9/04/2014

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ThermalPhysics5
Thermalenergy:Themacroscopicview
Calorimetry
Thermalenergy:Themicroscopicview
PHS1011Physics
Dr LincolnTurner
lincoln.turner@monash.edu
RmG06,Bldg 82
99051726
Last time
Understanding the difference between heat and work
Calculating work done on gas from PI diagrams
Inferring heat flow from PI diagrams
Todays aims
Chapter 18 of Knight: Lecture 1 of 2.
1. Review adiabatic compression / expansion
2. Macroscopic thermal energy:
Understand specific heats and
heats of transformation.
3. Quick look at solving calorimetry problems
4. Microscopic thermal energy: speeds vs velocities
.
Poll: Adiabatic processes. Which is true?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
3%
10%
3%
66%
18%
1. In an adiabatic process, no work is done.
2. No heat is transferred during an isotherm.
3. Temperature increases during an adiabatic compression.
4. Thermal energy is constant during adiabatic expansion.
5. None of the above.
For an adiabatic curve, Q=0.
Temperature rises during an adiabatic compression.
Temperature falls during an adiabatic expansion.
Answer: Option 3
Isothermal vs adiabatic processes
Along isotherms
(constant temperature process)
P

= P
]
I
]
Or put another way
PI = constant
(you know what the constant is!)
Along adiabats
(No heat flow process)
P

y
= P
]
I

y
Or put another way
PI
y
= constant
What is this y.
Quantifies how the thermal energy is stored in the gas.
y =
CP
Cv
. y = 1.67 for a monatomic gas (He, Ne)
and y = 1.4u for a diatomic gas (O
2
, N
2
, )
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PF diagrams: Real-world engines
Adiabats
Poll: A valve separates a box of gas from an
empty box. Both boxes are insulated. What
happens to the temperature of the gas when the
valve is opened?
1. 2. 3.
49%
47%
4%
1. Increases.
2. Decreases.
3. Stays the same.
A valve separates a box of gas from an empty box. Both
boxes are insulated. What happens to the temperature of
the gas when the valve is opened?
1. Increases.
2. Decreases.
3. Stays the same.
w = u and = u.
Hence E
th
= u
(from the First Law).
This is known as free
expansion and is irreversible!
Phase Change and
Heat of Transformation
A phase change is characterized by a
change in thermal energy without a change
in temperature.
The amount of thermal energy that causes
1 kg of substance to undergo a phase
change is called the heat of transformation
of that substance.
The symbol for heat of transformation is I.
The heat required for the entire system of
mass H to undergo a phase change is:
= HI
Phase Change and
Heat of Transformation
Two specific heats of transformation are the
heat of fusion I

, the heat of transformation between a

solid and a liquid, and the heat of vaporization I
:
, the
heat of transformation between a liquid and a gas. The
heat needed for these phase changes is
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Specific heats
Calorimetry
Suppose to systems
start at different
temperatures T
1
and
T
2
. Heat energy will
naturally be
transferred from the
hotter to the colder
system until they
reach a common final
temperature T
f
.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Calorimetry
Problem-Solving Strategy: Calorimetry
The Specific Heats of Gases
It is useful to define two different versions of the specific
heat of gases, one for constant-volume (isochoric)
processes and one for constant-pressure (isobaric)
processes. We will define these as molar specific heats
because we usually do gas calculations using moles
instead of mass. The quantity of heat needed to change
the temperature of n moles of gas by T is
where C
V
is the specific heat at constant volume and
C
P
is the specific heat at constant pressure.
Poll: Liquid nitrogen is relatively cheap (compared to petrol or
milk!). How much heat energy must be removed from 20C
nitrogen gas to produce 1 litre of liquid nitrogen?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
32%
27%
12%
20%
10%
1. 3.4 x 10
5
J
2. 6.6 x 10
5
J
3. 2.8 x 10
6
J
4. 1.3 x 10
7
J
5. 2.0 x 10
8
J
Data:
p = 81u kg/m
3
I
:
= 1.99 1u
S
J/kg
boiling point: 196C
c = 29.1 J/mol K)
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Liquid nitrogen is relatively cheap (compared to petrol or milk!).
How much heat energy must be removed from 20C nitrogen
gas to produce 1 litre of liquid nitrogen?
The liquefaction of the nitrogen occurs in two steps:
1. Lowering nitrogens temperature from 20C to 196C,
2. and then liquefying it at 196C.
Assume the cooling occurs at constant pressure of 1 atm
Liquid nitrogen is relatively cheap (compared to petrol or
milk!). How much heat energy must be removed from 20C
nitrogen gas to produce 1 litre of liquid nitrogen?
Data:
p = 81u kg/m
3
I
:
= 1.99 1u
S
J/kg
boiling point: 196C
C
P
= 29.1 J/mol K)
H = pI = 81u
kg
m
3
1u
-3
m
3
= u.81u kg
n =
H
H
moI
=
81u g
28 gmol
= 28.9 moles
=
upozuton
+
cooIng
= HI

