Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829

Experimental investigation of a solar dryer

with natural convective heat ow
P. Gbaha
a
, H. Yobouet Andoh
a,
, J. Kouassi Saraka
a
,
B. Kame nan Koua
b
, S. Toure
b
a
Laboratoire dEnergies dEnergies Nouvelles et Renouvelables, Institut National Polytechnique
Felix Houphouet-Boigny, B.P. 1526 Yamoussoukro, Cote dIvoire
b
Laboratoire dEnergie Solaire, Universite de Cocody, 22 B.P.: 582, Abidjan 22, Cote dIvoire
Received 14 April 2006; accepted 4 October 2006
Available online 10 January 2007
Abstract
A direct type natural convection solar dryer is designed. It is constructed in local materials (wood,
blades of glass, metals) then tested experimentally in foodstuffs drying (cassava, bananas, mango). It
is about an experimental approach which consists in analyzing the behavior of the dryer. The study
relates mainly kinetics and establishment of drying heat balances. The inuence of signicant
parameters governing heat and mass transfers, such as solar incident radiation, drying air mass ow
and effectiveness, is analyzed in order to evaluate its thermal performances. Experimental data can be
represented by empirical correlations of the form M(t) M
i
exp(kt) for representation of drying
process. The resolution of these drying equations makes-possible to predict total drying time of each
product. Moreover, this drying process allows to reduce the moisture content of cassava and sweet
banana approximately to 80% in 19 and 22 h, respectively to reach the safety threshold value of 13%.
This value permits the conservation of these products about one year without deterioration. The
determination of parameters, like ambient temperature, drying chamber temperature, drying air mass
ow and incident heat uxes, allow to predict the drying effectiveness for modeling and rening the
dimensioning of the elaborate prototype.
r 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Solar dryer; Natural convection; Direct dryer; Portable dryer; Farm dryer
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www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2006.10.011

Corresponding author. Tel.: +225 30 64 03 67; fax: +225 07 96 05 68.

E-mail address: andohy@yahoo.fr (H. Yobouet Andoh).
1. Introduction
One of the most signicant potential application of solar energy is drying. It is the
oldest of stabilization operations of agricultural products practiced by people. The
drying of various products and matters is intensively carried out in industry and
agriculture. Its mechanism, typically non-stationary and based on complex mass and
heat transfers laws, is well known. Its particularity resides in the fact that the departure of
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Nomenclature
Ac collector area (m
2
)
C
p
specic heat (J/kg K)
F
R
heat removal factor of solar collector
F
0
collector efciency factor
I
T
incident radiation (W/m
2
)
k drying constant (h
1
)
L
v
latent heat of water vaporization (J/kg)
M product moisture content (%)
M
sr
moisture content at sunrise (%)
M
ss
moisture content at sunset (%)
m weight of product (kg)
m
d
weight of dried product (kg)
m
t
weight of product to be dried at any time (kg)
_ m air mass ow (kg/s)
N months number
Q
u
useful energy gain of collector (W/m
2
)
R
n
nocturnal moisture re-absorption or losses (%)
t drying time (h)
T temperature (1C or K)
U
L
global heat loss coefcient (W/m
2
K)
a absorption coefcient
t transmission coefcient
r reexion coefcient
r air volume mass (kg/m
3
)
Z efciency (effectiveness)
j latitude of the place
Subscripts
a air, ambient
e equilibrium
i inlet, instantaneous, initial
m months
o outlet
w water
P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1818
water molecules from the products is done thanks to the difference in water vapor
partial pressure between the product surface and surrounding air. This difference in
partial pressure is obtained by heating of air circulating in natural convection in a
collector.
It is the subject of many experimental and theoretical works on microscopic and
macroscopic scale [18]. For example, Kiebling [9] has listed 66 types of solar dryers, their
congurations, their capacity of drying and their cost. Fu ller [10], Ekechukwa and Norton
[11] has reviewed many solar dryers and compared their technical performance and
applicability in rural areas.
The subject is abundantly covered because it can contribute to the short-term solution of
the problem of food shortage in African Saharan countries and elsewhere. Indeed, whereas
famine prevails everywhere in the world and particularly in Africa, the post harvest losses
of agricultural products in sub-Saharan countries are estimated to be more than 3040%
of production [2,12], confronting producers with a challenge to improve of quality as well
as quantity. In order to minimize losses and to increase food supplies in rural areas of
developing countries, particularly those struck by famine and dryness, it is extremely
urgent to develop new solar dryers, easy to implement, transportable on sites, easy to
exploit, relatively moderate in cost and nancially more accessible for rural populations. It
is the purpose of this study to present a modular concept solar dryer, simple, direct, with
natural convective heat ow.
2. Theoretical analysis
Drying mechanisms are complex in so far as heat and mass transfers are closely
dependent. Heat is often brought by a hot gas. It also can ow by conduction in
contact with hot walls or by radiation. The contribution of energy will be used to
increase air drying and product temperatures and also to evaporate water. At the
same time, water migrates from interior of the product to outside, in liquid or
vapor form according to the temperature and the product moisture content. It is
then evacuated by natural convection toward external environment. Several theories
and models are carried out to explain the kinetics drying and to understand the
physical laws governing these transfers [68]. The complexity of the mechanisms
and the variable character of the products (nature, form, physical properties) prevents a
single model to represent all the situations. Thus, experimental studies are adopted to
determine the characteristics of a solar dryer. The principal criteria usually used to
evaluate the performance of any solar drying system are the kinetics and the drying
effectiveness.
The reabsorption and the night moisture losses of the products are also decisive. The
drying kinetics can be expressed by the drying equation [4]
dM
dt
kM
t
M
e
. (1)
The moisture content on dries basis M
t
is the weight of the moisture present in the
product by unit dry weight matter in the product. M
t
results in the equation
M
t

