G484: The Newtonian World

Newtonian Laws of Motion

Newtons First Law
An object will remain at rest or keep travelling at constant velocity
unless it is acted on by an external force.
Change in momentum when something bounces uses two negatives so is usually p
1
- -
p
2
= p
1
+ p
2
Examle!
"in# p
i
$fo% 1 & i & 2' when a ( an# a half tonne minibus going at 2) mete%s a
secon# $
1
' an# a *+,g was t%avelling in oosite #i%ections at the same see#
$
2
'
p
1
= mv = 7.5x10
3
x25 = 1.9x10
5
kgms
-1
p
2
= mv = 0.8 x 10
3
x-25 = -2x10
-2
kgms
-1
Newtons Second Law
Momentum is #efine# as mass x velocity an# is vecto%
Net Force - .ate of Change of Momentum
In SI units const!nt o" proportion!#it$ is 1 =% Net Force = &!te o" '(!nge o"
)omentum

!e net force acting on an object is e"ual to t!e rate of c!ange of t!e

linear momentum of t!at object. !e net force and t!e c!ange in
momentum are in t!e same direction.
/n the case whe%e mass is constant0 "=ma is #e%ive#+
Examle!
1 12**2g ca% is t%avelling on a %oa# at 32ms
-1
+ 4%a2es alie# fo% 1+) secon#s+
"inal see# is 1*ms
-1
+ "in# the magnitu#e of the ave%age fo%ce alie#+
so **1200x32+-*1200x10++,1.5 = 1.8x10
-
N
Newtons !ird Law
#!en two objects interact$ t!e forces t!ey exert on eac! ot!er are
e"ual in magnitude and opposite in direction.
.e-a%%anging the gene%al e5uation f%om Newton6s secon# law0 we get " x 7t = 7+ 8he
L9: is e5ual to the imulse of the fo%ce; %mpulse & force x time & '(omentum
#!en you !ave a force against time grap!$ t!e area underneat! is impulse.
Measu%e# in Ns o% 2gms
-1
+ /mo%tant when fo%ce on an ob<ect is not constant+ 1%ea
un#e% the g%ah of fo%ce an# time is obviously imulse= change in momentum+
Examle!
1 >**2g ca% is t%avelling at 12ms
-1
+ 1 constant fo%ce of 1,**N acts on the ca% fo%
1*s+ "in# v
f
+
.)omentum = Impu#se = F x time = 1800 x 10 = 18000 kgms
-1
. /
o
= 900x12 =
10800 /
"
= 18000010800 =28800. 1
"
= p
"
,m = 28800,900 = 32 ms
-1
.
)ollisions
8he %incile of the conse%vation of momentum states %n a closed system$ t!e
total momentum of t!e objects before t!e collision is e"ual to t!e total
momentum of t!e objects after t!e collision.
8his %incile is #e%ive# f%om Newton6s :econ# an# 8hi%# laws+
*lastic and %nelastic )ollisions
/n all collisions0 ene%gy an# momentum a%e conse%ve#+ Ene%gy may be t%ansfo%me# to
othe% fo%ms such as heat an# soun#+ 8he two tyes of collisions a%e elastic an#
inelastic+
/n an elastic collision0 the total kinetic energy of the system %emains
constant+ Momentum an# total ene%gy a%e conse%ve#+
/n an inelastic collision0 the total kinetic energy is not conserved+ :ome of
the 2inetic ene%gy is t%ansfo%me# to !eat0 sound etc+ Momentum an# total
ene%gy a%e conse%ve#+
Examle!
