conductors may be:
Be copper or other corrosion resistant material
Aluminium conductors are acceptable
May be insulated or bare
Insulated bonding conductors shall be coloured green g g
May be spliced or tapped as required
If installed to supplementary bond a raceway:
Must be insulated
Must be run in the same raceway
M st be protected against mechanical inj r if Must be protected against mechanical injury if:
Copper - Smaller than #6 AWG
Aluminum Smaller than #4 AWG Aluminum Smaller than #4 AWG
Bonding Conductors
Equipment and Raceways q p y
Bonding of Cable Trays
Rule 12-2208 of the CEC requires that cable trays be
bonded to ground g
If the metal supports for cable tray are in good contact with
the grounded structural metal frame of a building, the tray
h ll b d d t b b d d t d shall be deemed to be bonded to ground
If not in direct contact, a bonding conductor must be
installed and the tray bonded to the conductor at intervals installed and the tray bonded to the conductor at intervals
not exceeding 15m
Sized as per CEC table 16 based on the largest ungrounded
conductor in the tray conductor in the tray
A bonding conductor may also be required in the cases
that the tray supports single conductor cables of a three
phase system
Bonding of Single Conductor Cables
Separate ground conductor required to bond the metallic
equipment at either end
Must follow the same routing as the phase conductors
Bonding Considerations
Bonding connections require a clean surface
Paint must be removed from connection points
Connections between dissimilar metals should be
avoided
Potential for deterioration of the connection due to galvanic Potential for deterioration of the connection due to galvanic
action
Mechanical strength may often determine the size of
d t conductor
Electrical continuity of expansion joints
Cable tray connections Cable tray connections
Equipotential Bonding
Practice of bonding all exposed and extraneous
conductive parts (Ref CEC 10-406) p ( )
Purpose is to ensure that under fault conditions, all
conductive parts remain at the same potential
Applies to
Metallic water and sewer piping
G Gas piping
HVAC ducting
Exposed metal equipment and structures Exposed metal equipment and structures
Raised computer floors
Equipotential Bonding
CEC requires a minimum #6 AWG conductor
Bonding of Portable Equipment
Non-current carrying metal parts of portable
equipment must be bonded when: q p
Equipment is used in a hazardous location
Equipment is used in wet or damp locations
Equipment operates at more than 150V to ground
When the equipment is provided with a grounding means
Th l ith d Three prong plug with ground
Grounding of Portable Equipment
Exceptions apply to double insulated equipment
products p
Additional insulation barrier added to the electrical device
Will be marked with a double insulated symbol
Ground may omitted if a Class A ground fault circuit
interrupter is used
GFCI Schematic
Designed to provide protection against electric shock Designed to provide protection against electric shock
from leakage current flowing to ground
Provide supplementary protection but are not a pp y p
substitute for insulation and grounding protection
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
GFCI Class A
Primarily used for personnel protection
Typically trip at 5ma
Time to trip based on the formula
T =
20
I
1.43
T in seconds
I fault current between 4mA and 260 mA
GFCI Class B (Ground Fault Equipment Protectors)
Used for equipment protection
Heat trace circuits in hazardous locations Heat trace circuits in hazardous locations
30ma trip level
GFCI Where Required
Outdoor receptacles
Wet locations Wet locations
Health care facilities
Panels supplying power for buildings or projects Panels supplying power for buildings or projects
under construction
Heat trace systems Heat trace systems
Static Grounding
Section 5
Did the Cellphone Cause the Ignition?
Static Hazards in Industry
Aviation Industry
Static charges are built up during flight and on the ground
Manufacturing
Paper and Printing
P d b lt i ll Power and conveyor belts moving over pulleys
Paint operations
Transfer of fluids
Coal, Flour and Grain Industry
Movement and accumulation of dust and particles
P h i l P i R fi i d Petrochemical Processing, Refining and
Transportation
Movement of materials Movement of materials
Reasons for Static Grounding
Reduce the risk of fires and explosions
Improve process and quality control Improve process and quality control
Reduce the operating costs associated with storing
flammable materials flammable materials
Minimize the potential for damage to sensitive
electronic equipment q p
Loss of electronic data
Comply with hazardous goods transport and storage p y g p g
regulations
Reduce the cost of insurance
Energy from a Static Discharge
10
CH
4
/Air
H
2
/Air
Typical range of
E = CV
2
X 10
-9
)
Typical range of
spark discharge
energy from a
human body
Where
C = Capacitance in pF
V = Voltage in V
Material Dust Dust
1.0