m
t
m
d
m
d
. (2)
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P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1819
The instantaneous moisture content at any time can be calculated from equation
M
t
M
i
1
m
t
m
i

. (3)
The noctumal moisture re-absorption or loss R
n
is dened as the ratio of the rise in
moisture content over the night period to the moisture content value at the sunset of the
preceding day. R
n
can be expressed in percentage as [13]
R
n

M
sr
M
ss
M
ss
100. (4)
Positive values o f R
n
mean moisture re-absorption, but negative values indicate further
moisture loss.
The performance evaluation of a solar heat collector is signicant for its dimensioning.
This is related to its thermal effectiveness. Effectiveness is dened as the ratio of the useful
energy on the incident solar radiation, for one period. This useful energy is closely related
to the thermal losses of the system and its environment, resulting from conductive,
convective and radiative exchanges. The thermal effectiveness is determined by the relation
[2]
Z
_ mC
p
R
t
2
t
1
T
o
T
i
dt
A
c
R
t
2
t
1
I
t
dt
. (5)
In the steady state, a solar dryer thermal performance is expressed by HottelWhiller
Bliss equation [14], on the assumption that the same relation is applicable to our study.
Z
Q
u
A
c
I
t
F
R
ta F
R
U
L
T
i
T
a
I
T
, (6)
where
F
R

_ mC
p
A
c
U
L
1 e
A
c
U
L
F
0
= _ mC
p
. (7)
The substitution of Eq. (5) in Eq. (6), allows to dene air increasing temperature in the
collector by
T
o
T
i