4efo%e! )*g ca% at 1+2ms
-1
a%oaching stationa%y ?*g ca%
1fte%! )*g ca% at *+@ms
-1
an# ?*g ca% at vms
-1
+ "in# v an# #ete%mine the
tye of collision

b
= )*x 1+2 = @*2gms
-1
0
a
= )*x*+@ + ?*xv = 3* + ?*v2gms
-1
v=3=? ms
-1
*+)$)*x1*
-3
'$1+2'
2
= *+*3@A
*+)$)*x1*
-3
'$*+@'
2
+ *+)$)*x1*
-3
'$*+()'
2
= *+*2A
*+*3@ B *+*2 C collision is inelastic as momentum is conse%ve# by 2inetic ene%gy
isn6t+
Ci%cula% Motion
Angular displacement$ speed$ acceleration and intro to centripetal force
8he angular displacement is the angle in %a#ians %otate# by the %a#ius DE f%om
some %efe%ence osition+ 8his is #enote# by F+
# F=#t = Angular Speed = +
!en #G=#t = #
2
F=#t
2
= Angular Acceleration
2e kno3 s = r 4
5s,5t = r*54,5t+
v & r+& 2H%8 2(ere v is spee5 !n5 !ngu#!r spee5 !n5 s !rc
#engt(
8he osition vecto% at a given time is!
r = %cos$Gt'i + %sin$Gt'j
v = -%Gsin$Gt'i + %Gcos$Gt'j
a = -%G
2
cos$Gt'i +-%G
2
sin$Gt'j
4y fin#ing lal0 we fin# that a & r+
,
an# f%om above v=%G0 so
:o fo% a a%ticle moving in a ci%cle of %a#ius % with unifo%m angula% see# G0
8he velocity is tangential to the ci%cle
8he speed a%oun# the ci%cle is v&r+& 2H%8
8he acceleration acts towa%#s the centre of the ci%cle+
8he magnitu#e of the acceleration is r+
,
o% v
,
-r!nn
:ince "=ma0 the %esultant fo%ce is acting towa%#s the cent%e0 the centripedal
force. 8his coul# be gravity0 tension0 friction etc+ F & ma & mv
,
-r
Examle!
1 metal #isc of #iamete% 12cm is sun at a %ate of ?,* %evolutions e% minute+
Iesc%ibe how the see# of a oint on a #isc #een#s on %+ "in# the maximum
see#+
v = r C v J r
v = 6x10
-2
x 16H K3ms
-1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
"in# the o%bital see# an# cent%ietal accele%ation of the Ea%th as it o%bits %oun#
the :un at a mean #istance of 1+) x 1*
11
m+
v = 2H%8 = 2 x i x 1+)x1*
11
= 3@)+2)x2?x@*x@* = 2>,@)ms
-1
a = v
2
=% = $2>,@)
2
'=$1+)x1*
11
' = )+>x1*
-3
ms
-2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------
)*g bung attache# to %oe an# swung in ho%iLontal ci%cle of %a#ius 3*cm+ C%oss-
sectional a%ea of ?x1*
-,
m
2
an# b%ea2ing st%ess )x1*
>
Ea+ :ee# inc%ease# until sna+
"in# max see#+
/= ",! re7uire5 centripet!# "orce = 5x10
9
x *-x10
-8
+= 200N
F = mv
2
,r =% 200= 0.05*v
2
+,*30x10
-2
+=% v = 3-.6-... ms
-1
.ravitational fields
8he mass of an ob<ect c%eates a g%avitational fiel# in the sace a%oun#
the ob<ect+ Can be mae# out using fiel# lines+ 8he #i%ection of the fiel#
is the #i%ection in which the small mass woul# move+
Newton6s law of g%avitation states wo point masses attract eac! ot!er wit! a
force directly proportional to t!e product of masses and inversely
proportional to t!e s"uare of t!eir separation.
"o%ce - %o#uct of masses
"o%ce - :ea%ation
-2
" - Mm=%
2
an# using the M%avitational constant0 M $@+@(x1*
-11
Nm
2
2g
-2
'
F & /.(m-r
,
Examle!
1 ?**2g satellite o%bits the Ea%th at a #istance of 1+)x1*
?
2m f%om the cent%e of
the Ea%th+ 8he mass of the Ea%th is @x1*
2?
2g+ "in# the g%avitational fo%ce acting
on the satellite an# the accele%ation an# o%bital see# of the satellite+
F = -@+@(3** N 1*
-11
x?**x@x1*
2?
=$1+)x1*
?
'
2
= (1*N
"=mv
2
=% so (1* = ?**xv
2
=1+)x1*
?
s v =1
"=ma so (1* = ?**a so a=1+(() ms
-2
a= vO2=% s 1+(() = v
2
=1+)x1*
?