+ nC
P
I
= - u.81u kg 1.99 1u
5
}
kg
+ 28.9 mol 29.1
}
mol K
77 K - 29S K
= -S.4 1u
5
}
LN
2
versus petrol
Energy density: 0.34 MJ/L Energy density: 35 MJ/L
The Specific Heats of Gases
Thermal energy
What is actually happening down at the
microscopic scale?
Poll: You have a sample of room temperature
oxygen. Are all the molecules in your sample
moving with the same speed?
1. 2.
79%
21%
1. Yes
2. No
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You have a sample of room temperature
Oxygen. Are all the molecules in your sample
moving with the same speed?
1. Yes
2. No
There is a distribution of speeds in a
sample of molecules, even though
temperature is a constant.
Kinetic Theory is built upon this idea:
temperature (etc.) is related the
average behaviour of molecules.
Poll: Consider the nitrogen molecules in this theatre.
Which is closest to the most likely velocity along the
floor-ceiling axis?
$
$
=
1
0
0
0
m
/s

$
$
=
3
0
0
m
/s

$
$
=
1
0
0
m
/s

$
$
=
1
0
m
/s
$
$
=
0
m
/s
13%
14%
10%
18%
46%
1. : = 1uuu ms
2. : = Suu ms
S. : = 1uu ms
4. : = 1u ms
S. : = u ms
Molecular Speeds and Collisions
A gas consists of a vast number of molecules, each
moving randomly and undergoing millions of collisions
every second.
Despite the apparent chaos, averages, such as
the average number of molecules in the speed
range 600 to 700 m/s, have precise, predictable values.
The micro/macro connection is built on the idea that
the macroscopic properties of a system, such as
temperature or pressure, are related to the average
behavior of the atoms and molecules.
Molecular Speeds and
Collisions
Molecular Speeds and
Collisions
Mean Free Path
If a molecule has N
coll
collisions as it travels
distance I, the average distance between
collisions, which is called the mean free path z is:
r is the radius of the molecule in question;
NI is the number of molecules per unit volume.
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What happens to the mean free path in a
sample of gas if the pressure is doubled?
1. 2. 3.
0% 0% 0%
1. Increases
2. Stays the same
3. Decreases
30
Response
Counter
What happens to the mean free path in a
sample of gas if the pressure is doubled?
1. Increases
2. Stays the same
3. Decreases
The mean free path for an
ideal gas is inversely
proportional to the density.
If T is kept constant and P is
increased, then the density
was increased, and the
mean free path decreases.
Poll: Imagine that you suddenly increase the speed of every
molecule in a gas by a factor of 2. What would happen to the
rms speed?
1. 2. 3. 4.
0% 0% 0% 0%
1. Increase by a factor of 2
0.5
2. Increase by a factor of 2
3. Increase by a factor of 2
2
4. Increase by a factor of 2
2
Imagine that you suddenly increase the speed of every
molecule in a gas by a factor of 2. What would happen to
the rms speed?
1. Increase by a factor
of 2
0.5
2. Increase by a
factor of 2
3. Increase by a factor
of 2
sqrt(2)
4. Increase by a factor
of 2
2
V(rms) = sqrt(v
2
)
avg