Characteristics of Effective

Teachers
OVERVIEW
Effective teachers appear again and again to display certain
characteristics, while ineffective teachers tend to make the same
mistakes repeatedly. Below is a look at some of the things more
effective teachers tend to do right and less effective teachers tend to
do wrong.
WHAT EFFECTIVE TEACHERS DO RIGHT
Based on a scheme originally developed by M. Hildebrand, 1971.
Organization and Clarity
eplains clearly
is well prepared !see "reparing for the #irst $ay%
makes diffic&lt topics easy to &nderstand
&ses eamples, details, analogies, metaphors, and variety in modes of eplanation to
make material not only &nderstandable b&t memorable
makes the ob'ectives of the co&rse and each class clear !see (o&rse $esign, (o&rse
)oals and *earning +&tcomes%
establishes a contet for material
Analytic/Synthetic Approach
has a thoro&gh command of the field
contrasts the implications of vario&s theories
gives the st&dent a sense of the field, its past, present, and f&t&re directions, the
origins of ideas and concepts !see (onsider ,o&r -&dience%
presents facts and concepts from related fields
disc&sses viewpoints other than his.her own
Dynai! and Enth"!ia!
is an energetic, dynamic person
seems to en'oy teaching
conveys a love of the field
has an a&ra of self/confidence
In!tr"ctor#Gro"p Interaction
can stim&late, direct, and pace interaction with the class !see How to *ead a
$isc&ssion%
enco&rages independent tho&ght and accepts criticism
&ses wit and h&mor effectively
is a good p&blic speaker !see 0peaking at the H&me (enter for 1riting and 0peaking%
knows whether or not the class is following the material and is sensitive to st&dents2
motivation
is concerned abo&t the 3&ality of his.her teaching
In!tr"ctor#Indi$id"al St"dent Interaction
is perceived as fair, especially in his.her methods of eval&ation !see How to Eval&ate
0t&dents%
is seen by st&dents as approachable and a val&able so&rce of advice even on matters
not directly related to the co&rse !see 4nteracting with 0t&dents%



The Benefits of
Being Bilingual: People Think You're a Genius
By Jeffrey Nelson
With only 20% of the population of the United States being bilingual (this is skewed
towards large metropolitan areas; come to the rural Midwest and its more like !%"
one of the benefits of being bilingual is that people automatically think youre a
genius#
5o, serio&sly ... they do. 6hey a&tomatically ass&me yo& have some s&per/power brain that
is finely t&ned to picking &p the n&ances of every lang&age in the world. 6hey look at their
own lang&age skills and cower. 6heir fo&r years of high school 0panish and two years in
college s&ddenly don7t seem so poignant or impressive. ,o& can act&ally see them shrink
down and as they say 8&n po3&ito8 when yo& ask them if they speak 0panish !or whatever
lang&age%.
6he p&rpose here is not to belittle anyone7s 0panish or foreign lang&age skills. -nything,
incl&ding what 4 call the 8taco b&rrito fri'oles8 0panish is great and admirable9 !4f yo&7re
reading this article, it7s admirable. ,o& at least have shown some interest in a
lang&age.c&lt&re other than yo&r own / good 'ob9% 6he point is to bring to light a myth in the
biling&al world and highlight how yo& a person can t&rn it into one of the benefits of being
biling&al. 4t goes something like this ...
6he general pop&lation of monoling&als, abo&t :;< of the =nited 0tates, doesn7t have a
cl&e abo&t biling&alism ... at least in my eperience. 6hey don7t &nderstand how lang&age
works, how it7s developed, or what it takes to learn one. 6hey probably overestimate and
underestimate, at the same time, what it takes to become a fairly balanced, fl&ent biling&al>
at least when yo&7re an ad&lt !children have a fairly big advantage in not having to 8learn8
the lang&age%.
6his is where it becomes one of the benefits of being biling&al.
6hey overestimate it d&e to the following?
-nyone listening to a lang&age they don7t &nderstand has, to some degree, a little voice in
the back of their mind saying 8there is no way anyone can &nderstand that9 4t7s gibberish.8
Biling&als are able to s3&elch that voice fairly 3&ickly with, 8that7s what 4 &se to think abo&t
lang&age , now 4 can7t help b&t &nderstand it.8 +nce a person has done something before,
it becomes demystified to a point, making it more feasible and therefore easier to obtain.
6his is one reason the third lang&age is easier for biling&al children, b&t 4 digress.
Monoling&als, however, having never con3&ered a lang&age, feel that it is '&st absol&tely
o&tside of their realm of possibility. 6hey think it wo&ld be impossible to speak another
lang&age, they can7t even differentiate the so&nds the person is making. 4t all so&nds the
same. 6hey know the word for 8to want8 !3&erer% b&t they can7t &nderstand when the
person speaking says it9 4t7s impossible9 6his is an overestimation. "icking o&t the vario&s
so&nds comes with time and epos&re to the lang&age. 6he brain is ama@ing.