E
n
e
r
g
y

(
m
J
)
Stoichiometric
V = Voltage in V
E = Energy in mJ
Cloud Layer
Coal 60 mJ 560 mJ
0.1
I
g
n
i
t
i
o
n
Stoichiometric
CH
4
/Air Mixture
0.274 mJ
Grain 30 mJ -
Sulfur 15 mJ 1.6 mJ
0
20 40
60 80
Stoichiometric
Air/H
2
Mixture
0.017 mJ
20 40
60 80
Fuel (% Volume) Energy Required for Dust Ignition
Typical Values of Static Voltages and
Capacitances p
Equipment Voltage Object Capacitance Energy
Carpet
Walk
12 kV Human Being 200 pF 28.8 mJ
Walk
Fabric on
Fabric
25 kV Automobile 500 pF 312.5 mJ
Tank Truck 25 kV Tank Truck 1000 pF 625 mJ
Tank Truck 25 kV 3.6m Tank
with Insulated
Lining
100000 pF 62,500 mJ
Lining
Static Charge Generation
Static electricity is generated by the movement of
dissimilar poor conducting materials in close contact dissimilar poor conducting materials in close contact
Non conductive fluids or powders in motion are a frequent
cause of static
Static charge increases as the velocity of movement
is increased.
Anything which generates eddies, turbulence or
discontinuities in flow
Filters Filters
Changes in piping cross sectional area
Triboelectric Effect
contact electrification in which certain materials become
electrically charged when coming into contact with another
and are then separated
Electrostatic Charge Dissipation
Electrostatic charges continually leak away from a
charged body g y
Termed electrostatic dissipation
Determined by a materials conductivity
Measured in pS/m (picosiemens per meter) for petroleum products
Electrostatic charges accumulate when they are generated
at a higher rate than they are dissipated at a higher rate than they are dissipated
Function of the relaxation time constant
Time required for a charge to dissipate to approximately 37% of its
i i l l original value
Conductivity and Time Constants for
Typical Materials yp
Product Conductivity Relaxation Time
(pS/m) (Seconds)
Benzene 0.005 >>100
Toluene 1 21
Gasoline 10 3000 0.006 - 1.8
Diesel 0.5 50 0.36 - 36
Fuel Oil 50 1000 0 018 0 36 Fuel Oil 50 - 1000 0.018 0.36
Crude Oil > 1000 < 0.018
Static Discharge
For an electrostatic charge to be a source of ignition,
four conditions must be present: p
A means of generating an electrostatic charge
A means of accumulating an electrostatic charge capable
of producing an incendiary spark
A spark gap
An ignitable vapor air mixture in the spark gap An ignitable vapor-air mixture in the spark gap
Static Discharge
Spark discharges occur between conductive objects
that are at different voltages g
Brush discharges can occur between a grounded
conductive object and a charged low conductivity j g y
material
Incendive discharge is a discharge that has enough
energy to cause ignition
Industrial Materials Prone to Static
Electricityy
Nonconductive glass
Nonconductive conveyor belts Nonconductive conveyor belts
Rubber
Plastic resins Plastic resins
Dry gases
Paper Paper
Petroleum fluids
Oil water mixtures Oil water mixtures
Sources of Static Electricity
Dry materials handling
equipment
Flammable liquid pumps and
handling equipment
Multiphase flow enhances
Charge Separation in a Pipe
Multiphase flow enhances
charge generation
Liquid filling operations
Plastic piping systems
Conveyor Belts
Liquid motion in tanks Liquid motion in tanks
Sources of Static Electricity
API 2003
Spark Promoters
A spark promoter will provide
the necessary conditions for
a spark gap to occur
Loose floating conductive
objects
Conductive downspouts
Gage tapes, thermometers or
sample containers lowered into p
a tank
tank gauging rod, high-level
sensor, or other conductive ,
device that projects into the
cargo space of a tank truck
API 2003
Static Sparks in Kanses
Static Control
Ignition hazards from static sparks can be eliminated
by controlling the generation or accumulation of static y g g
charges
Static removal involves recombining separated g p
charges
Usually met by bonding all electrically conducting parts
Methods of Static Control
Piping Systems
Keep fluid velocities low
Max 15 ft/sec
Filling Operations Filling Operations
Eliminate splash filling and free fall of materials
Reduce filling velocity to less than 3 ft/sec
Fluid Storage
Non conductive material storage containers are not Non-conductive material storage containers are not
allowed for NFPA Class I, Class II and Class III materials
Methods of Static Control
Humidity Control
65% or higher will prevent static discharge
Antistatic treatments
Additi f b bl k t t i l Addition of carbon black to materials
Use bonding and grounding to prevent build-up of Use bonding and grounding to prevent build up of
potential differences between conductive parts
Small gauge conductors generally sufficient to prevent the
b ild p of static build-up of static
Static Grounding
Vehicle Connected to Ground
Vehicle Bonded Together
Vehicle Bonded together and
To Ground
Static Grounding
Drum Container Storage Scheme
Static Grounding
Bulk Fluid Transfer Operation
Static Grounding
Bonding connections should be less than 10 for static control
Bonding connections should be less than 10 for static control
Railcar Loading Bonding Scheme
API RP 2003
Provides guidance on how to protect
against hydrocarbon ignition from
static, lightning and stray current
discharges
Discusses how static charges are
accumulated and how they can be
safely dissipated
Lightning protection for metallic tanks
equipment and structures
Identification and mitigation of stray
currents resulting from fault currents
and cathodic protection applications
NFPA 77
Applies to the identification,
assessment, and control of ,
static electricity for purposes
of preventing fires and
explosions
Provides guidelines for
t lli t ti l t i it i controlling static electricity in
selected industrial
applications applications
Lightning Protection
Section 6
Lightning Strikes
Lightning
No such thing as a standard lightning strike
Highly complex phenomenon g y p p
Described by statistical means
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
Charge Separation in Cloud
Corresponding charge
High electric field causes ionization of air
+ + +
+
+
+
+
Induced in ground
Current flow in metallic pathways
Lightning Strike Initiation
+ + +
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
Downward leader
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
Upwards
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
Charge flows
+
Downward leader
Upward leader
+
+
+
-
-
Upwards
leader meets
downwards leader
-
-
-
-
-
Charge flows
to ground
through
structure
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+ + -
-
+
-
-
-
Lightning Discharge
Direct effects of lightning
Heat energy and large
h i l f
Lightning
Stroke
Cumulative Frequency
98% 95% 80% 50% 5%
mechanical forces
Direct ignition of flammable
materials
First negative
kA
4 20 90
Subsequent
4 6 12
Indirect effects of lightning
Incendive sparks
Electromagnetic pulse
kA
4.6 12
Typical Lightning Current Value
Electromagnetic pulse
Earth current transients
Bounded charges
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
C
Time
Time
Typical Lightning Discharge
Difference between Lightning and
High Voltage Electricity High Voltage Electricity
Factor Lightning High Voltage
Energy Level 25 kA typical,
millions of volts
Usually much lower
Time of Exposure Brief,
instantaneous
Prolonged
Pathway Flashover, orifice Deep, internal y , p,
Burns Superficial and
minor
Deep with major
injury j y
Cardiac Primary &
secondary arrest,
asystole
Fillibration
asystole
Incidence of Lightning
Lighting varies with
Terrain
Altitude
Latitude
Time of the year
Number of flashes per square kilometre per year
Lightning strikes cannot be stopped but their energy can be
diverted in a controlled manner
Strike frequency goes up with the square of the height above the
average terrain
Damage is caused by the lightning energy taking a random high g y g g gy g g
impedance path to ground
3 components to a lightning protection system
Air terminal or electrode the intercepts the surge Air terminal or electrode the intercepts the surge
Low impedance conductor system to ground
Ground electrode to dissipate the energy
If all equipment within an elevated potential area is bonded
together, the potential for damage is minimized
Inherent Grounding
Inherent grounding
Metallic equipment, tanks and structures in direct contact with the
ground do not require additional grounding if:
The thickness of tanks, vessels and process equipment is greater than
5mm and are capable of withstanding a direct lightning strike without
damage damage
Indirect contact with the ground (self grounded)
Sealed to prevent the escape of liquids, vapours or gas
M t t h i l f iliti i h tl d d d Most petrochemical facilities are inherently grounded and
require no additional lightning protection
Equipment that may require special consideration Equipment that may require special consideration
Open floating roof tanks
Tank farms incorporating a containment liner
Bounded Charge Dissipation
Bounded Charges
Occurs when a storm cell induces an electrical Occurs when a storm cell induces an electrical
charge on everything beneath it
Consideration with open floating roof tanks
Floating Roof
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Floating Roof
tank
Teflon seal isolates
roof from tank + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Bounded Charge
+
+
+
+
+
+
Flammable Product
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Bounded Charge Dissipation
Floating Roof
tank
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Bounded Charge
- -
Flammable Product
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Incendive
discharge to
ground
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ground
- -
Protection against Lightning
Floating Roof Lightning
Protection
Bounded
charge
Floating roof cable connection
Grounding Shunts (Not Recommended)
charge
Dissipated with
Lightning strike
Cable connection to
floating roof
Grounding
shunt
- - - - - - - -
floating roof
Flammable Product
Methods of Lightning Protection
Conventional air terminal
Provides a low impedance Provides a low impedance
path to ground
Lightning rods (sometimes
called Franklin rods)
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
called Franklin rods)
Conducting masts
Overhead wires
- -
R
+
R
A
R
A
R
A
= 0.84 x h
0.6
x I
0.74
Att ti di i t
+ +
+
+
+
+
R
A
= Attractive radius in meters
h = height of lightning mast in meters
I = Peak lightning current in kA
Dissipative Array System (DAS)
Claim of the technology is to
dissipate a charge before a
lightning strike occurs lightning strike occurs
No scientific proof that this in fact
occurs
Renamed the Charge Transfer Renamed the Charge Transfer
System (CTS) technology in recent
years
Still considered ineffective
Early Stream Emission Air Terminals
Consist of lightning rods
incorporating a device that
triggers the early initiation of
a lightning strike
Effectiveness is also
questioned
Lightning Surge Protection
Transient Overvoltages can damage
electrical equipment
Result in insulation breakdown and eventual
failure
Mitigated by g y
Surge arrestors
Equipment insulation standards
Lightning Strike EMF
Travelling Wave
Line
Surge Voltage Wave
Line
Surge Protection
Diminished Surge Voltage Wave
35kV 13 8kV
Transient Voltage Surge
Surge Arrestor
70kV
35kV 13.8kV
25kV
Is
Transient Voltage Surge
Surge Arrestor
Is
Surge Voltage is
Induced on secondary
winding by capacitive
Surge suppressor
reduces surge voltage
winding by capacitive
coupling effect
g g
to below BIL of transformer
Equipment Insulation Voltage Withstand
Requirements q
Basic Impulse Level (BIL) is used to describe the
insulation class of electrical equipment q p
Based on the voltage rating of the equipment
Based on specified crest value kV p
Specified in the various
equipment standards
Surge Voltage and Current Wave
Surge Arrestors
Surge arrestor must have a high
i t d l diti resistance under normal conditions
and a very low resistance under
surge conditions
Metal oxide arrestor is the industry
standard
Consist of a series connection of zinc Consist of a series connection of zinc
oxide elements
Surge Arrestors
Class of Surge Arrestors (IEEE Std C62.11)
Station Class
Intermediate Class
Distribution Class Heavy duty
Distribution Class Normal dutyy
Secondary
600V Secondary Surge Arrestor
Distribution Class Surge Arrestor
Surge Arrestor Installation Considerations
Should be mounted as close as possible to the transformer
bushings
Arrestor must be coordinated with the BIL of the equipment it
is protecting
A dedicated down lead conductor to ground required for A dedicated down lead conductor to ground required for
each arrestor
Down lead conductor should be mechanically and thermally y y
capable of handling the surge voltage to ground
Down lead should be as short as possible with no changes in
direction direction
Minimum radius of 200mm
No bends greater than 90
Lightning Arrestors CEC Requirements
10-1000 Lightning Arrestors on Secondary Services
1) Grounding conductor shall be as short (and straight) as possible
2) The lightning arrestor grounding conductor may connected to the:
a) Grounded service conductor
b) Common grounding conductor
c) Service equipment grounding conductor
d) Separate grounding conductor
Common ground conductor
i i di d
Grounded service conductor
Service equipment grounding conductor
Lightning References
NFPA 780 Standard for the
Installation of Lightning Protection g g
Systems provides detailed guidance
on the design of lightning protection
systems
API 2003 Protection against
I iti A i i t f St ti Ignitions Arising out of Static,
Lightning and Stray Currents
IEC 61024 P t ti f St t IEC 61024 Protection of Structures
Against Lightning Part 1
NFPA 780
Installation standard for
lightning protection systems
for building structures and
facilities handling flammable
vapors gases and liquids p g q
Does not apply to electric
generating, transmission
d di t ib ti t and distribution systems
Electronic Equipment Grounding
Section 7
History
Grounding principles for communication systems
were developed to meet the operational
h t i ti f th i t characteristics of the equipment
Early telegraph systems used a two wire circuit path
Later systems used the earth return as the signal path Later systems used the earth return as the signal path
Morse Landline Telegraph System
History
Earth return offered several advantages
Iron wire was used for telegraph conductors
The use of an earth ground doubled the distance a circuit could
be run
Eliminated one wire from the circuit
Problems endured:
Quality of the signal was effected by weather
Leakage current to ground during wet weather Leakage current to ground during wet weather
Resistance of the return ground path varied with soil conditions
Presence of foreign voltages
History
Early development of the
telephone system also relied
th lid DC f on the solid DC reference
ground as the return path
lines were particularly noisy, p y y,
picking up electrical noise from
power lines, adjacent telephone
lines, telegraph lines, streetcars, g p
and machinery
The grounded system was
later replaced with a system later replaced with a system
employing two wires per
telephone line eliminating
most of the noise most of the noise
Electronic Equipment Grounding Terms
Signal Common Grounding
referred to as the DC Signal Common
Zero reference system for data lines
Very sensitive to transient voltages
DC Power Supply Reference Ground Bus DC Power Supply Reference Ground Bus
-ve terminal on a DC power Supply
Equipment Ground Bus
Used for equipment chassis bonding
Often referred to as the safety ground bus
Variety of other terms used (depending on manufacturer) Variety of other terms used (depending on manufacturer)
AC Safety Ground, Computer Reference Ground, DC Signal Common,
Earth Common, DC Ground Bus
Electronic Systems Grounding
Most electronic computer systems employ a DC
reference ground
Required for logic circuits
Problems occur when the DC reference ground is
tied to the AC safety ground tied to the AC safety ground
With the logic circuits referenced to the equipment chassis
ground, any small amount of chassis potential caused by
current flow in the grounding of the device could cause
reference error in the equipment.
Noise in Sensitive Circuits
Errors result when the noise is greater than the
actual signal g
Results in parity check errors
signal is ignored if check fails
30-50V
L i Logic
Signal
Noise does not impact signal
3-5V
Logic
Signal
Noise cause parity check errors
Circuit Noise Sensitivity Measurement
Signal to Noise Ratio
Measure of the interference in a communications circuit
Measured in dB
Bit Error Rate
SNR = 10log dB
S
N
Measure of the number of bits received to those in error
10
6
10
-6
10
-7
10
8
E
r
r
o
r