=1@3ms
-1
.ravitational Field Strengt! at a oint in sace is the g%avitational fo%ce
exe%ience# e% unit mass on a small ob<ect lace# at that oint+
g & F-m 0 this is a mo%e gene%al fo%m of P=mg
1lying this to the g%avitational fiel# st%ength of a she%ical ob<ect we get
g & 0/.(m-r
,
1-m
g& /.(-r
,
Qsing these e5uations0 it is ossible to #e%ive any othe% e5uations you nee#!
Now it is also ossible to #e%ive
Phe%e 8 is the o%bital e%io#0 M the lanet mass0 M the
constant an# % the %a#ius+
1n# Rele%6s thi%# law states !e s"uare of t!e period of a planet is directly
proportional to t!e cube of its distance from t!e sun. i+e+ 8
2
- %
3
+
"o% communications0 satellites a%e useful in geostationary o%bit+ !e period of t!e
satellite is 2 day and is only possible above t!e e"uator.
Qsing the above e5uation0 the only un2nown is %+ 8he%efo%e it is easy to wo%2 out % to
be a%oximately 3)2**2m above the su%face of the Ea%th+
Examle!
:atu%n is a giant gaseous lanet with su%face g%avitational fiel# st%ength at its
su%face of 1*+?N2g
-1
+ 8he %a#ius of the lanet is @+*?x1*
(
2m+ Iete%mine the
mass an# mean #ensity of the lanet+
" = -MM=%
2
so 1*+? = --@+@(3** N 1*
-11
x M=$@+*?x1*
(
'
2
=S m=)+@>x1*
2@
2g
p=m=v = )+@>x1*
2@
=$?=3 x i $@+*?x1*
(
'
3
' = @1@+) 2gm
-3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
Auite% has moons Eu%oa an# Callisto+ Eu%oa o%bits at #istance @+(x1*
)
2m
f%om Auite%6s cent%e with e%io# of 3+)) #ays an# Callisto o%bits at #istance 5
with o%bital e%io# 1@+( #ays+
8sing 9ep#er:s t(ir5 #!3 ;
2
Jr
3
so ;
2
=kr
3
so *3.55+
2
*6.7x10
5
+
-3
=k=-.19x10
-17
so 16.7
2
=-.19x10
-17
xr
3
=% r = 1881067km
:imle 9a%monic Motion
3ecap$ 4isplacement$ 5elocity and Acceleration
<isp#!cement x = 5ist!nce move5 >$ t(e osci##!tor in ! speci"ie5 5irection "rom
e7ui#i>rium position.
?mp#itu5e- ? = m!gnitu5e o" m!ximum 5isp#!cement
/erio5- ;- time "or one comp#ete osci##!tion
Fre7uenc$- " = num>er o" osci##!tions per unit time =% " = ;
-1
/(!se <i""erence- @ = Fr!ction o" !n osci##!tion t3o 3!ves !re out o" s$nc( in r!5i!ns
A body executes simple !armonic motion w!en its acceleration is directly
proportional to its displacement from its e"uilibrium position$ and is
directed towards t!e e"uilibrium position.
a - $x' the constant of %oo%tionality=2 Hf
a & /0,6f1
,
x
8he 5uantity 2Hf is the angular fre"uency + of the oscillato%+
:ince f=1=80 +& ,6-
8he #islacement x of a simle ha%monic oscillato% is given by
x & a cos0,6ft1 or x & a sin0,6ft1
8he velocity is e5ual to the g%a#ient of the #islacement against time g%ah+ Iitto
accele%ation g%ah+ Ehase #iffe%ence of 6-, between each+
/t follows that hase #iffe%ence between a an# x is i+ 8his is f%om a - $x'
8he maximum see# of an oscillato% occu%s when it t%avels th%ough the e5uilib%ium
osition $x=*'+
5
max
& 0, 6f1A
Examle!