6hey, at the same time, &nderestimate d&e to the following?
0omeone who hasn7t ever learned a lang&age doesn7t &nderstand how m&ch it takes to
learn a lang&age. *earning a lang&age as an ad&lt is diffic&lt and it is a very conscio&s,
intricate, time cons&ming process. 4n order to get to a very good level, where it7s fairly
nat&ral and easy to fl&idly epress yo&rself in yo&r second lang&age, a person needs to
invest a lot of time and energy. 6hey need to get a lot of epos&re. 4t7s hard to p&t into
words how m&ch epos&re one needs to become fl&ent, b&t that nat&rally depends on the
level of fl&ency re3&ired as well. 4f yo& have never &ndertaken something like this, it7s to&gh
to really &nderstand how involved it is. 4t7s also to&gh to &nderstand what it7s like to p&t
yo&rself o&t there in another lang&age when yo&7re not real s&re of yo&rself.
6he good news is that biling&als can &tili@e this naivety to their advantage. +ne of the
benefits of being biling&al is that as soon as people hear that they speak 8another
lang&age8 they become immediately impressed and a&tomatically ass&me that the person
is incredibly intelligent. Being biling&al has its perks sometimes, especially in the
workplace. (oworkers love to be impressed by biling&als when they aren7t biling&al
themselves.
-lmost everybody, indeed not everybody, wo&ld love to speak another lang&age.
=nfort&nately, the hard reality is that it doesn7t have a whole lot to do with how smart yo&
are. 1hile 47m not trying to make light of anyone7s intelligence, one of my favorite 3&otes
abo&t lang&ages is ...
86hink of the d&mbest person yo& know. 6hey speak at least one lang&age fl&ently.8 /
a&thor &nknown.
6hat 3&ote obvio&sly has some logical flaws, b&t 4 en'oy it.
,et the phenomenon that is bilingual envy is very real and r&ns rampant thro&gho&t the
monoling&al comm&nity. -lmost witho&t fail, people will hear someone speak their other
lang&age and make a remark like 81ow, yo& speak lang&age AB8
Side note? Half of the time they are completely wrong as to which lang&age is being
spoken. My wife and 4 have been asked if we are speaking )erman, C&ssian, #rench,
4talian, and 47m s&re several others 4 have forgotten / we speak 0panish. #rom Meico. 6he
most common lang&age o&tside of English in the =nited 0tates.
1hen the response is, 8-ct&ally it7s 0panish.. and yep, we speak it8 the conversation
inevitably leads to something like 8+h man, 47ve always wanted to speak another lang&age.
6hat7s so cool98 or 85eat. 4 took fo&r years in high school b&t 4 can7t remember anything.8
6his reinforcement that it takes fo&r years to get to the point where yo& can7t speak
anything '&st perpet&ates the myth that biling&als are s&perh&man lang&age learners.
6he benefits of being biling&al are many and among them is the instant credit yo& gain from
being able to speak another lang&age. 6he part that7s even better is yo& co&ld speak very
mediocre 0panish, and '&st do it with confidence, and the average person has no idea if
yo&7re a native or are '&st repeating two sentences over and over again.
47ll leave yo& with a 3&ote from 0piderman directed to "eter "arker by his grandfatherB
=ncleB 1hoever that older g&y was.
81ith great power comes great responsibility.8
=se this power responsibly, biling&al nation.
Action Item? )o speak yo&r lang&age. Cegardless of yo&r level of biling&alism, get o&t and
speak it today9 Better yet, speak it to yo&r kids. Make a f&n game, name some st&ff aro&nd
the ho&se, whatever. D&st do it9 0ign &p for a free co&rse, take lessons on skype, b&y a
book, do something9 $on7t let this benefit of being biling&al slip away9
About the writer
Deffrey 5elson writes for *ivingBiling&al, where yo& can learn more abo&t being biling&al,
and the benefits of being biling&al.
http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/benefitsofbeingbilingual.htm\\
The Advantages of Being Bilingual
Learn More
Learning Two Languages
Second Language Acquisition
Accent Modification
Most children have the capacity and facility to learn more than one language. Researchers
say that there are advantages to being bilingual. These advantages might include
Being able to learn new words easily
!laying rhyming games with words li"e #cat# and #hat#
Brea"ing down words by sounds$ such as %&A&T for cat
Being able to use information in new ways
!utting words into categories
%oming up with solutions to problems
'ood listening s"ills
%onnecting with others
According to the (ational %enter for )ducational Statistics$ more than one in * school&aged
children +,-./ spea" a language other than )nglish at home. That number of bilingual
spea"ers is pro0ected to increase in the coming years.
%hildren who are learning to spea" two languages follow patterns of learning. The sounds of
the first language can influence how children learn and use a second language. 1t is easier to
learn sounds and words when the languages you are learning are similar. 2ver time$ the
more difficult sounds and words will be learned.