R
a
t
e
10
-8
10
-9
B
i
t

E
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
SNR (dB)
Categories of Noise
Traverse Mode Noise
A disturbance that appears between two active conductors pp
in an electrical system
Measurable between two line conductors or from line to
t l neutral
Originates from within the power system
A
V
A
B
C
N
G
Categories of Noise
Common Mode Noise
Appears simultaneously in each active conductor pp y
The term "common" refers to the fact that identical noise
appears on both the active and neutral wires
Generally involves the ground conductor
A
V
A
B
C
V
N
G
Typical Problems Associated with
Electronic Systems Grounding y g
Electronic Equipment Symptoms Electrical Condition
Temporary or chronic data hang-ups
Slow data transfers, multiple retries
Different signal reference
levels
I d d t bl
I/O Damage
Induced currents on cable
Intermittent lock-ups
Corrupted Signals
I/O damage
Transient voltages and
currents
I/O damage
Random data errors
Slow transfer in analog circuits
Stray currents and common
mode noise in equipment
gro nding cond ctor grounding conductor
Electronic Equipment Grounding
Computers require a quiet ground where no voltage
transients or electromagnetic noise occurs g
Stabilize input voltage levels
Act as a zero voltage reference point for circuits
Led to the practice of installing an Isolated Ground
system specifically for electronic equipment
This practice was in direct conflict with the CEC
which requires that all grounding systems be
i t t d interconnected
CEC is concerned with safety not with performance
Principles of Noise Mitigation
For noise to be a problem
Requires a noise source of sufficient magnitude q g
Some means of communicating the unwanted noise to the
electronic circuit
Galvanic coupling
Electrostatic / Capacitive coupling
Magnetic or Inductive coupling g p g
Solving the problem involves either reducing the
amplitude of the noise voltage or effectively isolating
the circuit from the noise source
Source of Electrical Noise
Motor starts
High current in-rush is impressed on the communications g p
circuit
Fluorescent lighting
High frequency noise associated with the ballast operation
Switching power supplies or VFD systems
High frequency noise associated with switching power
supplies
Hi h lt d t li ht i t ik d High voltage surges due to lightning strikes and
electrical faults
Galvanic Coupling
Occurs when two circuits
share a common conductor
Examples: Telephone circuits
that used the same common
t th DC t li i return path as DC tram lines in
the early days
Easily solved by separating Easily solved by separating
the circuits by using separate
return conductors
Electrostatic/Capacitive Coupling
Form of coupling that is
proportional to the p p
capacitance between the
noise source and the signal
R
1
I
1
wires
Function of:
C1
R
L
I
1
I
2
I
3
Distance from the noise source
to the signal wires
Length of the signal wires
E
C2
R
2
Noise source
dV
g g
Strength of the noise voltage
Frequency of the noise voltage
E Noise source
dT
Electrostatic/Capacitive Coupling
Mitigation
Shielding of the signal wires g g
Separating the source from the noise
Reducing the amplitude of the noise voltage
Reducing the frequency of the noise voltage
Twisting of the signal wires
Shielding
Conductor shield provides a lower impedance path for the
noise current to flow
R
1 C
3
I
2
Copper braid (85%
coverage) provides a
noise reduction ratio of
R
L
I
3
I
4
I
5
100:1
Aluminum Mylar tape with
drain wiren provides a
R
2
C
4
I
1
6000:1
E
C
2
Noise source
dV
dT
C
3
and C
4
are 1/100 C
1
and C
2
C
1
dT
Shield Grounding
Shielding on instrumentation and communication
circuits eliminates the electrostatic induction into
wires carrying low signal voltages
Shielding method may be g y
Braided copper wire
Metalized foil, with a copper drain wire
Metal conduit (if steel conduit, this also serves as a
magnetic shield)
Shields must be grounded Shields must be grounded
One end only for frequencies up to 1 Mhz
Two or more locations for frequencies > 1 Mhz Two or more locations for frequencies > 1 Mhz
Magnetic or Inductive Coupling
Depends of the rate of
change and the mutual
inductance between the
source of noise and the
signal wires g
Influenced by:
Magnitude of the noise
current current
Frequency of the noise
current
A l d b h i l Area enclosed by the signal
wires
Distance between the noise
d th i sources and the wires
Mitigation
Twist the signal conductors g
This results in lower noise due to the smaller area for each loop.
This means less magnetic flux to cut through the loop and
consequently a lower induced noise voltage consequently a lower induced noise voltage
Noise voltage that is induced in each loop tends to cancel out the
noise voltages from the next sequential loop
Inductive coupling is reduced by
ratios varying from 14:1 for a four-
inch lay to 141:1 for one-inch lay
Mitigation
Enclose the signal wires with a magnetic shield g g
The magnetic flux generated from the noise currents induces
small eddy currents in the magnetic shield which then create an
opposing magnetic flux 1 to the original flux 2 opposing magnetic flux 1 to the original flux 2
Galvanized steel conduit is an effective magnetic shield
Placing parallel
(untwisted) wires into
a steel conduit will
provide a noise provide a noise
reduction of
approximately 22:1
Physical Segregation
Separate the noise sources from the noise sensitive
equipment q p
Cable spacing based on susceptibility levels defined by
IEEE 518
Level 1 High: Analog signals less than 50V and digital
signals less than 15V
Level 2 Medium: analog signals greater than 50V Level 2 Medium: analog signals greater than 50V
Level 3 Low: Switching signals greater than 50V
Level 4 Power: Voltages 0 1000V; Currents 20800A g ;
Physical Segregation
Level Level Separation
1 2 2 30
1 2 2 30mm
1 3 3 160mm
1 4 4 670mm
1 2 2 30mm
1 3 3 110mm
1 4 4 670mm
1 4 4 460mm
Cables Contained in Separate Trays
One Cables in Conduit and the other
In Tray
1 2 2 30mm
y
1 2 2 30mm
1 3 3 80mm
1 4 4 310mm
Both Cables in Conduits
Electrical Segregation
Y
Y
Y
Shielded
Isolation
Transformer
UPS
M M
Sensitive
Loads
Worst Case
M M
Y
M M
~
=
=
~
Worst Case
Sensitive Loads are subject
to voltage fluctuations caused
by motor loads
Better
Best
Separately Derived AC Power Distribution
System using an Isolation Transformer y g
Isolates power to the control system from the rest of
the AC distribution system y
Provides good line regulation and transient filtering
Transformers should be of a shielded design g
Provide superior noise isolation using the same concepts
used for shielded cables
Input power to the transformers should be sourced
from the highest line voltage available
K f t t f h ld b id d if th K factor transformers should be considered if the
control system load employs a large number of
switching power supplies switching power supplies
Isolation Transformer Grounding
Separately Derived AC Power Distribution
System using an UPS y g
Provides a continuous power supply to the control
system in the event of a power interruption y p p
Protects the control system from power system
surges g
Isolation transformers cannot prevent surge events from
being transmitted to the load without additional surge
protection protection
Provides a conditioned AC power supply to the
control system control system
Completely disconnects the control system power supply
from the source providing superior isolation from power
system transients and noise
1 Phase UPS
3 phase UPS
UPS Grounding
UPS configuration with common source for UPS and
bypass circuit yp
Does not meet the definition of a separately derived circuit
Common mode noise attenuation may be a problem
UPS Grounding
Addition of a bypass transformer meets the
definition of a separately derived source definition of a separately derived source
Improved common mode noise attenuation
Neutrals in UPS and bypass transformer are connected
Power distribution center must be within 15m of the UPS
UPS Grounding
Best configuration for common mode noise
attenuation
No restriction on distances
Allows more flexibility in UPS voltages
Multiple UPS Grounding Scheme
Ground Loops
Occurs when there is more than one ground connection path
between two pieces of equipment
ground current may take more than one path to return to the grounding ground current may take more than one path to return to the grounding
electrode
form the equivalent of a loop antenna which very efficiently picks up
interference currents
Conductor lead resistance transform the currents into voltage
fluctuations
Consequences
Ground reference in the system is no longer a stable potential
Signals ride on the noise
Noise becomes part of the program signal
Example
Audible 60hz noise in your stereo system
Ground Loop
U it A
+
-
Input
+
-
Output
Communication
Cable
Internal
Connection
Unit A Unit B
Power
Ground
Power
Ground
1A Current Flowing
Low Resistance 0.1
0.2V 0.1V
1A Current Flowing
Stray Current in Ground Causes Current to Flow
in communication conductors
Ground Loop Motor Start
+
Input
+
Output
Communication
Cable
Internal
Connection
Unit A
Unit B
-
-
Power
Ground
Power
Ground
Connection
From From
Electrical
Sources
M
Motor Start
Motor frame bonded
To ground
Ground Loop Mitigation
Add one or more separate grounds
N t CEC d li t Not CEC code compliant
+
-
Input
+
-
Output
Communication
Cable
Internal
Connection
Unit A Unit B
Power
Ground
C t Fl i Mi i i d
Separate
High Resistance
Current Flowing Minimized
p
Instrumentation
Ground
Motor frame bonded
To ground
Interrupting the continuity of the grounding conductor
Shielded communication cables
Interrupt ground
+ +
Communication
Cable
Unit A Unit B
path here
-
Input
-
Output
Power
Ground
Power
Ground
Control the path of the ground current
Use an insulated ground receptacle
Communication
Unit A
Unit B
+
-
Input
+
-
Output
Cable
Power
Ground
Power
Ground
Isolated
Instrument ground
Single point ground
Insulated ground conductor
Isolated Ground Receptacle
Helps to limit electrical noise introduced into a circuit via the
grounding conductor
Establishes a dedicated ground path connected to ground at
one point only
Conventional Receptacle
B h Ci it
NEMA IG#5-15R2
Branch Circuit
Panelboard
Junction
Box
Power Transformer
Metal Device Box
Conduit or Cable Insulated
Isolated Isolated
Ground
wire
System
Ground
Bare Bonding
Conductor or
Conduit
Concept of a Single Point Ground System
Poor or faulty grounds are the most common causes
of control system faults y
The best way of insuring the performance and
reliability of a control system is to employ a single y y p y g
point ground network system
Consists of an organized system of ground wiring that
t i t i i l d di t d i t th l t d terminates in a single, dedicated point on the plant ground
grid
Provides a clean reference for control signals Provides a clean reference for control signals
Single Point Ground System
Single Point Ground System Multiple
Enclosures
Instrument Tri-Ground System
Ground
C d t
Main Transformer
Lightning
Arrestor
NGR
Conductor
System
Ground
Connection to
system ground
may be temporarily
disconnected to
AC Ground
isolate ground loop
Instrument
Tri Ground
Tri Ground
Intrinsically Safe Circuit Grounding
H d A
Non Hazardous Area
I i i C l
Hazardous Area
Non Hazardous Area
Field
Device
Intrinsic
Safe
Barrier
Control
System
Interface
Associated
Apparatus
IS Apparatus
Interconnecting
Wiring System
pp
Wiring System
Intrinsic Safety Simple Field Devices
Th l
Non Hazardous Hazardous Location
Controller
Simple
Thermocouple
Device
Controller
Internal
Fault
Controller
Explosion
Internal
Fault
Controller
Fault
IS
Barrier
Device is
Considered
Safe under Fault
C di i
IS Ground
Conditions
Intrinsic Safe Barrier Circuit
Protects Zener from
Destruction
Limits the output
t
Safe Area
Hazardous
Area
Limits input current
current
Field
Current
Limiting
Control
Fuse
Z
Field
Device
Limiting
Resistor
System
Interface
Zener
Diodes
IS Ground
Limits the output
lt
voltage
Intrinsic Safety - Grounding
Incorrect Ground Scheme
Correct Ground Scheme
Intrinsic Safety - Grounding
Extremely important for the safe operation of an IS
wiring systems
M t b i ibl id tifi d d ibl Must be visibly identified, secure and accessible
Must be capable of carrying the maximum fault
current current
#12 AWG minimum conductor size
Total resistance must not exceed 1
f Must be insulated from ground in all places except at
the point of connection to the ground electrode
Duplicate ground conductors required up ca e g ou d co duc o s equ ed
Aluminium must not be used as a ground conductor
material
Potential for electrolytic corrosion Potential for electrolytic corrosion
IEEE Standard 1100
(Emerald Book) ( )
Recommended engineering principles
and practices for power and grounding p p g g
sensitive electronic equipment
Provides consensus in an area
where conflicting information has where conflicting information has
prevailed
Excellent reference that describes
the many challenges associated with the many challenges associated with
grounding electronic equipment
Power related noise control
Signal related noise control Signal related noise control
Station Electrode Design
Section 8
Ground Grid Design
Ground Grid Design Fundamentals
In the event of a fault or transient phenomena
(lightning or switching transients) the ground grid ( g g g ) g g
must
Ensure personnel safety
Protect equipment against damage
Design Considerations
Grid must be able to withstand the maximum ground
current without damage
Limit the ground potential rise between two points to a safe Limit the ground potential rise between two points to a safe
value
Section 10 Grounding and Bonding addresses
grounding electrodes for facilities operating at less g g p g
than 750V to ground
Requirements are minimal
Section 36 High Voltage Installations addresses the
grounding of facilities operating at more than 750V to
d ground
Requirements are in addition to those defined in Section 10
More substantial in nature and therefore require a deeper More substantial in nature and therefore require a deeper
understanding of ground electrode theory
CEC Section 10 Requirements
CEC Section 10 does not specify a minimum
ground resistance for a grounding electrode but g g g
specifies the acceptable methods of obtaining a
grounding electrode
NEC specifies a ground resistance of 25 or less
G f 10-700 Grounding Electrodes shall consist of
a) Manufactured grounding electrodes
b) Fi ld bl d di l t d b) Field assembled grounding electrodes
c) In-situ grounding electrodes
Manufactured Ground Electrode
Must be certified to CSA C22.2 No.41 Grounding
and Bonding Equipment g q p
Rods must be driven to their full length and separated by a
minimum of 3m
Connected by a bonding conductor sized by Table 17
R d El t d
Rod Electrode
Plate Electrode
Field Assembled Ground Electrode
Min 6m bare copper conductor buried or encased
in concrete
conductor must be
encased within the bottom encased within the bottom
50 mm of a concrete
foundation footing, with the
footing footing
in direct contact with the
earth, at not less than 600 ,
mm below finished grade
In-situ Ground Electrode
Copper water pipe
Metal reinforcement of concrete slabs, concrete pilings,
and concrete foundations
Iron pilings, when they are in significant contact with earth
600 mm or more below finished grade 600 mm or more below finished grade
In-situ Grounding Electrode
10-700 Grounding Electrodes
(5) Where local conditions such as rock or permafrost
prevent a rod or grounding plate from being p g g p g
installed at the required burial depth, a lesser depth
shall be permitted
Horizontal Ground Rod Installation
Other Section 10 Requirements
Lightning rod systems must be connected to ground
using a separate grounding electrode that is not used g p g g
as the grounding electrode for any other system
Where a facility incorporates more than one ground y p g
electrode for lightning, communication or other
systems
Must be separated by a minimum of 2m
Bonded together by a minimum #6AWG conductor
CEC Section 36 Requirements
36-302 Station ground electrode
Every outdoor station shall be grounded by means of a station
ground electrode that shall meet the requirements of Rule ground electrode that shall meet the requirements of Rule
36-304 and shall
a) consist of a minimum of four driven ground rods not less than 3 m a) consist of a minimum of four driven ground rods not less than 3 m
long and 19.0 mm in diameter spaced at least the rod length apart
and, where practicable, located adjacent to the equipment to be
grounded;
b) have the ground rods interconnected by ground grid conductors
not less than No. 2/0 AWG bare copper buried to a maximum
depth of 600 mm below the rough station grade and a minimum
depth of 150 mm below the finished station grade; and depth of 150 mm below the finished station grade; and
c) have the station ground grid conductors in Item (b) connected to
all non-current-carrying metal parts of equipment and structures all non current carrying metal parts of equipment and structures
Distribution Utility Standard Ground
Electrode Design g
Distribution Utility Standard Ground
Electrode Design g
CEC Requirements for Station Ground
Resistance
36-304 Station ground resistance (see Appendix B)
1) The maximum permissible resistance of the station 1) The maximum permissible resistance of the station
ground electrode shall be determined by the
maximum available ground fault current injected g j
into the ground by the station ground electrode or
by the maximum fault current in the station, and the
d i t h ll b h th t d ll il ground resistance shall be such that under all soil
conditions that exist in practice (e.g., wet, dry, and
frozen conditions) frozen conditions) ..
CEC Section 36 Ground Potential Rise
36-304 Station ground resistance
the maximum ground fault current conditions shall .the maximum ground fault current conditions shall
limit the potential rise of all parts of the station
ground grid to 5000V g g
2) In addition to subrule (1), the touch and step voltage
at the edge, within, and around the station
grounding electrode..shall not exceed the
tolerable values specified in Table 52
CEC Section 36 Tolerable Touch and
Step Voltages p g
IEEE Standard 80
IEEE Standard 80
Defines the safe limits
for touch and step
potentials potentials
Provides guidance on
the design of ground the design of ground
systems for outdoor
substations
P i il d b tiliti Primarily used by utilities
for grounding on high
voltage substations g
Ground Potential Rise (GPR)
Ground potential rise is a function of the current
magnitude injected into the earth and the soil g j
resistivity
Measured with respect to a remote point
May vary from a few meters to several hundred meters away May vary from a few meters to several hundred meters away
5000V criteria specified in the CEC is based on
the maximum GPR communication circuits are
d i d t h dl designed to handle
GPR = I
G
X R GPR I
G
X R
g
I
G
= Maximum Grid Current
R
g
= Grid Resistance
Ground Potential Rise
3 i t i i ith
N
N
A
3 wire transmission with no
Metallic return path
N