1 mass is attache# to the en# of a s%ing+ 8he mass is ulle# #own an# %elease#
an# e%fo%ms simle ha%monic motion+ /n 1*s0 2) oscillations+ 1mlitu#e is ,cm+
"in# a
max
an# #%aw g%ah of accele%ation against #islacement+
)!ximum !cce#er!tion occurs 3(ere t(e 5isp#!cement is m!ximum. 2.5 AB so
!=-*262+)'
2
x,x1*
-2
=1>+(3ms
-1
+
From a & /0,6f1
,
x0 a is %oo%tional to x so a negative st%aight line+
*nergy of a Simple 7armonic 8scillator
1n oscillato% has maximum see# as it t%avels th%ough the e5uilib%ium osition an# is
momenta%ily at %est when it #islacement e5uals the amlitu#e+
8he 2inetic ene%gy of the oscillato% is Le%o at the ext%emes of the motion but the
oscillato% has maximum otential ene%gy at these oints+
8he 2inetic ene%gy of the oscillato% is maximum at the e5uilib%ium osition0 but the
oscillato% has minimum otential ene%gy at these oints+
4amped (otion is the %esult of f%iction an# ma2es the x against t g%ah loo2 li2e
sin$x'=x
3esonance is when fo%ce# oscillations occu% when an ob<ect is
fo%ce# to vib%ate at the f%e5uency if an exte%nal sou%ce+
*? >us engine m!kes p!rts suc( !s t(e se!ts o" t(e >us vi>r!te
!t t(e "re7uenc$ o" t(e engine'
Phen the fre"uency of the engine matches the natural fre"uency of the seat0 the
seat resonates 8he amplitude of the vibrations becomes much la%ge%+
1t .esonance!
Natural fre"uency of a forced oscillator is e5ual to the forcing fre"uency+
8he forced oscillator has maximum amplitude
8he forced oscillator absorbs maximum energy f%om the external source+
8he #eg%ee of damping affects both %esonant f%e5uency an# the amplitude of
the fo%ce# oscillato%; g%eate% #eg%ee of #aming slightly reduces resonant
fre"uency+
.esonance can be useful in mic%owaves o% nuisance in ca%s+
Examle!
1 en#ulum bob of mass @*g executes simle ha%monic motion with amlitu#e
12cm+ Ee%io# *+)2s+ "in# T
max
an# the maximum change in E
E
+
1
m!x
= *2 C"+? = *2 C0.52
-1
+*12x10
-2
+=1.-5ms
1
D
k m!x
= D
/ m!x
D
9 m!x
= 0.5 x 0.06 x 1.-5
2
= 0.063E
:oli#s0 Li5ui#s an# Mases
9inetic (odel
/n Solid the molecules vib%ate randomly about thei% e"uilibrium positions+
Closely ac2e# an# exe%t electrical forces on each othe%+
/n Li"uid the molecules have translational kinetic energy an# move
%an#omly because of collisions with othe% molecules+ 8he mean sea%ation is
g%eate% than in soli#s+
/n .as the molecules have random motion an# translational kinetic
energy+ Mean 2inetic ene%gy inc%eases with teme%atu%e+ Mean sea%ation is
g%eate% than in othe% states an# #een#s on the %essu%e+
Molecules exe%t negligible elect%ical fo%ces on each othe%
excet in collisions+
3andom motion of ai% molecules can be obse%ve# using
:rownian (otion $mathematical mo#el' of the smoke
molecules in a smoke cell whe%e they move in a <e%2y %an#om
way because of collisions with high see# molecules of ai%+
1 light is shone on a smo2e cell full of smo2e an# loo2e# un#e%
th%ough a mic%oscoe+
1 Mas in a containe% exe%ts %essu%e on the containe% walls because of molecula%
collisions with the containe% walls+
Phen a single molecule colli#es elastically with the wall0 the change in momentum is
,mv+ "%om Newton6s secon# law0 force& rate of c!ange of momentum =S "=
2mv=t whe%e t is the time between successive collisions on the wall+
E%essu%e on the wall = total fo%ce = a%ea
Examle!