Fact: %ommunication disorders affect more than 3, million Americans. 2f these$ ,4 million
have a hearing loss and -3 million have a speech or language disorder.
1f a child has a speech or language problem$ it will show up in both languages. 5owever$
these problems are not caused by learning two languages. 1f you "now a child who is
learning a second language and you have concerns about speech and language development$
AS5A recommends contacting a bilingual speech&language pathologist +SL!/. 1f you are
unable to find a bilingual speech&language pathologist$ loo" for a SL! who has "nows the
rules and structure of both languages and who has access to an interpreter. 6or more
information or for a referral to a SL!$ contact AS5A at 477&894&TAL: +4,**/ +Spanish&
spea"ing operators available/
Brochure on Bilingualism Available
A brochure$ #Teaching ;our %hild Two Languages$# is available to consumers free of charge
from the American Speech&Language&5earing Association +AS5A/. This brochure is written
for parents and describes how children learn to be bilingual$ and what parents can do to
facilitate the learning process.
A Spanish brochure #)l ni<o y el biling=ismo# answers questions about raising a bilingual
child and provides tips and resources for parents on teaching a child a second language. 6or
a free brochure$ consumers may call 477&894&4,** +Spanish&spea"ing operators available/.
& See more at> http>??www.asha.org?public?speech?development?The&Advantages&of&Being&
Bilingual?@sthash.wo*e9(r0.dpufA
http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/The-Advantages-of-Being-Bilingual/
How $oes Being Biling&al -ffect *earningB
E (omments
#or generations, we were told that raising children in two
lang&ages wo&ld leave them Fconf&sed.G 6he idea was that children wo&ld learn slower,
learn less and generally be less s&ccessf&l if they were tasked with learning two lang&ages
instead of '&st one. 6his folk wisdom often p&shed parents to not teach children their first
lang&age and, for schools in the =nited 0tates, led to a strict and occasionally br&tal,
English/only policy. -nd this mindset lives on> sco&r the internet and yo&2ll discover that this
ps&edo/information contin&es to circ&late.
6he tr&th of the matter is that biling&alism does not, in any way, harm a child2s intellect&al
development. 4n fact, researchers are starting to demonstrate that biling&alism has a
n&mber of cognitive benefits.
$oes Being Biling&al Make 4t Hard to *earnB#irst, both as parents and
researchers, we need to &nderstand that a biling&al child is not two monoling&als in the
same brain. Biling&al children are not trying to learn two versions of every word. 4nstead,
the biling&al child2s lang&age is Fdistrib&ted,G meaning that she may have some concepts
stored in one lang&age and some concepts stored in another. 1e see this in children as
they go to school> they may know words for food, family, and holidays in their home
lang&age and words for algebra and geography in the lang&age of the classroom.
6he iss&e then arises when we consider testing, both in the classroom and partic&larly for
learning disabilities !*$%. 6esting a biling&al child in a single lang&age and comparing them
to monoling&al children can lead to &nderestimating a biling&al child2s abilities. Biling&al
children are often only tested on a portion of what they know. 6his in t&rn can lead to an
over/diagnosis of *$ in biling&al children. 6o be clear, this doesn2t mean that biling&al
children are more likely to have *$, they are simply at risk for being diagnosed with
*$ when they in fact are developing normally.
4t2s worth noting that, occasionally, the opposite can occ&r? an &nder/reporting of *$ in
biling&al children. - well/intentioned eval&ator may decide that a child2s lang&age delays
are d&e to problematic testing in a single lang&age, and ignore what co&ld be a lang&age
and.or learning disability.
- n&mber of researchers, incl&ding Eli@abeth "eHa and *isa Bedore at the =niversity of
6eas, are c&rrently working on refining tests for lang&age impairment and learning
disabilities to better assess biling&al children. 4t may take time, tho&gh, for these res&lts to
trickle down to schools and teachers. 4f parents are in do&bt, disc&ssing these iss&es with
teachers or seeking assessment from a biling&al lang&age pathologist may prove
worthwhile.
1hat -re the Benefits of Being Biling&alB(&rrently, scientists like Ellen Bialystok
propose that a biling&al individ&al &ses Feec&tive controlG f&nctions to separate the two
lang&ages. 6hese eec&tive f&nctions are the abilities of the brain that we &se for things
like higher/level decision making, paying attention in a crowded coffee shop, or fig&ring o&t
logic p&@@les. 0o, as a biling&al person manages their two lang&ages, they are effectively
eercising these same brain Fm&scles.G
-s a res&lt of this mental worko&t, biling&al
children have been shown to perform better than their monoling&al peers at tasks that
re3&ire active attention. -ma@ingly, this improved performance has been shown even in
infants who have yet to begin to talk. 6he benefits of s&ch improved attention can be
imaginable in the classroom and other learning environments. -s an additional learning/
related benefit, biling&al children have been shown to have greater Fmeta/ling&istic
awarenessG> they &nderstand and can artic&late how lang&age works better than their
monoling&al peers. Meta/ling&istic awareness can res&lt in greater ease of learning more
new lang&ages and other comple lang&age tasks. 6hese advantages contin&e thro&gho&t
a biling&al person2s life. #or eample, recent investigations have shown that active &se of
two lang&ages can act&ally delay cognitive decline, like -l@heimer2s disease, by almost two
years.