G
B
C
NGR
EG
Ground
Generator
Transformer
I
G
E th
EG
GPR
Ground
Fault
G
Earth
R
g
Ground Path
System Ground Fault Return Path
Non Metallic conduit
With no bonding conductor With no bonding conductor
Y
0.1
I
g
=5kA
500V
Ground Return Path
Lack of bonding conductor forces ground fault return
path through the earth creating personnel hazard
path through the earth creating personnel hazard
System Ground Fault Return Path
Metallic conduit
with bonding conductor with bonding conductor
Low Impedance
Ground Return Path
Y
I
g
=5kA
High Impedance
Ground Return Path Ground Return Path
Bonding conductor provides low impedance path to
source: Stray current is minimized with improved
source: Stray current is minimized with improved
safety
Current GF Path with Local Source
Y Y
Multiple low impedance ground paths
limit the ground potential rise within
th t ti
the station
Current GF Path with Remote Source
Overhead ground wire current
path
Y Y
Multiple high impedance ground current paths back to source
Stray Current Paths
Multiple high impedance ground current paths back to source
Ground Potential Rise (GPR)
Grid system must limit the ground potential rise
(GPR) between two points to a safe value
GPR can cause hazardous voltage in the form of Step &
Touch Potentials
May occur in location remote to the actual fault
Safe values of GPR, Touch and Step Voltages are
determined by the human tolerance to shock currents
Function of current magnitude, duration and frequency g , q y
GPR = I
G
X R
g
I
G
R
g
= Grid Resistance
Step Voltage
I
Potential Rise above
remote earth during short
R
1
I
F
R
F
E
STEP
circuit
I
F
R
2
R
K E
STEP
R
0
R
F
R
KK
R
1
R
2
R
0
Touch Voltage
I
F
E
TOUCH
Potential Rise above
remote earth during short
circuit
R
1
R
F
R
K
E
TOUCH
circuit
I
F
R
K
1
R
F/2
TOUCH
R
K
R
0
RR
F/2
R
1
R
0
Touch and Step Potential IEEE 80
= resistivity of earth beneath surface
s
= surface material resistivity (
.
m)
s
surface material resistivity ( m)
h
s
= thickness of surface material in m
Relationship between GPR, Touch and
Step Potentials p
YY
E
t
E
s
E
mesh
GPR
Remote Earth
Mesh Voltage
Defined as the maximum
surface voltage potential g p
difference between a grid
conductor and and a
point between two grid
conductors
Th ti l i Theoretical maximum
touch voltage found within
a ground grid
Touch and Step Potential
Two ways of making a grounding system safe
1 Minimize the touch and step voltages that may 1. Minimize the touch and step voltages that may
appear at any point within the substation and
around its perimeter p
2. Increase the tolerable touch and step voltages by
placing a high resistivity material over rough grade
Asphalt
Crushed rock
Both methods are typically used together
Ground Surface Potential Gradients
10kA
High ground resistance
increases step potential
Ground
Rod
R
1
R
e1
0 Volts
Infinite Earth
R = R
1
+R
e1
= 3 ohm
Infinite Earth
n
d

S
u
r
f
a
c
e
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
30kV
8kV Step Potential
G
n
P
0
Distance from Rod
8kV Step Potential
Ground Surface Potential Gradients
Multiple ground rods reduce the
10kA
Multiple ground rods reduce the
ground surface potential
low resistance surface reduces
step potential step potential
4kA
R
1
R
e1
0 Volts
Infinite Earth
R
1
+R
e1
= 3 ohms
R
2
R
e2
6kA
0 ohms
R
2
+R
e2
= 2 ohms
Infinite Earth
n
d