A
c
F
R
taI
T
_ mC
p

A
c
F
R
T
i
T
a
U
L
_ mC
p
, (8)
T
o
T
i

A
c
F
R
taI
T
_ mC
p

A
c
F
R
T
i
T
a
I
th
_ mC
p
, (9)
where
U
L

I
th
ta
T
i
T
a
. (10)
I
th
is the threshold level of incident radiation [15]. The schematization of a heat
exchanger and U
L
expression are presented in detail in Ref. [16].
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P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1820
3. Experimental study
3.1. Experimental set-up
The experimental set-up designed and carried out for this study is presented in
Fig. 1. It is tested under meteorological conditions of Yamoussoukro in Co te dTvoire, and
consists of a drying chamber topped by a chimney, a box, a tray and all the
instrumentation (not presented on the gure). The drying chamber dimension are
1.34 m0.936 m0.45 m. Its structure constitutes the collecting area of the dryer. Its
cover is tilted at an angle of 71 in relation with horizontal. The solar energy received
by a collector is at maximum if the inclination angle (i) of the collector with the
horizontal is such as: (j101)pip(j+101). The latitude of Yamoussoukro is 6.831N.
The framework of the drying chamber is a 0.004 m thickness glass. Glass has an
average transmission coefcient t 0:88 and an average emission coefcient 0:95 [17].
The drying chamber cover is made of three parts: a horizontal part 1.34 m0.12 m on
which the solar chimney is located at the center. The two identical parts 1.34 m0.405 m
constitute the lid of the dryer. Its structure consists of a 1.24 m0.81 m cross
section for the tray. The box is used as structure of the support and measures
1.34 m0.936 m. It involves two adjustable box crossing sections which ensure air inlet
in the dryer. It is made of machined wood carefully treated to resist to poor meteorological
conditions and termites. The tray which is the drying area is made of metal grid.
It has a rigid framework made of 0.018 m thickness and 0.09 m depth plywood. The
surface on which the product to be dried is exposed is 1.24 m0.81 m dimensions and
represents a drying area of 1 m
2
. The solar chimney assembled on the cover of the drying
chamber contains an absorber, velocity regulator of natural convective ow. The length of
the solar chimney base is xed at 0.20 m0.50 m high. The 0.002 m thickness
absorber, located at 0.025 m of each face of the chimney, made of 0.004 m thickness
glass, is located at the medium of the solar chimney. It has 0.502 m0.20 m intern
dimensions and is made of sheet steel painted in matt black. The matt black paint has the
following characteristics: absorption coefcient a 0:90, emission coefcient 0:95,
reexion coefcient r 0:10 [18].
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Fig. 1. Direct solar dryer using a thermal circulator.
P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1821
3.2. Instrumentation
The temperatures are measured with a 0.001 m diameter chromel/alumel thermocouples
about 70.5 1C precision. The measurements are taken at the center and at the surface of
the product, in the drying air, at the inlet and outlet of the dryer and at the chimney. All
these probes underwent a preliminary calibration in melting ice and ebullient water. Tests
showed that the presence of thermocouples of this size do not disturb the measurements.
The temperatures of reference points were checked and conrmed by mercury column
glass thermometers, graduated to 2/10. The data acquisition was carried out manually. A
psychrometer was used with wet bulb, ventilated under shelter, measures dry and wet
temperatures, to determine the ambient air relative humidity. The psychrometer is
composed of two thermometers graduated to 2/10. One indicates the dry temperature. The
bulb of the other was surrounded by a wick constantly wet and indicates the wet
temperature. It must be placed in a draft at a rate higher than 2 m/s. Air velocity
measurement is made using a hot wire anemometer with discrete probe. The theoretical
range speed of the anemometer varies from 0.05 to 30 m/s. The absolute error on the
measures is 10
2
m/s.
The total incident solar radiation was measured using a pyranometer Kipp and Zonen
CM 10. This apparatus consists of one thermopile and a numerical integrator allowing the
reading of instantaneous uxes by digital display. It is placed in a horizontal position in
order to cover the whole of the sky. The thermopile is protected from the wind and the
poor meteorological conditions by two transparent hemispherical glass cups. The relative
error measurement is about 72%.
The mass losses are carried out using weightings with a type Metter PL1200 digital
display electronic balance of 0.01 gr precision. This balance allows the reduction in the
mass of a product during the drying process to be continuously registered.
3.3. Experimental procedure
The experiment consisted of measuring the mass, moisture content and watching the drying