Beyond these cognitive benefits, as an economic cherry on top of the biling&al s&ndae, on
average biling&al people can epect to earn a higher salary than their monoling&al peersI
between five and EJ percent more, according to 0alary.com.
4t2s worth keeping in mind that '&st like individ&als who speak one lang&age, biling&al
people come in all shapes and si@es. 1hile there are clear and proven benefits of
biling&alism, biling&al people grapple with lang&age impairment and learning diffic&lties at a
similar proportion as their monoling&al peers.
Biling&alism. "ass 4t +n.4t may be diffic&lt to imagine, b&t more than two/thirds of the
world2s pop&lation speaks more than one lang&age, orIas a ling&ist several generations
ago p&t itIFs&ffers from the condition ofG biling&alism. 1e2ve come a long way from the
early idea of biling&alism as a detriment to o&r children. 5ot only is it the worldwide norm,
b&t research is b&ilding a compelling case for the cognitive, learning and even financial
benefits of biling&alism. 1hile my grandparents did what they tho&ght was best and raised
their children in a strict English/only ho&sehold, 4 intend to follow science and my heart,
passing along both of my lang&ages to my children.
Daniel Olson is an Assistant Professor of Spanish
http://www.ncld.org/tpes-learning-disabilities/e!ecutive-function-disorders/bilingualism-advantage-
benefit
Cognitive advantages of bilingualism
#rom 1ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Being biling&al has been linked to a n&mber of cognitive benefits. Cesearch has st&died
how a biling&al individ&al7s *1 first lang&age !*1% and second lang&age !*E% interact, and
has shown that both lang&ages have an infl&ence on the f&nction of one another, and also
on cognitive f&nction o&tside of lang&age. Cesearch on the cognitive advantages to
ling&istic development, perception, and attentional and inhibitory control has shown that
biling&als can benefit from significant cognitive advantages over monoling&al peers in
vario&s settings.
$&ring history of research into the cognitive advantages of biling&alism, the view has
shifted from a s&btractive to an additive perspective>
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that is from believing that being
biling&al detracts from one7s abilities to believing that being biling&al adds to an individ&al7s
abilities.
- biling&al can be defined as an individ&al that is eposed to two lang&ages sim&ltaneo&sly
from a yo&ng age !&nder M%, altho&gh the definition may vary slightly depending on the
st&dies being presented and their sample selection processes. 0everal definitions have
been given in the literat&re for biling&alism, for eample, either individ&als that are learners
of another lang&age irrespective of proficiency, or individ&als that are e3&ally proficient in
both lang&ages.
Contents
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1 History
E *ang&age
N Eec&tive f&nctions
M "erception
J 0ee also
O Ceferences
HistoryKeditL
Before the 19O;s research on biling&al individ&als was varied b&t with a specific pattern of
concl&sions, namely that being biling&al was detrimental to a child7s ling&istic and cognitive
development, and p&t the individ&al at a disadvantage compared to monoling&al peers. 6he
general opinion was that biling&als wo&ld have smaller vocab&laries, st&nted general
cognitive abilities and that children learning two lang&ages from a yo&ng age wo&ld be
spending too m&ch of their energy differentiating and b&ilding the two lang&ages to become
competent in either one.
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0t&dies referred to the Fproblem of biling&alismG the
Fhandicapping infl&ence of biling&alismG
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and reported that biling&als performed worse in
4P tests, had smaller vocab&laries, and s&ffered in most aspects of lang&age development,
as revealed mostly thro&gh verbal 4P tests.
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However, these st&dies s&ffered from several methodological problems that &ndermined
the so&ndness of their concl&sions? 6hese st&dies employed &nstandardi@ed and
s&b'ective definitions of biling&alism and of a biling&al individ&al !e.g., labeling a person as
biling&al or monoling&al thro&gh ass&mptions based on the national origin of that person7s
parents or even based on that person7s family name%, raising the concern that there is no
way of determining whether their samples were tr&ly representative of a biling&al
pop&lation> they did not control for socioeconomic stat&s !0E0%> and many of them
administered verbal/intelligence tests to non/proficient speakers of a second lang&age in
that second lang&age.
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4n 19OE, "eal and *ambert p&blished a st&dy which bro&ght to light the importance of
controlling for s&ch factors as age, se, and 0E0, as well as of having a standardised
meas&re for biling&alism, when selecting a sample of biling&als to be st&died. 4n their st&dy
where they caref&lly matched their biling&al to their monoling&al participants, they fo&nd
that the biling&als showed significant advantages over the monoling&als in both verbal and
non/verbal tests, especially in non/verbal tests that re3&ired more mental fleibility.