S
u
r
f
a
c
e
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
12kV
G
n
P
0
Infinite Earth (0V)
Symmetrical Grid Current
The current that causes the ground potential rise in a
grid is from a remote source g
Only a portion of the current is responsible for the
ground potential rise g p
Multiple return paths include
Overhead ground conductors
Cable shields
The current flowing into the ground that is
responsible for the GPR is adjusted by a split factor
to incorporate the effect of the multiple paths
Symmetrical Grid Current
I
g
= S
f
x I
f
I
g
= RMS Symmetrical Grid Current
S = Split factor (Current Division Factor) S
f
= Split factor (Current Division Factor)
I
f
= RMS value of the symmetrical ground fault current
S
f
may be estimated using computer programs or
by graphical analysis by graphical analysis
Typically ranges between 10 70% of I
f
Refer to IEEE 80 for more information Refer to IEEE 80 for more information
Split Factor
Split factor accounts for the multiple current paths that
will occur in a fault situation
Overhead ground wire current
path
will occur in a fault situation
Y Y
I
f
I
f
I
g
= S
f
x I
f
Split Factor Graphical Estimate
IEEE 80 Annex C
Curve most likely Curve most likely
to be used for
a single circuit
customer owned
28%
substation
The symmetrical grid
current (I ) would be current (I
g
) would be
approximately 28% of
the total fault current
for a substation with a
2.5 grid resistance
2.5 Substation
Grid Current for Design
I
G
= C
p
x D
f
x I
g
I
G
C
p
= Estimated growth factor during station life span
C
p
= 1 for zero growth
p
f g
D
f
= Decrement factor for the duration of the fault
I
g
g
f y g f
Decrement Factor
Decrement factor accounts for the
total asymmetric fault current flowing between
the grounding system and the surrounding earth
Fault Duration t
f
D
f
Sec Cycles Sec Cycles
0.008 0.5 1.65
0 1 6 1 25 0.1 6 1.25
0.25 15 1.1
0.5 30 1.0
S b i T i N k S S ( 30 )
0.5 30 1.0
296 www.EngWorks.ca Industrial Power System Protection and Control
296
Subtransient
Network (0-5 cycles)
Transient Network
(5-30 cycles)
Steady State Network (>30 cycles)
Design Information Provided by Utility
Current values to be used
in the design of the station
d id ground grid
Ground Resistance
The WildCard in the grounding design
Ground grid resistance varies with soil Ground grid resistance varies with soil
conditions and may change over time
Ch i t t bl Changing water table
Resistivity of the ground will change in drying or drought
conditions conditions
Chemical content of soil
Presence of salts decrease resistivity Presence of salts decrease resistivity
Frozen ground or permafrost conditions
Consideration in all Canadian grounding situations g g
Soil Resistivity
(
.
cm) = 100 x (
.
M)
Medium
Resistivity (
.
cm)
Minimum Average Maximum
Surface Soil, Loam 100 5,000
Clay, Shale, Gumbo 300 4,000 20,000
Sand and Gravel 5 000 10 000 Sand and Gravel 5,000 10,000
Limestone 500 400,000
Granite, basalt 1,000,000
Low Hills, Rich Soil 3,000
Medium hills, Medium Soil 20,000
St Hill R k S il 50 000 Steep Hills, Rocky Soil 50,000
Sandy, dry coastal country 30,000 50,000 500,000
Freshwater Lake 10,000 20,000 20,000,000
Sea water 2,000 10,000 20,000
Effects of Moisture on Resistivity
Moisture
Resistivity -cm
Moisture
Content
Resistivity cm
Top Soil Sandy Loam
0 > 10
9
> 10
9
2.5 250,000 150,000
5 165,000 43,000
10 53,000 18,500
15 19,000 10,500
20 12,000 6,300
30 6,400 4,200
Effects of Temperature on Resistivity for
Sandy Loam y
Temperature
C
Resistivity
cm C -cm
20 7,200
10 9,900
0 (Water) 13,800
0 (Ice) 30,000
-5 79,000
-15 330,000
Seasonal Variation in Earth Resistance
19mm Rod in Stony Clay Soil
Curve 1 1m below surface
C 2 3 b l f Curve 2 3m below surface
Moisture and temperature is more stable at greater depths p g p
below the surface
Effect of Chemicals on Earth Resistivity
for Sandy Loam y
Effect of Temperature on
Resistivity of Soil with Salt (20%
Effect of Salt on Resistivity of
Soil (Moisture 15% Temp 17C)
Resistivity of Soil with Salt (20%
Moisture 5% Salt)
Temperature
C
Resistivity
(-cm)
( p )
Added Salt %
by Weight of
Moisture
Resistivity
(-cm)
C (-cm)
20 110
10 142
Moisture
0 10,700
0.1 1,800
10 142
0 190
-5 312
0.1 1,800
1.0 460
5 190
5 312
-13 1,440
5 190
10 130
20 100
Electrode Resistance
R
g
(rod) =
(
.
cm)
335 cm

Applies to 3m ground rod and is accurate within 15%
Multiple Ground Rod Resistance
Resistance of a grounding system of 2-24 rods
placed on rod length apart will provide a grounding p g p p g g
resistance divided by the number of rods multiplied
by the factor F taken from Table 14 IEEE Std 142
Alternate Formulas for Ground Rod Resistance
Contact resistance of one ground rod
4L
R =
2L
X
Ln
4L
a
- 1
= Soil resistivity in -cm
Ground Rod Separation
Soil resistivity in cm
L = rod length in cm
a = rod diameter in cm
D = 2.2 X L
Contact resistance of multiple ground rods
R
n
=
R
n
X
2 e
-0.17(n - 1)
n
n
n = number of ground rods
Smoking Ground Rod
Current loading capacity of a ground rod is a factor
Current passing through an electrode will have a direct p g g
impact on the temperature and moisture conditions
immediately surrounding the ground rod
M t b h k d Must be checked
I =
34,800 X d X L
I =
X t
I = Current loading per foot of rod length g p g
d = rod diameter in meters
L = Length in meters
= ohm meter
t = seconds (3 0 seconds is the value recommended by IEEE)
t = seconds (3.0 seconds is the value recommended by IEEE)
Ground Rod Resistance to Earth Ground Rod Resistance to Earth
Tutorial
Ground Rod Resistance to Earth Tutorial
1. Determine the resistance to earth for a ground rod
system consisting of Qty 4 10 foot long 5/8 y g y g
(16mm) ground rods spaced at 10 intervals and
interconnected connected together and placed in
clay soil
2. Calculate the resistance to earth for a ground rod
t i ti f Qt 4 20 f t 5/8 (16 ) system consisting of Qty 4 20 foot 5/8 (16mm)
ground rods interconnected together and placed in
clay soil clay soil
3. Calculate the current loading capacity of the system
Ground Rod Resistance to Earth Ground Rod Resistance to Earth
Tutorial
Answers
4 - 10 Ground Rods
R
g
(rod) =
(
.
cm)
335 cm
Average for clay soil = 4000 cm
335 cm
R
g
(rod) =
4000
.
cm
335 cm
= 11.94
For 4 ground rods
11 94
R
g
(4 rods) =
11.94
4
X 1.36 = 4
IEEE 142
Table 14
4 20 Ground Rods
Contact resistance of one ground rod
= Soil resistivity in -cm
4L
4000
4(610)
L = rod length in cm
a = rod diameter in cm
R =
2L
X
Ln
4L
a
- 1
4000
R =
2(610)
X Ln
4(610)
1.6
- 1
= 6.649
Contact resistance of multiple ground rods
R
n
=
R
n
X
2 e
-0.17(n - 1)
n = number of ground rods
n
n
R
n
=
6.649
4
X
2 e
-0.17(4 - 1)
= 2.32
Current Carrying Capacity of Ground Rod
System y
I =
34,800 X d X L
I = Current loading of the ground rod system
d = rod diameter in meters
L = Length in meters
X t
L Length in meters
= ohm meter
t = seconds (3.0 seconds typical value)
34 800 X 0 016 X 3 048 X 4
4 10ft Ground Rods
I =
34,800 X 0.016 X 3.048 X 4
40 X 3
= 620 Amps
4 20ft Ground Rods
I =
34,800 X 0.016 X 6.1 X 4
= 1240 Amps
40 X 3
Primary and Auxiliary Ground Electrodes
Primary Ground Electrode
Installed specifically for grounding purposes p y g g p p
Ground rods
Interconnecting wire mesh
A ili G d El d Auxiliary Ground Electrode
Installed for purposes other than grounding
T picall ha e limited c rrent carr ing capacit Typically have limited current carrying capacity
Examples
Steel building piles g p
Steel reinforced concrete foundations
Rebar grounding
UFER Ground
First used by the US Army to ground a series of bomb storage
vaults in the vicinity of Flagstaff, Arizona
Dry desert conditions made for a very poor ground electrode system
Herbert Ufer developed an alternate electrode system based on using
the steel rebar used to reinforce concrete
Concrete is inherently alkaline and hydroscopic (absorbent) in
nature
The high pH provides a supply of ions to conduct current The high pH provides a supply of ions to conduct current
soil around concrete becomes doped by the concrete
has an effective resistance of 3000 -cm
Bases for the development of concrete encased electrodes
Concrete Encased Electrodes
Can be used as part of an effective low resistance grounding
system
Will typically lower the overall resistance of the ground
Very cost effective!
Adds very little cost to the installation Adds very little cost to the installation
Reduces the amount of buried conductor required for an installation
Aids in reducing the amount of construction re-work
B i d d d t l it t di d i t hi Buried ground conductors are a popular item to dig up during trenching
operations
The 2006 NEC requires that rebar encased in concrete be
incorporated into the system ground
No equivalent CEC requirement
Methods of Connecting Rebar to Building Steel
Option 1 Connect structural steel and rebar using
ground wire
Requires electrical trade to be on site during pouring of Requires electrical trade to be on-site during pouring of
foundations
C Wi
Bolted Connection to Steel
Ground
Well
Copper Wire
Grounding
Compression
To ground
grid
p
Connection or
Cadweld
Methods of Connecting Rebar to Building Steel
Option 2 - Tie the vertical rebar to anchor bolts and
the steel columns are grounded through the bolts g g
and nuts
Rebar welded
To anchor bolts
Ground
Well
To ground grid
Rebar Grounding Installation Considerations
Rebar must be bare or zinc
coated
Surge Current Conductivity of
Rebar in Concrete
Minimum length 6m
Minimum diameter 13mm
I t ll d i i i f
Rebar
Diameter (in.)
Surge Ampere
per Foot
0 375 3400 Installed in a minimum of
50mm of concrete
Preferably located near the
0.375 3400
0.5 4500
y
bottom of the foundation
Concrete must be in direct
contact with earth
0.625 5500
contact with earth
0.75 6400
1 0 8150 1.0 8150
Ground Conductors
For a given application, ground rods are more
effective than ground grid conductors g g
Ground rods will penetrate the frost level injecting current
into unfrozen ground
Basic Requirements for the selection of a Ground
Grid conductor
H ffi i t d ti it Have sufficient conductivity
Resist fusing and mechanical deterioration under fault
conditions conditions
Be mechanically reliable and rugged
Resist corrosion
Ground Grid Conductor Options
Copper
Highest conductivity g y
Highest cost
Subject to theft
Commercial hard drawn specification most often used
Copper-clad steel
Good option where theft is a problem
Aluminum
Not recommended as is subject to corrosion
Steel
Poor conductivity limits use
Sizing of Grid Conductors
Based on the design ground fault current and the
fault duration time
A
kcmil
= I K
f
t
c
A
kcmil
= area of conductor in kcmil
I = Fault current in kA
t
c
= current duration in seconds (IEEE recommends 3.0 seconds)
K
f
= constant based on the material (Refer to table 2 IEEE 80)
Material Constants
(Excerpt from Table 2 IEEE 80) ( p )
Material Conductivity K
f
Copper, Annealed Soft Drawn 100% 7.00
C C i l H d D 97% 7 06 Copper, Commercial Hard Drawn 97% 7.06
Copper Clad Steel Wire 40% 10.45
Aluminum 6201 Alloy 52.5% 12.47
Steel 1020 10.8% 15.95
Stainless Steel 304 2.4% 30.05
Grid Conductor Sizing Example
Fault current is estimated at 6kA
Commercial hard drawn copper selected as the grid Commercial hard drawn copper selected as the grid
conductor
What size of grid conductor is appropriate to handle What size of grid conductor is appropriate to handle
the maximum fault current for 3.0 seconds?
A = I K t A
kcmil
= I K
f
t
c
A
kcmil
= 6 7.06 3.0 A
kcmil
6 7.06 3.0
A
kcmil
= 73.37
kcmil
#1 AWG
Grid Conductor Sizing Table
kcmil AWG
Current Carrying Capacity (kA)
HD Copper Copper Clad Steel 1020 pp pp
Steel Wire
500 - 40 27.62 18.1
250 20 4 13 81 9 05 250 - 20.4 13.81 9.05
212 4/0 17.34 11.71 7.67
133 2/0 10.88 7.35 4.81
83.7 #1 6.84 4.62 3
66.4 #2 5.43 3.67 2.4
Based on a 3.0 Second Fault Duration
Grounding Connections
All grounding
connections must be
selected to withstand
the short circuit forces
and heating effects
associated with an
extended groung fault extended groung fault
Resist the effects of
corrosion corrosion
High pullout
resistance resistance
Time-current curves for ground grid conductors and connectors
Typical Connections found within a Grid
Design g
Conductor to
Ground Rod
Conductor to
Equipment to
G id C d t
Substation
F t G id
Conductor to
Conductor
Grid Conductor Fence to Grid
Conductor
Cadweld Connections
Thermite welding process is used to fuse the connection
Suitable for high current applications
Will meet the requirements of IEEE 837 IEEE Standard
for Qualifying Permanent Connections Used in Substation
Grounding Grounding
Cadweld Connection
Grounding Connections
Compression Connections
Acceptable alternative to Cadweld connections in p
substation applications
Compression Tool
Corrosion Considerations
A basic corrosion cell consists of the following:
Anode An electrode losing metal g
Cathode An electrode gaining metal
Electrolyte chemicals in solution in contact with the
anode and cathode
Connecting conductor
V
0.78V
+ -
COPPER IRON
V
COPPER IRON
Anode Cathode
Earth
G l i C ll
Galvanic Cell
Corrosion Considerations
When iron or steel is connected to copper with a low
impedance conductor, it corrodes p ,
Rate of corrosion is dependent on the current flow
Each ampere-year of current flow will result in 20lbs of
steel being lost
Soil Corrosivity
A 5A
Ohm-Cm Corrosivity
<2000 Very High
A
+ -
5
2-5000 High
5-10000 Moderate
10 25000 Mild
IRON COPPER IRON
Anode Cathode
Earth
10-25000 Mild
Earth
Corrosion Mitigation
Use a UFER ground system whenever possible
Do not use an UFER ground system in conjunction with a g y j
copper ground rod and grid system in the same vicinity
Will result in deterioration of the concrete rebar
I i i h id i i l i i In situation where a grid system is in close proximity
to large amounts of steel and corrosive soil
conditions exist conditions exist
Consider using galvanized ground rods and insulated
ground conductors g
Conductor insulation should have a high resistance to chemical
degradation
Consider installation of a cathodic protection system Consider installation of a cathodic protection system
Other CEC Requirements
36-312 Grounding of metallic fence enclosures of
outdoor stations
(1) The fence shall be located at least 1 m inside the
perimeter of the station ground electrode area. p g
(2) The station ground electrode shall be connected
to the fence by a tap conductor at each end post,
corner post, and gate post, and at intermediate posts
at intervals not exceeding 12 m by a conductor of not
l th N 2/0 AWG less than No. 2/0 AWG copper
Grounding of Fence Enclosures
Grounding Detail Gate
Grounding Detail Fence
Other CEC Requirements
36-304 Station ground resistance
(4) After completion of construction, the resistance of the ( ) p ,
station ground electrode at each station shall be measured
and changes shall be made if necessary to verify and
ensure that the maximum permissible resistance of Subrule ensure that the maximum permissible resistance of Subrule
(1) is not exceeded
Exception p
Station phase to phase voltage is less than 7500V
Ground surface has a 150mm layer of crushed rock or asphalt
(5) d f i l h ll t d t l t 1 (5) ground surface covering layer shall extend at least 1 m
beyond the station grounding electrode area on all sides.
Measurement of Ground Resistance
Current I
A
is passed through
auxiliary probe A
I
A
Voltage between L and P is
measured
R is then calculated based on
V
A
1 10A
R is then calculated based on
I
A
and V
LP
Several ground resistance
t t k d measurements are taken and
the results are averaged
Moisture and temperature
L P
A
IEEE Std 81 addresses Ground
data should also be recorded
Resistance testing
IEEE Standard 81
Describe the techniques
d t d used to measure ground
resistance and impedance
Factors that impact earth Factors that impact earth
resistivity
choice of instruments and
techniques
purpose of the measurement
accuracy required
Potential sources of error
Design of a Station Ground Grid
Typical plant ground grid should have a resistance
of 10 or less
For satisfactory lightning protection, grounding
network resistance must be less than 5
IEEE 80 Guidelines IEEE 80 Guidelines
1 or less for transmission substation
5 or less for distribution substation 5 or less for distribution substation
Options Available for the Design of a
Station Ground Grid
1. Design the GPR for the station to be less than the
Touch Potential Specified in the CEC p
Suitable for situations where the ground fault current is of
limited value
Station resistance is determined by selecting the
appropriate number of ground electrodes using the
formulas provided in IEEE 142 Green Book formulas provided in IEEE 142 Green Book
Ground electrodes are then connected together using 4/0
AWG grid conductors
Results in a very conservative design
Options Available for the Design of a Station
Ground Grid
2. Use the publication Simplified Rules for Customer
Owned Substations (CEA Report 249 D541)
Publication is referenced as a referenced in CEC Section
36-304(3) and appendix B
Outlines a procedure for design of a pre-approved station Outlines a procedure for design of a pre approved station
electrode design
Method 1 based on simple calculations, tables and curves
Takes into account frost penetration in winter Takes into account frost penetration in winter
Method 2 based on design curves
Valid only for fault durations less than 0.5 seconds and where frost
penetration is negligible p g g
Examples are provided
Was developed primarily to simplify the ground grid design
process prior to the availability of computer aided ground process prior to the availability of computer aided ground
grid design programs
Options Available for the Design of a Station
Ground Grid
3. Use the procedure outlined in
IEEE 80
Calculation intensive but will result
in an appropriate and safe design
Suitable for the design of Utility and Suitable for the design of Utility and
Large scale customer owned
substations where ground fault
current levels are high current levels are high
Most computer aided ground grid
design programs use the methods
outlined in IEEE 80 outlined in IEEE 80
Station Ground Grid Design
GPR < Touch Voltage
Method Method
Relationship between GPR, Touch and
Step Potentials p
Y
Premise of the method
Is to reduce the GPR
Y
To less than the tolerable
Touch voltage
E
t
E
s
E
mesh
GPR
Remote Earth
GPR < Touch Voltage Premise
Premise of the method is to reduce the GPR to
less than the tolerable touch voltage as defined
in Table 52 of the CEC
YY
E
touch max
E
step max
E
mesh GPR
Remote Earth
GPR = I
G
X R
g
I
G
G
R
g
= Grid Resistance
Step 1 Ground Fault Current
1. Determine the maximum ground fault current (I
G
)
that might be injected into the station ground g j g
electrode
Reference CEC 36-304
Specifies the maximum ground fault current or:
The maximum fault current for the station
Information is typically provided by the Utility Information is typically provided by the Utility
Step 2 Ground Resistivity
2. Determine the resistivity of the ground in the area
of the substation
Should be determined by test
Often done as part of the geotechnical survey for civil works
Ground resistivity under all conditions (wet, dry, frozen earth)
Determine the type of surface layer to be used in the
vicinity of the substation vicinity of the substation
150mm of crushed stone generally used
Step 3 Tolerable Touch Voltage
3 Determine the tolerable
Touch Voltage Criteria
3. Determine the tolerable
touch voltage from
CEC table 52
Typical Value Used based
on Table 52 Note 2
Step 4 Required Ground Resistance
4 Calculate the required ground resistance for the 4. Calculate the required ground resistance for the
station ground electrode
The use of 150mm of crushed stone over the surface of
the substation will help raise the E
touch
and the overall
required ground resistance and simplify the design
R = E
touch
/I
G
R = Grid Resistance
I
G
E
touch
= Tolerable touch voltage from CEC table 51
Step 5 Number of Ground Rods
5. Estimate the number of ground rods required to
obtain the specified ground resistance p g
Estimate the ground resistance of one ground rod
Divide out the resistance of one ground rod by the
number of rods required to achieve the target station
ground resistance
IEEE 141
R
g
(rod) =
(
.
cm)
33