kinetics evolution of the product to be dried. Measurements and observations were carried
out for a drying cycle time are made in three directions: (a) knowledge of the biological
behavior of the product, as well as the quantitative and qualitative levels, (b) evaluation of air
characteristics in various points of the dryer and the performances of each element of the
chain, (c) appreciation of meteorological experimental conditions (total incident solar
radiation, drying chamber temperature, dry and wet air temperatures, air relative and
absolute moistures, average velocities and directions of the wind). The drying air mass ow is
calculated from its velocity measured at the dryer exit, in relation to its density which varies
with the temperature according to the relation [19].
r 2:1312 0:0032T (11)
(T dryer average inlet and outlet air temperature in K). All these data are then analyzed for an
improved comprehension of the behavior of the dryer and the methods used according to the
products treated. The mass of the product in the dryer, is determined by the electronic
balance throughout the drying process. It is the same method for initial and nal moistures.
The product state (form, color, organoleptic quality) are also studied. Experimental data are
noted every 10 min at regular intervals between 7:30 a.m to 6:00 p.m. The products to be
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P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1822
dried are placed on the tray in thin layers and are crossed by hot draft. Studies were carried
out on four basic African foodstuffs, namely cassava, plantain banana, sweet banana, and
mango.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Temperaturesheat uxes
For any solar system, it is important to know the quantity of energy received and its
distribution in the time. This will condition the collector area and the system storage
capacity. Fig. 2 presents incident heat uxes, internal dryer temperatures, ambient
temperatures for a day. Analysis of this gure reveals that the maximum incident heat ux
measured is 1060 W/m
2
for a corresponding drying chamber temperature of 59 1C and an
ambient temperature of 39 1C, values obtained at 11:40 a.m. This indicates that the three
parameters evolved in the same direction. They reached their maxima and minima at the
same time of the day, which is normal and demonstrates clearly that the temperature
evolution is a function of instantaneous incident heat uxes. Fig. 3 presents the drying air
temperature increase in the dryer according to incident radiation. From meteorological
data available, this straight line obtained whose equation is presented in Table 1, allows the
estimation of air temperature in the drying chamber for any day of the year. The
identication between Eq. (9) and Fig. 3 straight line equation, allows this straight line
slope, y-intercept and sunstroke limiting value to be determined. These values are
presented in Table 1. Thus, if average meteorological conditions are known, the drying
outlet air temperature can be estimated, which is important when designing a solar dryer.
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Fig. 2. Instantaneous thermal ux, drying chamber and ambient temperatures.
P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1823
The global thermal loss average coefcient based on aperture areas can be estimated from
Figs. 2 and 7. Its estimated average value is presented in Table 3.
4.2. Drying kinetics
Taking into account all mass transfers (vapor and liquid), under effect of various
temperature gradients and pressures, makes the study complex. The problem becomes
more complicated when it is a question of using achieved results to dimension or model the
dryer. The approach is generally empirical. It consists in the determination of two
representations of curves which are the product moisture content with the time (M f(t)),
(Fig. 4) and the drying rate with the time (dM=dt f t) (Fig. 5 only for cassava),
obtained by calculating directly the derivative dM=dt from experimental points. These
curves can be represented respectively by general equations of the form Mt
M
i
expkt and dM=dt kM. The drying constant (k) is calculated for the falling
drying rate period.
In Fig. 5, the drying kinetics enables the identication of three distinct drying phases, A
short period of rise in temperature which is not taken into account. It stops as soon as the
product reaches the drying chamber air temperature. In the dryer such a period
corresponds to the stoving phase. The rst phase, noted AB, is a constant rate drying
phase. The product surface is constantly fed out of interstitial water by capillary forces.
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Fig. 3. Temperature rise in drying chamber with solar radiation.
Table 1
Equation for temperature rise and collector characteristic parameters
Mass ow (kg/s m
2
) Equation for temparature
A
c
F
R
at
_ mC
p