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0ince then, the literat&re has consistently fo&nd advantages of biling&als over matched
monoling&al peers in several aspects of lang&age development and ability, as well as in
more general areas of aptit&de s&ch as perception and eec&tive f&nctioning.
LanguageKeditL
*eopold, in his record of his da&ghter7s biling&al development of lang&age
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observed that
she had Floose connectionsG between the !phonetic% str&ct&re of words and
their semantics !meaning%, demonstrated by her fre3&ent s&bstit&tion of English words with
)erman and vice versa, in every day speech and even well rehearsed songs and rhymes.
He notes that this gave her a greater fleibility in the &se, and a way of &se of lang&age,
that was &nobserved in monoling&al children of her age, and that perhaps this loose
connection between the meaning and form of a word co&ld res&lt in more abstract thinking
or greater mental fleibility.
4n 197E, 1orrall
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designed a st&dy to test *eopold7s
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observations and was able to
replicate them. 0he tested two gro&ps of monoling&al and biling&al children at ages MQO
and O/9, and presented them with tests to assess whether they showed a semantic or
phonetic preference when categorising words. -n eample of one task given in the paper
was to decide which of the two words can and hat were more similar to the word cap. 6he
semantic choice wo&ld be hat, vers&s the phonetic which wo&ld be can. +ther tests were
designed to provide a choice between semantic and phonetic interpretation of ob'ects !e.g.
in a hypothetical sit&ation co&ld yo& call a cow a dog and if yo& did wo&ld this dog barkB%.
0he fo&nd that, altho&gh both monoling&al and biling&al children showed no differences in
the way they &nderstood the words &sed, JM< of the yo&nger biling&al children consistently
showed a semantic preference in contrast to their monoling&al peers. 4n monoling&al
children, semantic preference increased with age, s&ggesting that biling&al children reach a
stage of semantic development EQN years earlier than their monoling&al peers. 6his finding
is in stark contrast to the early research and claims abo&t biling&alism which warned that
biling&alism st&nts children7s ling&istic development.
4n their book n Other !ords,
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Ellen Bialystok and Ren'i Hak&ta eamine the idea that 8the
knowledge of two lang&ages is greater than the s&m of its parts.8 6hey arg&e that the
ling&istic benefits of being biling&al are more than simply being able to speak two
lang&ages. 4f a child is learning two lang&ages whose str&ct&res and r&les are significantly
different from each other, this wo&ld re3&ire the child to think in more complicated ways. -n
eample of this is the &nderstanding of the arbitrariness of labels for ob'ects disc&ssed in
the above paragraph, b&t also being able to disting&ish between and &se two different
grammatical or syntactical str&ct&res. 6his enables the child to increase their &nderstanding
of the str&ct&re of lang&age and gain a greater awareness of meaning> an increase
of metaling&istic awareness.
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Bialystok arg&es that metaling&istic awareness also increases biling&als7 control of
ling&istic processes, s&ch as having a greater ability to detect grammatical or syntactical
errors, and recogni@e words in contin&o&s speech.
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Biling&als have also been fo&nd to
o&tperform monoling&als in reading ability !an effect mod&lated by the relationship of the
two lang&ages%,
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and better reading skills in *1 were demonstrated with as little as an
ho&r a week of *E learning,
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s&ggesting that being biling&al is also advantageo&s in the
development of reading as well as spoken lang&age.
Metaling&istic awareness has therefore been shown to benefit the individ&al in the
ac3&isition and &se of lang&age, giving biling&al individ&als !who ac3&ire metaling&istic
awareness earlier in life than their monoling&al peers% a firm advantage. However, it has
also been proposed that metaling&istic awareness co&ld res&lt in advantages in other
cognitive abilities besides lang&age, giving individ&als a generalised cognitive advantage
over monoling&als !see below%.
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#inally, st&dies have shown that regardless of the lang&age in &se at a present time, both
lang&ages are constantly active both phonologically and semantically in biling&al
individ&als, as indicated by electrophysiological meas&res of performance, even tho&gh
behavio&ral meas&res s&ch as reaction times often do not indicate s&ch an interference.
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4n E;11, 1& and 6hierry
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cond&cted a st&dy where biling&als were shown pict&re pairs
and asked to '&dge whether the word pairs corresponding to the pict&red ob'ects rhymed or
not. 1ord pairs were designed so that they either rhymed in both *1 and *E or only in one
of the two lang&ages. Electrophysiological meas&res !see Event/related potential% of the
effect !priming% of the so&nd repetition ind&ced by the rhyming of the word pairs, showed
that even tho&gh the participants were performing the task in *E, they showed a priming
effect !albeit delayed% when those *E words rhymed in *1.