IEEE 141
R
g
(rod)
335 cm
Valid for 5/8 10 foot ground rods
Step 6 Ground Rod Layout
6. Space out the ground
rods in a symmetrical
tt th h t th
Substation fence
pattern throughout the
substation
Minimum spacing of one
Min. 1 rod length
p g
ground rod distance apart
Ground rods on the
peripheral are more
1m Min
peripheral are more
effective than ground rods
in the interior of the
substation
Grid design should extend
beyond the fence of the
substation a minimum of 1
meter
Step 7 Interconnect Ground Rods
7. Interconnect the ground rods using a minimum
2/0AWG bare copper ground wire
Conductors shall be buried to a minimum depth of
150mm below finished grade to a maximum of 600mm
below the rough station grade
G t D t il d d i Go to Detailed design
2/0AWG CU Wire
Station Ground Grid Design
IEEE 80 Design
Procedure Procedure
IEEE 80 Ground Grid Design
Appropriate for both Utility and Large customer
owned substation facilities
Large generation facilities should reference IEEE 665
IEEE Guide for Generator Station Grounding
Generating station typically cover a much larger physical area and
have numerous large buried structures and foundations
Workers generally work indoors and are not in direct contact with
f the earth or layer of crushed gravel
Defines the safety criteria which establishes the
basis for design and then provides a procedure for basis for design and then provides a procedure for
the design of a practical grounding system
Step 1 Field Data
Obtain a field map of the location
and determine the area that may be
used for the installation of a ground
grid
Conduct a soil resistivity test Conduct a soil resistivity test
Determine the soil resistivity profile of
the area in concern
Select and determine the resistivity of Select and determine the resistivity of
the surface layer material to be used in
the design of the substation
Step 2 Conductor Size
Select the ground grid conductor material
and calculate an appropriate conductor
size
A
k il
= I K
f
t A
kcmil
I K
f
t
c
A
kcmil
I = Maximum 3 phase fault current in kA
t
c
K
f
Maximum 3 phase fault current value is
provided by the Utility
Step 3 Touch and Step Criteria
Calculate the tolerable touch and
step voltage criteria for the station p g
i i i f h b h f = resistivity of earth beneath surface
s
.
m)
h
s
Step 4 Initial Design
Preliminary design should incorporate a
conductor loop surrounding the available
area with cross conductors to provide
convenient access for equipment grounds
Recommend ground rods Recommend ground rods
be placed around the
perimeter of the grid
Step 5 Grid Resistance
Estimate the resistance of the initial design
R
g
= +
20A
L
T
1
1
1 +
1
1+h20/A
R
g
= Substation resistance in
= Soil resistivity in
.
m
A = Area occupied by the grid in m
2
A Area occupied by the grid in m
h = Depth of the grid in m
L
T
= Total length of conductors and rods in m
Step 6 Grid Current
Determine the maximum ground fault
current expected within the substation
This value can usually be obtained from the
Utility
If not, calculate the fault current using the
following:
I
G
= C
p
x D
f
x I
g G p f g
I
G
C
p
= Estimated growth factor during station life span
C = 1 for zero growth C
p
= 1 for zero growth
D
f
= Decrement factor for the duration of the fault
I
g
Step 7 GPR < Touch Voltage?
Determine if the GPR is less than the
acceptable touch voltage for the station
GPR = I
G
X R
g
< E
touch
I = Maximum Grid Current I
G
R
g
= Grid Resistance
E
touch
= E
touch50
or E
touch70
If YES Grid Design is complete
Go to Detailed Design
If NO go to step 8
Step 8A Calculate Mesh Voltage
Calculate the MESH voltage for the grid
design
K
m
K
i
I
G
E
m
=
L
M
L
M
E
M
= Mesh Voltage
= Soil resistivity in m
K
m
= Geometrical correction factor for grids of varying dimension
K
i
= Correction factor for grid geometry
I
G
= Maximum grid current
L = Effective length of grid conductors and ground rods in m L
M
= Effective length of grid conductors and ground rods in m
K
m
= Geometrical correction factor
K =
1
l
D
2
D + 2 h
2
h K
ii
+ l
8
16 h d
K
m
=
2
ln
+
8 D d
-
4 d
+
K
h
(2 n 1)
ln
For grids with ground rods along the perimeter and thoughout the grid area: K = 1 For grids with ground rods along the perimeter and thoughout the grid area: K
ii
= 1
For grids with no ground rods: Refer to IEEE 80 Formula 82 for calculation of K
ii
K
h
=
1 +
h
o
h
o
= 1m (grid reference depth)
h
D = Spacing between parallel conductors in m
h = Depth of ground grid conductors in m
d = Diameter of grid conductor in m
o
d Diameter of grid conductor in m
n = Effective number of parallel conductors in a given grid
K
m
n = n
a
n
b
n
c
n
d
2 L
L
C
= is the total length of the conductor in
n
b
= 1 for square grids
1 f d t l id
L
p
2 L
C
n
a
=
C
g f
the horizontal grid in m
L
p
= is the peripheral length of the grid in m
n
c
= 1 for square and rectangular grids
n
d
= 1 for square, rectangular and L shaped grids
Otherwise
0 7 A
n
b
=
4 A
L
p
n
c
=
A
L
x
L
y
L
x
L
y
0.7 A
n
d
=
D
m
L
x
2
L
y
2
K
i
K
i
= 0 644 + 0 148 n
K
i
0.644 + 0.148 n
L
M
= Length of Grid Conductors and Ground
Rods
For grids with no ground rods or very few rods scattered throughout the grid but
none on the corners or on the perimeter
L
M
= L
C
+ L
R
L
C
= is the total length of the conductor in the horizontal grid in m
C
g f g
L
R
= is the total length of all ground rods
For grids with ground rods in the corners, as well as along the perimeter and
throughout the grid throughout the grid
L
M
= L
C
+
1.55 + 1.22
L
r
L
x
2
L
y
2
L
R
x y
L
r
= is the length of each ground rod in meters
L
x
= is the maximum length of the grid in the x direction in m
L i th i l th f th id i th di ti i
L
y
= is the maximum length of the grid in the y direction in m
Step 8B Calculate Step Voltage
K
s
K
i
I
G
E
E
s
= Step Voltage
= Soil resistivity
K
s
= Spacing factor for step voltage
E
s
=
L
S
s
p g f f p g
K
i
I
G
L
S
= Effective buried conductor length m
L
C
= is the total length of the conductor in the
horizontal grid in m
L
R
= is the total length of all ground rods
L
S
= 0.75 L
C
+ 0.85 L
R
1
1 1
1
2
D = Spacing between parallel
conductors in m
h = Depth of ground grid
2 h
K
S
=
1
1
+
D + h
1
+
D
1
1 0.5
n-2
conductors in m
d = Diameter of grid conductor
in m
n = Effective number of parallel
n = Effective number of parallel
conductors in a given grid
Step 9 E
m
< E
touch
?
If YES go to step 10
If NO Modify design
Step 10 E
s
< E
step
?
If YES go to Detailed Design
If NO Modify design
Detailed Design of the Station Detailed Design of the Station
Ground Grid
368
Station Ground Grid Detailed Design
1. Connect all non current carrying metal equipment to
the station ground grid g g
Two 2/0 AWG connections for electrical equipment
apparatus
Overhead transmission ground wires
Metal structures
Pedestals Pedestals
Security fence
Substation building steel
Underground metal pipes and other metallic structures
passing through the station
Intervals not exceeding 12m Intervals not exceeding 12m
Station Ground Grid Detailed Design
2. Connect the neutral ground resistor to the station
ground grid using a conductor sized to maximum
current of the resistor
Provide for the inspection of grounding connections
3 Connect the lightning arrestor to the station ground 3. Connect the lightning arrestor to the station ground
grid using a minimum 4/0 AWG conductor
Must be short, straight and direct as possible , g p
4. Interconnect adjacent substations and the
reinforced steel of adjacent plant structures using
4/0 AWG i t id d t 4/0 AWG intergrid conductors
5. Connect isolated instrument ground to the station
ground grid at one location only ground grid at one location only
Intergrid Conductors
Reinforced Steel of Building or Plant
Substation Fence
Buried Substation
Ground Electrode
Intergrid
conductors
Step by Step Instructions for the Design of a
Station Ground Electrode
6. Verify the following design parameters
GPR
Touch and Step voltages
Current loading capacity of the ground rod
7 T t th i t f th t ti d l t d 7. Test the resistance of the station ground electrode
Procedures outlined in IEEE 81
Tests are not required if the phase to phase voltage is less than
7500V and a 150mm surface layer is installed
See CEC 36-306
8. Modify the design as required y g q
Install additional ground rods or use longer ground rods to
reduce the station resistance
Modify the resistance of the soil using chemical salts Modify the resistance of the soil using chemical salts
Grid Design Documentation
Soil resistivity data
Dates the measurements were made
Temperature of the air and soil
Wetness of the earth
Measurement methodology
Material used for earth surface covering layer
Value assumed for the maximum fault current
injected into the station ground grid
I di t if l l l t d bt i d f th Indicate if value was calculated or obtained from another
source
Grid Design Documentation
Indicate what soil model was used and how it was
obtained
Worst case scenario
Indicate the maximum GPR, touch and step voltages
predicted for the system predicted for the system
Fault duration assumed
Incorporate the results of ground resistance testing Incorporate the results of ground resistance testing
of the grid
Incorporate scale drawings of the ground rod p g g
placement and ground conductor interconnections
Show all fences, underground pipes, intergrid conductor
connections connections
Grounding Tutorial
Section 9
Substation Ground System
Modular Substation incorporating
5 kV Switchgear and MCCs
600 V Switchgear and MCCs 600 V Switchgear and MCCs
UPS power distribution system
DCS Control System
Grounding system consists of: Grounding system consists of:
Power Distribution System Ground
5kV Low resistance ground system
600V High resistance ground system 600V High resistance ground system
Equipment Ground
Instrumentation ground
Lightning surge arrestor ground
Substation Single Line
Surge Arrestor
Overhead line
With no Neutral
Y
LRG NGR
Surge Arrestor
M
5kV
M M M
Y
600V
HRG NGR
M M
M
M
~
=
=
~
UPS
PP
Substation Layout
600V MCC
DCS
5 kV
Swgr
5kV MCC
600V Swgr
UPS
5kV
LRG
NGR
HRG NGR
600V
XFMR
5kV
XFMR
Surge
Surge
Arrestor
Tutorial Objectives
Use the HRG and LRG NGRs sizing from the previous tutorial
5A NGR on the 600V System
125A NGR on the 5kV System
Design a station ground grid system based on the following
information information
Maximum ground fault current = 0.4kA (Provided by utility)
Assume a 150mm crushed rock surface layer over a clay subsurface
layer with a resistivity of 6000 ( cm) under normal conditions layer with a resistivity of 6000 (
.
cm) under normal conditions
Verify the GPR, touch and step potentials for the design
Grounding Tutorial
Answers
GPR < Touch Voltage Method
Step 1 Determine the Maximum Ground Fault
Current
3phase fault current given as 5kA
Maximum ground fault current injected into the grid is
given as 0.4kA
Step 2 Determine the resistivity of the soil in the
i i it f th b t ti vicinity of the substation
Resistivity of Clay given as 6000 (
.
cm) or 60 m
150mm Surface layer of Crushed stone specified 150mm Surface layer of Crushed stone specified
Step 3 Touch Potential
Step 3 - Ground grid must be capable of handling
0.4kA and limit the touch and step potentials as p p
specified in CEC table 52
U l l th Use lower value as the
Ground grid voltage
Rise Criteria
Step 4 Required Ground Resistance
Target grid resistance is based on limiting the station
GPR to less than the maximum touch voltage g
R = E
touch
/I
G touch G
R = Grid Resistance
I
G
E
touch
= Tolerable touch voltage from CEC table 51
M i i d i t f d id
885V
2 21
E
touch
Tolerable touch voltage from CEC table 51
Maximum required resistance of ground grid =
0.4kA
= 2.21
Step 5 Number of ground rods required
Resistance of one ground rod
R
g
(rod) =
(
.
cm)
335 cm