Cm
2
=W
A
c
F
R
atI
th
_ mC
p

C
I
th
(W/m
2
)
0.1 T
o
T
i
0.545I
T
28.519 0.0545 28.519 523.28
P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1824
This phase is also called isenthalpic phase since the energy received by the product is
entirely used for the vaporization of surface waters. During this phase, all the product
remains at the drying chamber temperature. In the second phase, noted BC, when the
surface of the product reaches the hygroscopic threshold, drying enters into a rst step of
deceleration. At the start of this phase, the drying rate decreases very quickly. The
evaporation zone is now inside the product. From each side of the evaporation zone, there
are different methods of transport. Upstream, in the center of the product, there is always
migration of free water by capillarity and the temperature of the product is always equal to
hygroscopic temperature. Downstream, the migration is due to the diffusion phenomena
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Fig. 4. Moisture content variation with drying time.
Fig. 5. Dehydratation rates of cassava.
P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1825
(vapor) or diffusion-sorption (water dependent) and there is increasing temperature in this
zone. In the third phase, noted CD, the product is in hygroscopic eld. Water does not
exist any more but in dependent form and in vapor form. The drying rate decreases very
slowly and tends towards zero. This value is reached when the moisture content balance of
the surfaces in contact with air is obtained. This is related to the drying conditions which
are given by the desorption isotherms. The drying process is then fmished. These results are
in good agreement with those of Ayensu [1], Belahmidi et al. [20], Lahsasni et al. [3]. So, it
can be said that the drying rate makes possible to see that the isenthalpic phase duration is
short, compared to the total drying time. The rst phase of deceleration is very brutal and
lasts little time. It is in fact a transition zone. On the other hand, the third phase of the
drying process is very long. This can be explained by the fact that low moisture contents,
close to moisture content balance, must be reached. For a safe storage of harvests products
of a relative humidity of 8090%, Ayensu [1] recommends a moisture content balance
Mep14%. The value in this study is 13%. The dehydration parameters calculated for
various products and drying equations are presented in Table 2.
4.3. Efciency
The dryer chamber outlet and inlet air temperatures, air mass ow and incident solar
energy measurements, make it possible to determine the dryer thermal effectiveness. The
results are presented in Figs. 6 and 7. The analysis of the curve in Fig. 6 shows that thermal
effectiveness is strongly dependent on the drying air mass ow. Effectiveness grows with
mass ow to approach its asymptote which tends towards 42% when drying air mass ow
approaches 0.456 kg/s m
2
, whatever the product to be dried. To determine the physical
characteristics of the collector, one represents effectiveness with T
i
T
a
/I
T
in Fig. 7. The
curve obtained is a straight line. By identication between Eq. (6) and this straight line
equation, one determines the slope, y-intercept and deducts the collector physical
parameters. These results presented in Table 3 are in good agreement with those of Karim
and Awlader [2] who conclude that high mass ows correspond to a global low heat loss
coefcient.
4.4. Instantaneous average drying effectiveness
To have a more global idea of energy transfers effectiveness in the dryer, an
instantaneous average thermal efciency is calculated over all the duration of the drying
for each product. The total duration of the drying time varies strongly with the various
periods of drying, which is divided into several periods of equal importance. The
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Table 2
Dehydration parameters of samples subjected to drying
Sample Drying equation M
i
(%) M
e
(%) k (h
1
) Time (h) Reduction (%)
Cassava M 64.278 exp(0.0879t) 64.278 13 0.0879 19 79.77
Sweet Banana M 63.834 exp(0.0752t) 63.834 13 0.0752 22 79.63
Plantain Banana M 60.841 exp(0.0598t) 60.841 13 0.0598 26 78.63
Mango M 93.563 exp(0.0736t) 93.563 13 0.0736 27 86.10
P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1826
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Fig. 6. Collector efciency with air drying mass ow.
Fig. 7. Collector efciency with T
i
T
a
/I
T
.
Table 3
Efciency equation and collector physical characteristics
Flow rate (kg/s m
2
) Efciency equation F
R
(ta) F
R
.U
L
(W/m
2
1C) U
L
(W/m
2
1C) F
R
0.1
Z 0:7484 5:1478
T
i
T
a
I
T
0.7484 5.1478 5.262 0.9783
P. Gbaha et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 18171829 1827
instantaneous average drying effectiveness is dened by the relation
Z
i

P
t
0
_ m
w
tL
v
Dt
P
t
0
I
T
tA
c
Dt
. (12)
Dt represents the time section during which T
0
, T
i
, _ mt and I
T
(t) are determined. Dt is
expressed in hours. This leads to the dention of an optimal average drying effectiveness,
which is the arithmetic average of instantaneous average drying effectiveness of various
months. That is to say
Z
m

1
N
X
N
i1
Z
i
. (13)
Thus, in a series of experiments from September to December 1994 and from January to
June 2000, the optimal average drying effectiveness calculated is 13.65% for an optimal
drying air mass ow of 0.10 kg/s m
2
. This value is relatively low because of signicant
losses of sensitive and latent heat contained in outlet gases (air and vapor). It is however
relatively interesting since Singh [5] reports that drying effectiveness reported in the
literature is in a range of 423%.
5. Conclusions
Based on local atmospheric conditions and thermal processes, a solar dryer with natural
convective heat ow was designed. It is a simple design and can be manufactured by
farmers from local materials. It has a relatively moderate cost and is easy to use. Tests for
drying tropical farm products showed that drying air temperature is the main factor
inuencing the drying kinetics, The drying rate increases with drying air temperature and
drying air mass ow. The drying curves, physical characteristics and thermal performances
of the dryer are obtained. The experimental study also highlights the inuence of various
parameters on the drying process and to establish empirical correlations describing their
characteristics. Empirical drying equations in the form of M(t) M
i
exp(k
i
t) describes
the phenomenon rather well and can be used to model and simulate drying of common
tropical farm products.
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