4n E;1E, Hoshino and 6hierry
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cond&cted a st&dy where participants were shown word
pairs in *E that sometimes contained words that were cognates to *1 words. "articipants
'&dged whether the words in the pairs were related, and electrophysiological res&lts
revealed that semantic priming !facilitation of processing of the words% occ&rred when the
words in the pairs were related to each other whether or not the meaning was interpreted in
*1 or *E.
Both these st&dies concl&de that both lang&ages of an individ&al are constantly
&nconscio&sly active and interfering with one another with facilitatory res&lts regarding the
processing of words, eplaining biling&als7 advantages over their monoling&al peers when it
comes to ling&istic processing.
Executive functionsKeditL
Eec&tive f&nctions are those cognitive processes s&ch as problem solving, mental
fleibility, attentional control, inhibitory control, and task switching. Biling&al individ&als have
been shown over a n&mber of different tasks and sit&ations to be better at s&ch processes>
s&ggesting an interaction between being biling&al and eec&tive f&nctions.
K11L
Hak&ta and $ia@,
KNL
addressed the chicken and egg 3&estion concerning biling&als and their
enhanced cognitive abilities> do children with greater cognitive abilities tend to learn more
than one lang&age, or is it knowing more than one lang&age that enhances cognitive
abilityB 6hey administered a set of non/verbal tests that are designed to meas&re cognitive
ability !Caven7s "rogressive Matrices% to a biling&al sample of children. 6hey fo&nd a high
correlation with the degree of biling&alism !how proficient the individ&als were in each of
their lang&ages% of their sample and scores on the test, as well as biling&alism did in fact
predict performance !and therefore cognitive ability%.
Bialystok makes a distinction between two types of processing that aid children in lang&age
development> analysis, which involves the ability to represent and &nderstand abstract
information, and control, which involves the ability to selectively attend to specific aspects
of str&ct&res whilst ignoring irrelevant information.
K19L
6he literat&re concl&des that it is in the
aspect of control that biling&als have been fo&nd to have an advantage over their
monoling&al peers when it comes to cognitive abilities.
4n one st&dy,
KE;L
Bialystok administered a non/ling&istic card/sorting task to her participants
that re3&ired fleibility in problem solving, inhibiting irrelevant information, as well as
recogni@ing the constancy of certain variables in the face of changes in the r&les. 0he
fo&nd that biling&al children significantly o&tperformed their monoling&al peers in this task,
s&ggesting early development of inhibitory f&nction that aids solving problems that re3&ire
the ability to selectively foc&s attention.
4n a following st&dy, Bialystok and Martin
KE1L
aimed to determine what gave biling&als an
advantage in solving the card/sorting task !and generally an advantage in problem solving
sit&ations%. 6ho&gh the gro&ps were e3&ivalent in their ability to represent the stim&li
!reflecting back to 1orrall7s findings
K:L
%, and both were e3&ally able to inhibit learned motor
responses, biling&als showed a firm advantage in the task re3&iring concept&al inhibition>
the ability to inhibit previo&s associations and create new mental representations of the
stim&l&s according to task changes.
-n eplanation offered by Bialystok
KE1L
and others
KEEL
for this greater ability of biling&als to
selectively attend to important concept&al attrib&tes of a stim&l&s, is that it may stem from
the biling&als7 constant need to inhibit competing labels in their two lang&ages for one
ob'ect according to the c&rrently relevant lang&age. Biling&als have different
representations in each lang&age for similar concepts and therefore need to constantly be
aware of which lang&age they are &sing and which the appropriate word is to be &sed in
that contet. 6his c&lminates in an advantage of cognitive control, since the ability to switch
between lang&ages and select the appropriate word for &se is directly linked to the ability to
better attend to relevant, or inhibit irrelevant, information.
KENL
- f&rther eplanation refers to
biling&als7 &ni3&e eperience with &sing two lang&ages in the same modality !spoken%,
differentiating them from monoling&al peers, and re3&iring them to make the decision abo&t
how best to respond to a sit&ation, as well as have better control over what they select.
KEML
Ellen Bialystok has done etensive research
K1NLKE;LKE1L
into the cognitive advantages of
biling&alism. 4n several st&dies she has shown that biling&als o&tperformed their peers in
tasks meas&ring eec&tive f&nction, s&ggesting that being biling&al gives the individ&al an
advantage of better control of attention and therefore facilitates processing and f&nctioning
in several cognitive tasks. Moreover, the ability to better attend to or inhibit irrelevant
information has been fo&nd to persist into ad&lthood with biling&al ad&lts !that have been
biling&al since childhood% who show better controlled processing than monoling&al peers,
KEJL
and has even been linked to slowing age/related cognitive decline.