6000
.
cm
R
g
(rod) =
6000
.
cm
335 cm
= 17.91
Estimate 16 ground rods to start Estimate 16 ground rods to start
R
g
= R
n
X F
n
2 14
17.91
= R
n
X 1.92
16
= 2.14 R
n
Step 6/7 Station Ground Grid
3.3m
600V MCC
DCS
3
.
3
m
Ground rods with
Inspection well
5 kV
Swgr
5kV MCC
600V Swgr
UPS
5ANGR
5kV
5A NGR
3 d d
Bare 2/0 AWG
600V
XFMR
5kV
XFMR
125A
NGR
Surge
Arrestor
3m ground rods
(16 in total)
IEEE 80 Design Calculation
Step 1 Field Data
Maximum 3 phase fault current 3 p
given as 5kA
Maximum ground fault current
i j t d i t th id i i injected into the grid is given as
0.4kA
.
cm) or 60 m
150mm Surface layer of Crushed
t ifi d stone specified
Step 2 Conductor Size
Select the ground grid conductor material
and calculate an appropriate conductor
size
A
kcmil
= I K
f
t
c
A
kcmil
I = Maximum 3 phase fault current in kA
t
c
K = constant based on the material (Refer to table 2 IEEE 80) K
f
A
kcmil
= 5 7.063 = 61.14
kcmil
61.14
kcmil
Minumum #2 AWG
2/0 AWG Selected for Mechanical Strength
= resistivity of earth beneath surface resistivity of earth beneath surface
s
.
m)
h
s
60
C
S
= 1 -
3000
60
1 -
0.09
2(.15) + 0.09
= 0.773
( )
E
Touch
=
116 + 0.174(0.773)(3000)
= 735V
0.5
E
Step
=
116 + 0.696(0.773)(3000)
= 2446V
0.5 0.5
Step 4 Initial Design
Preliminary design should incorporate a
conductor loop surrounding the available
area with cross conductors to provide
convenient access for equipment grounds
14m
13 3 d d 39
1
0
m
13 - 3m ground rods = 39m
5x14m + 5x10m = 120m #2/0 AWG
Area = 10m X 14m =140m
2
Grid depth = 450mm p
Step 5 Grid Resistance
R
g
= +
20A
L
T
1
1
1 +
1
1+h20/A
20A
L
T
1+h20/A
R
g
= Substation resistance in
= Soil resistivity in
.
m
A = Area occupied by the grid in m
2
h = Depth of the grid in m
L
T
= Total length of conductors and rods in m
60 R
g
= +
20(140)
159
1
1
1 +
1
1+0.4520/140
R
g
= 2.48
Step 6 Grid Current
Maximum ground fault current
injected into the grid is given as
0.4kA
Step 7 GPR < Touch Voltage?
Determine if the GPR is less than the
acceptable touch voltage for the station
GPR = I
G
X R
g
< E
touch
I = Maximum Grid Current I
G
R
g
= Grid Resistance
E
touch
= E
touch50
or E
touch70
GPR = 400A X 2.48 = 992V
GPR 992V > E 734V
Go to step 8 and Calculate Mesh
GPR = 992V > E
touch
= 734V
Voltage
Step 8A Calculate Mesh Voltage
Calculate the MESH voltage for the grid
design
K
m
K
i
I
G
E
m
=
L
M
=
60 K
m
K
i
400
L
M
M
E
M
= Mesh Voltage
= Soil resistivity in m
M
y
K
m
= Geometrical correction factor for grids of varying dimension
K
i
I
G
L = Effective length of grid conductors and ground rods in m L
M
= Effective length of grid conductors and ground rods in m
K
m
K =
1
l
D
2
D + 2 h
2
h K
ii
+ l
8
16 h d
K
m
=
2
ln
+
8 D d
-
4 d
+
K
h
(2 n 1)
ln
For grids with ground rods along the perimeter and thoughout the grid area: K = 1 For grids with ground rods along the perimeter and thoughout the grid area: K
ii
= 1
K
h
=
1 +
h
o
h
o
= 1m (grid reference depth) =
h
1 +
1
0.45
= 1.2
D = Spacing between parallel conductors in m = 3.5m
h = Depth of ground grid conductors in m = 0.45m
d = Diameter of grid conductor in m = 0.0093m
o