Qse the 2inetic mo#el to exlain the change to the %essu%e exe%te# by gas in
containe% whne teme%atu%e inc%ease# an# volume #ec%ease#+
F = delta p over delta t F 2(en t(e temper!ture is incre!se5 t(e mo#ecu#es
(!ve more energ$ so move !t ! "!ster ve#ocit$. Aence momentum is incre!se5
!n5 time t!ken "or successive co##isions is #ess. Aence t(e "orce on t(e 3!## is
gre!ter. Aence t(e pressure is gre!ter
2(en vo#ume is 5ecre!se5 t(e time t!ken "or successive co##isions is #o3er so
t(e "orce on t(e 3!## is gre!ter so t(e pressure is gre!ter.
*nergy )!anges
%nternal *nergy of a substance is the sum of the random distribution of
kinetic an# potential ene%gies of all the atoms o% molecules+
1ll molecules have 2inetic ene%gy $vib%ations an# t%anslational motion' an# otential ene%gy
$elect%ical att%action between the molecules'+
/nte%nal ene%gy #een#s on the teme%atu%e of the substance+ 1t *R0 all molecules sto
moving an# vib%ating+ 8he inte%nal ene%gy is otential only+ 1s teme%atu%e is inc%ease#0
inte%nal ene%gy of a substance inc%eases #ue to molecules gaining 2inetic an# otential
ene%gy+
(elting
:oli# state to li5ui# state
:oiling
Li5ui# state to gaseous state
Iu%ing these two stes when teme%atu%e is increased
Mean :ea%ation inc%eases
Elect%ical otential ene%gy inc%eases
Mean 2inetic ene%gy of molecules %emains the same $bon#s a%e b%o2en but
molecules #o not move any faste%'
/nte%nal ene%gy inc%eases
*vaporation
Li5ui# state to gas state
"ast moving molecules escae f%om the su%face leaving the slowe% molecules0
cooling the substance+
Dccu%s at 1LL teme%atu%es of a li5ui#
.ate inc%ease# by blowing ove% su%face an# heating+
1 to 40 C to I0 E to "
/n soli# state+
1s tem inc%eases0 internal
energy inc%eases mainly
#ue to mo%e vibrations
4 to C0 I to E
Melting= 4oiling
Ene%gy use# to b%ea2
molecula% bon#s
Mean sea%ation inc%eases
%nternal energy inc%eases mainly #ue to inc%ease# electrical potential
energy+ $8em is constant'
Elect%ical otential ene%gy of a gas is Le%o $which is maximum because elect%ical
otential ene%gy is negative fo% lowe% teme%atu%es'+
Phen a hot ob<ect is in contact with a coole% ob<ect0 the%e is a net heat t%ansfe% f%om
the hot ob<ect to cool ob<ect+ Eventually0 both ob<ects# %each the same te%me%atu%e
an# a%e in t!ermal e"uilibrium+
8he #iffe%ence between #eg%ees an# Relvin is lus=minus ,;<+
!ermal =roperties of materials
8he specific !eat capacity of a substance is t!e energy re"uired per unit
mass of t!e substance to raise its temperature by 2 9+
c & *-m7t
Examle!
1 bea2e% contains ,*g of wate% at a teme%atu%e 2*
o
c+ 8he glass bulb of 2?P
filament lam is imme%se# in the wate%+ 8he teme%atu%e #oubles afte% )
minutes+ 8he secific heat caacity of wate% is ?2**A2g
-1o
C
-1
+ 1ssuming no loss of
heat0 fin# the efficiency of the lam as a heate%+
D=mc7t= *+*,x?2**x2*= @(2*A of ene%gy
2?P = 2?As
-1
= (2**A of ene%gy
@(2=(2* x 1** = >3U efficiency
1n exe%iment to #ete%mine the heat caacity of a soli#
o% li5ui#+
1n elect%ical heate% heats the substance+ /t6s
teme%atu%e is measu%e# using a the%momete%+
1mmete% an# voltmete% connecte# an# insulation to
%event heat loss+
Measu%e m an# V
*
of the substance+
:ta%t stowatch0 tu%n on0 an# measu%e / an# T+
1fte% a while0 sto stowatch an# tu%n off+
Measu%e V
i
an# t f%om stowatch
c= T/tm$Vf-Vi'
8he%e is no teme%atu%e change when a substance changes state+ 8otal kinetic
energy of the molecules %emains constant but thei% electrical potential energy
increases as molecula% bon#s a%e b%o2en+ 8e%m use# fo% ene%gy sulie# to change
the state is latent heat+ $latent means hi##en'
Latent !eat of fusion is the ene%gy sulie# to MEL8 a soli# substance to li5ui#
Latent !eat of vaporisation is ene%gy sulie# to 4D/L a li5ui# substance to gas
%deal gases
Dne mole of any substance has @+*2x1*
23
a%ticles+
8ne mole is t!e amount of substance t!at !as t!e same number of particles
as t!ere are atoms in 2,g of carbon 2, isotope.