KEOL
0t&dies have
correlated biling&alism with the delayed onset of dementia in -l@heimer7s disease !-$% for
as long as J years
KEOLKE7L
and a recent st&dy
KE7L
provided ne&rological s&pport for these
findings by analy@ing (6 scans of patients diagnosed with possible -$. (ertain f&nctional
abilities, that correlate with environmental factors remain in individ&als with -$, enabling
them to f&nction somewhat normally even in advanced stages of the disease process>
these have been termed (ognitive Ceserves. 6his st&dy hypothesi@ed that biling&alism
may be a contrib&ting factor to cognitive reserves in -$, meas&rable by the amo&nt of -$/
related atrophy in the brain of biling&al individ&als with the disease, matched to
monoling&als. -s predicted, biling&als showed a higher level of atrophy than the
monoling&als even tho&gh their cognitive f&nctioning remained similar, s&ggesting strongly
that biling&alism co&ld be a cognitive reserve that delays the onset of signs of dementia in
-$.
PerceptionKeditL
- review of the literat&re s&ggests that biling&alism has an additive effect on an individ&al7s
creativity, by enhancing their mental fleibility, their ability to solve problems, and to
perceive sit&ations in different ways and the ability to maintain or manip&late these
perceptions to s&it the task at hand, all in ways that matched monoling&al peers do not
ehibit.
K:LK9LK11L
+ne st&dy addressed a less eplored field of cognitive advantages biling&al children may
ehibit, in the &se of creativity to solve of mathematical problems.
KE:L
"articipants were
presented with problems that were either mathematical in nat&re !arranging two sets of
bottle caps to be e3&al according to instr&ction% or non/mathematical !a common
ho&sehold problem represented in pict&res% and were asked to provide sol&tions, while
being rated on scales of creativity, fleibility and originality. 6he res&lts of the st&dy
confirmed that the biling&al children were more creative in their problem solving than their
monoling&al peers. +ne attrib&tion for this trait co&ld be biling&als7 increased metaling&istic
awareness, which creates a form of thinking that is more open and ob'ective, res&lting in
increased awareness and fleibility.
6his enhanced mental fleibility that develops in biling&als infl&ences more than their
problem solving or ling&istic skills. *ang&age appears to change the way the world is
perceived between individ&als that speak different lang&ages, and it has been shown to
infl&ence the perception of color
KE9L
as well as the categorisation of ob'ects.
KN;L
6hierry et al.
KE9L
st&died how having different words for different colors in one lang&age
might affect the perception of that color as compared to a lang&age that does not
discriminate between those colors. 4n )reek, 8light bl&e8 is disting&ished from 8bl&e8, not
simply as a different shade b&t as a whole different category of color. 4n this st&dy, biling&al
and monoling&al )reek.English participants were shown different shades of bl&e and light
bl&e as well as green and light green !for which a distinction is not made in )reek% and
EC"s were recorded. Electrophysiological meas&res showed a distinct pattern for the
biling&als indicating that they were perceiving the two colors as completely separate.
(ook et al. eplored the fact that Dapanese speakers are likelier than English ones to
categorise ob'ects according to their material as opposed to their shape. 4n their
st&dy
KN;L
they fo&nd that the preferences of Dapanese monoling&als learning English
changed> the more proficient they became in English, the more their ob'ect categori@ation
res&lts matched those of English monoling&als.
http://en.wi"ipedia.org/wi"i/Cognitive#advantages#of#bilingualism
Benefits of Being Bilingual
Learning a secon language at an earl! age
Has a positive effect on intellect&al growth and enriches and enhances a child7s mental
development
*eaves st&dents with more fleibility in thinking, greater sensitivity to lang&age, and a better ear
for listening
4mproves a child7s &nderstanding of his.her native lang&age
)ives a child the ability to comm&nicate with people s.he wo&ld otherwise not have the chance to
know
+pens the door to other c&lt&res and helps a child &nderstand and appreciate people from other
co&ntries
)ives a st&dent a head start in lang&age re3&irements for college
4ncreases 'ob opport&nities in many careers where knowing another lang&age is a real asset.