d Diameter of grid conductor in m 0.0093m
n = Effective number of parallel conductors in a given grid
K
m
n = n
a
n
b
n
c
n
d
2 L
L
C
= is the total length of the conductor in
the horizontal grid in m = 120m
L
p
= is the peripheral length of the grid in m
2 120
L
p
2 L
C
n
a
=
L
p
p
= 48m
A = Area of Grid = 140m
2
=
48
2 120
= 5
1 01
48
n
c
= 1 for square and rectangular grids
n
d
= 1 for square, rectangular and L shaped grids
n
b
=
4 A
p
=
4 140
= 1.01
K C ti f t f id t
n = 5 1.01 1 1 = 5.05
K
i
K
i
= 0.644 + 0.148 n = 0.644 + 0.148 5.05 = 1.39
L
M
= Length of Grid Conductors and Ground
Rods
For grids with ground rods in the corners, as well as along the perimeter and
throughout the grid
L
L
M
= L
C
+
1.55 + 1.22
L
r
L
x
2
L
y
2
L
R
L
r
= is the length of each ground rod in meters
L
x
= is the maximum length of the grid in the x direction in m
L
y
= is the maximum length of the grid in the y direction in m
L i th l th f d t i th id i L
C
= is the length of conductors in the grid in m
L
R
= is the length of rods in the grid in m
3
L
M
= 120 +
1.55 + 1.22
3
10
2
14
2
39 = 181.46
Mesh Voltage
16 0.45 0.0065
K
m
=
1
2
ln
3.5
2
+
8 3.5 0.0065
3.5 + 2 0.45
2
-
4 0.0065
0.45
1
+
1 2
(2 5.05 1)
ln
8
K 0 70
1.2
(2 5.05 1)
K
m
= 0.70
K
i
= 1.39
L = 121 57
K
m
K
i
I
G
60 0.7 1.39 400
L
M
= 121.57
m i G
E
m
=
L
M
=
181.46
= 128.7V
K
s
K
i
I
G
E
E
s
= Step Voltage
= Soil resistivity = 60 m
K
i
= Correction factor for grid geometry = 1.39
E
s
=
L
S
i
f f g g y
I
G
= Maximum grid current = 400A
L
S
= Effective buried conductor length m
K
s
= Spacing factor for step voltage
L
C
= is the total length of the conductor in the horizontal grid in m = 120
L
S
= 0.75 L
C
+ 0.85 L
R
C
is the total length of the conducto in the ho i ontal g id in m 0
L
R
= is the total length of all ground rods = 39m
L
S
= 0 75 120 + 0 85 39 = 123 15 L
S
0.75 120 + 0.85 39 123.15
2 h
K
S
=
1
1
+
D + h
1
+
D
1
1 0.5
n-2
D = Spacing between parallel conductors in m = 3.5
h = Depth of ground grid conductors in m = 0.45
1
1
1
1
5 05 2
d = Diameter of grid conductor in m = 0.0065
n = Effective number of parallel conductors in a given grid = 5.05
2 0.45
K
S
=
1
1
+
3.5 + 0.45
+
3.5
1
1 0.5
5.05-2
= 0.513
K
s
K
i
I
G
E
s
=
L
S
=
60 0.513 1.39 400
123.15
= 139V
Step 9 E
m
< E
touch
?
E
mesh
= 128.7V < 734V = E
touch
YES go to step 10
E
mesh
128.7V 734V E
touch
Step 10 E
s
< E
step
?
E
s
= 139V < 2446V = E
step
YES go to Detailed Design
E
s
139V 2446V E
step
Detailed Design
3.3m
2/0 AWG Insulated Gnd Wire
600V MCC
DCS
3
.
3
m
Ground rods with
Inspection well
Isolated Inst. Gnd Bus
Eqpt Gnd Bus
5 kV
Swgr
5kV MCC
600V Swgr
UPS
5ANGR
Intergrid
Grounding
Conductors
5kV
5A NGR
3 d d
Bare 2/0 AWG
600V
XFMR
5kV
XFMR
125A
NGR
Surge
Arrestor
3m ground rods
(16 in total)
2/0AWG to
Xo Terminal
Xo Terminal
Gnd Conductor as short as possible
Substation Ground System
Instrumentation Ground
Designed to insure that all components of the Designed to insure that all components of the
control system operate at the same potential
Eliminate potential ground loops Eliminate potential ground loops
Isolate system noise on the ground system
Allow ground to be accessible for disconnect to assist in
isolating ground loops
Control System Grounding Scheme
SWGR
UPS UPS
PNL PNL
Main Transformer
Instrument
Panel Bonding
N
Lightning
A t
NGR
Ground
Conductor
Bonding Conductor
Panel Bonding
Conductors
Arrestor
System
Ground
CP
CP
CP
Isolated Ground Bus
Insulated Instrument Ground conductors
Computer Analysis GPR < Touch
Summer Conditions
Summer Conditions
Winter Conditions
Computer Analysis IEEE 80
Computer Analysis IEEE 80
Computer Analysis Optimized
Computer Analysis Optimized
Summary and Wrap up
Section 10
Learning Objectives Review
1. To understand why we ground
Protect life from the danger of shock Protect life from the danger of shock
Limit the voltage on a circuit
Facilitate operation of protective devices Facilitate operation of protective devices
Low Impedance
path to source
G1
L
F
u
s
e
Accidental
Ground
path to source
allows fuse to
operate
G1
L
Neutral
2. To describe the difference between grounding and
bondingg
System grounding refers to the intentional connection of a
phase or neutral conductor to earth for the purpose of
t lli th lt t d ithi di t bl li it controlling the voltage to ground, within predictable limits
Bonding or equipment grounding refers to the
interconnection and connection to earth of all normally interconnection and connection to earth of all normally
non-current carrying metal parts
Insures that all metal parts remain at ground potential
Reduces the shock hazard to personnel Reduces the shock hazard to personnel
Provides a low impedance return path for ground currents
Allows the circuit protection device to operate
Minimize the fire and explosion hazard
3. To apply the safety requirements as defined by the
Canadian Electrical Code and the IEEE as they y
relate to grounding
CEC Section 10
Defines when a system should be grounded and when equipment
should be bonded
Describes the acceptable methods for grounding and bonding
and stipulates the size of grounding and bonding conductors
Defines what an acceptable grounding electrode shall be
CEC Section 36 CEC Section 36
Describes the grounding and bonding requirements for high
voltage substations
GPR < 5000\v GPR < 5000\v
Touch and Step potential as per table 52
3. To apply the safety requirements as defined by the
Canadian Electrical Code and the IEEE as they y
relate to grounding
IEEE 142 (Green Book)
Recommended Practice for the Grounding of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems
IEEE 1100 (Emerald Book) IEEE 1100 (Emerald Book)
Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic
Equipment
IEEE 80 IEEE 80
Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
Primarily concerned with outdoor AC substations
Learning Objectives
4. To select the appropriate systems grounding
scheme for an industrial facilityy
Condition
Un-
grounded
Solid
Ground
Low
Resistance
High
Resistance
Immunity to transient Immunity to transient
overvoltages
Worst Good Good Best
Arc Fault Damage
Protection
Worst Poor Better Best
Safety to Personnel
Worst Better Good Best
Service Reliability
Worst Good Better Best
Continued operation
after initial ground fault
Ground fault locating Not
G d B tt B t
g
Possible
Good Better Best
Learning Objectives
5. To implement a static electricity control and
lightning protection system g g p y
Static Control
Bond together and to ground
Lightning strikes cannot be stopped but their energy can be
diverted in a controlled manner
Requires a low impedance path to ground
Learning Objectives
6. To avoid the problems typically associated with the
grounding of sensitive electronic systems g g y
Ground loops - use the single point grounding concept
Methods of Noise Mitigation
Physical Separation
Electrical Segregation
Harmonic Filtering Harmonic Filtering
Shielding or screening of noise sources
Learning Objectives
7. To design a ground grid for a high voltage industrial
substation
Limit the ground potential rise between two points to a safe
value
Limit the touch and step potentials to a safe value
Must be able to withstand the maximum ground current
without damage without damage
Important part of a safe and reliable electrical systems
design

Grounding Fundamentals Course Presentation

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Grounding Fundamentals

Instructor: Allan Bozek, P.Eng.

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