Examle!
M% of 9e is ? g mol
-1
+ Iete%mine the mass of a helium atom+
Dne mole is @+*2x1*
23
atoms+ :o *+**?=$@+*2x1*
23
' 2g = @+@?x1*
-2(
2g
:oyles Law states!
!e pressure exerted by a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to
its volume$ provided its temperature is constant.
J 1T so T=constant
"o% a gas at constant teme%atu%e0 the %o#uct of %essu%e an# volume %emains
constant+ Ioubling the %essu%e will halve the volume+ i+e+ 1T1=2T2
8he above alies to i#eal gases $90 9e0 D a%e i#eal gases at s+t+ but as tem lowe%s
o% %essu%e ve%y high0 some gases #ea%t f%om thei% i#eal behaviou% because
elect%ical fo%ces between atoms a%en6t negligible'
Exe%iments show
J8 *"or const!nt vo#ume+ an# TJ8 *"or const!nt pressure+
Combining the above with 4oyle6s law we have
T8=constant so 1T181=2T282=$const!nt+
8he constant #een#s on the numbe% of moles $n' an# the mola% gas constant $.' so!
T=n.8
8his is the i#eal gas e5uation+
Examle!
Dxygen consists of D
2
molecules+ 8he mola% mass of oxygen is 32g mol
-1
+ "o%
1@*g of oxygen0 fin# numbe% of moles0 molecules an# the volume at 2*
o
C an#
1+*1x1*
)
Ea+
160,32=5 mo#s 5 x 6.02x10
23
= 3.01x10
2-
p1 = n&; =% 1.01x10
5
x1 =
5x,+31x$2*+1(3'
T= *+12m
3
ranslational kinetic energy
/nc%easing the temperature of the gas ma2es the atoms t%avel faste% an# thei%
means translational kinetic energy increases+ 8he mean kinetic energy of the
atoms is related to the t!ermodynamic temperature of the gas+
(ean translational kinetic energy of atoms J T
8he inte%nal ene%gy of the gas is almost enti%ely e5ual to the total 2inetic ene%gy of
the atoms0 so
%nternal energy J
"o% in#ivi#ual atoms0 the mean t%anslational
2inetic ene%gy E is given by
E= 3228
Phe%e 2 is the 4oltLmann constant+ 8he mean
2inetic ene%gy is e5ual to *+)mv
2
+ 1t a given
teme%atu%e0 the gas atoms have a %an#om
motion an# t%avel at #iffe%ent see#s+ 9oweve%0
the mean 2inetic ene%gy of the atoms %emains
constant at a given teme%atu%e+
Examle!
8he oute% su%face of a sta% ha# 9 an# 9e atoms+ 8em is ,***R+ M%$9'=1
M%$9e'=?+ Io hy#%ogen an# helium have the same mean 2inetic ene%gyW Calculate
mean see# of 9 atoms+ Iete%mine %atio of mean see# of hy#%ogen atoms ove%
mean see# of helium atoms+
3228= E=E2=12mv2 so ; J D
k
. So $es. 1 = root*3k;,m+ 10
-3
,*6.02x10
23
+=1.66x10
-
27
kg e!c( ($5rogen !tom. 1= root**3x1.38x10
-23
x8000+,*1.66x10
-27
++ = 1.- x10
-
ms
-
1
. 1 Jm so root*-+ = 2 =2.