!(enter for -pplied *ing&istics%
http://www.cal.org/earllang/benefits/benefits#of#being#bilingual.html
How the Brain Benefits From
Being Bilingual
B $effre %luger$ul &'( )*&+), Comments

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Michael Friberg for TIME
group of !tah first"graders listen and read along in Mandarin
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%ever mind ho# #ell spo&en you might be no#' you #ill never again be as adept #ith
languages as the day you #ere born( Indeed' the youngest person in any room is almost
al#ays the best linguist there too( There are )'*++ languages in the #orld' and since you
can,t &no# #here you,ll be born' you have to pop from the #omb to be able to spea& any
one of them( That talent fades fast - as early as nine months after birth' some of our
language synapses start getting pruned a#ay( $ut #ell into your grammar"school years'
your ability to learn a second - or third or fourth - language is still remar&able(
That' it turns out' is very good for the brain( %e# studies are sho#ing that a multilingual
brain is nimbler' .uic&er' better able to deal #ith ambiguities' resolve conflicts and even
resist l/heimer,s disease and other forms of dementia longer( ll of this is prompting
public schools to implement language"immersion programs for &ids as young as
&indergarteners' as I report in the ne# issue of TIME0 no#here is that more evident than in
!tah' #here 1+2 of all public schools offer 3"41 dual"language instruction' #ith students
ta&ing half their classes every day in English and half in either 5panish' French' Mandarin
or Portuguese( To date' representatives from 11 other states have gone to !tah to learn
more about the program(
The &ids in bilingual classes in !tah and else#here aren,t thin&ing much about the nature
of their brains #hen they go to school each morning0 they,re only a#are of the rich and
lyrical experience of living and learning bilingually( $ut scientists - particularly
neurologists' psychologists and educational specialists - are #atching closely( In a polyglot
#orld' a largely monoglot nation li&e the !(5( is at last moving to catch up - and not a
moment too soon(
To read Klugers full story about the benefits of being bilingual, subscribe
here. Already a subscriber? Click here.
http://science.time.com/)*&+/*-/&'/how-the-brain-benefits-from-being-bilingual/
Benefits of Being Bilingual
The ability to converse in two languages is "nown as bilingualism. !eople who are adept at
spea"ing two languages en0oy certain advantages over their monolingual counterparts.
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1n a modern world li"e ours$ it has become commonplace for people to "now more than one
language. 1t isnBt uncommon to come across bilinguals who$ not only have a command over
their first or native language but are also fluent in a second$ vernacular or foreign language
as well.
According to common underlying proficiency +%C!/ model of language processing$ even
though the database of different languages is interconnected in our minds$ it is stored in
separate compartments and thus does not interfere or encroach upon the other.
Thereby$ ma"ing it possible for bilinguals to switch between two languages with equal ease
and fluency. Research has revealed that the practice of bilingualism is beneficial in the
following ways.
%ognitive Benefits
A bilingual individualBs brain has two active language systems which wor" simultaneously
without hindering the performance of other. Thus$ ensuring that the brain is always
eDercising both its linguistically oriented cognitive functions.
Bilinguals are also able to con0ure multiple phrases or words for each idea and ob0ect.
Ehile coming up with the words$ bilinguals will thin" in both languages and thereafter choose
the most appropriate options. Monolinguals on the other hand utiliFe their limited reservoir of
words.
'eneral reasoning and ability to conceptualiFe among bilinguals improves drastically when
advanced linguistic s"ills such as code&switching$ accent neutraliFation$ and syntaD
appropriation are acquired. This ability to grasp and improve$ ma"es it easier for bilinguals to
learn newer languages and evolve into multilingual spea"ers.
%ognitive fleDibility also improves through divergent and convergent thin"ing$ wherein the
spea"er builds on a single idea and derives a suitable conclusion after scrutiniFing various
arguments. This ability has been attributed to parallel data processing.
Bilingual spea"ers develop metalinguistic awareness and can differentiate between the
implied and literal meaning of words and phrases. Such people can thin" beyond labels$
symbols$ and language structure because their minds are not restrained to thin" in a single
language.
Ehile conversing with others$ a bilingual will automatically switch to the language which is
understood by the listener so as to ease the flow of communication. Ehereas$ monolinguals
would be forced to converse in the only language they "now.
Being bilingual has a positive effect on intellectual growth as well. 1t helps enhance and
enrich a personBs mental development and awareness$ because the rate of language
assimilation$ retentivity$ and grasping of phonetics is higher among bilinguals as compared to
monolinguals.
Academic Benefits
Research has revealed that bilingual and multilingual individuals tend to perform better in
competitive eDaminations. 1t is believed that bilinguals fare better at 1G tests because of
their ability to thin" of multiple possible scenarios$ so as to derive a suitable conclusion.
Bilinguals find it easier to learn new languages and thus fare better in immersion
programs.
Bilinguals are also able to understand and appreciate the literature and discourses of their
second language.
Benefits for :ids
:ids have a natural aptitude for pic"ing up new words and sounds because of the vast
spectra of lingual inputs they are eDposed to.
They can easily brea" down words into its component sounds and therefore categoriFing
words comes naturally to them. 1t is easier for bilingual children to detect rhyming words.
Their responses can also be equally fast in both the languages.
According to the renowned %anadian psychologist )llen Bialysto"$ bilingual children are
better at solving verbal and nonverbal problems that contain misleading and confusing
aspects.
Bialysto"Bs research also revealed that bilingual children were better at detecting
grammatical errors and eDtracting words from continuous verbal sentences.
Such children also fared better in reading and verbal s"ills as compared to monolingual
children.
1n her research paper$ BReshaping the Mind> The Benefits of BilingualismB$ )llen Bialysto"
states that bilinguals outperform monolinguals in tas"s based on applying eDecutive control.
5ealth Benefits of Bilingualism
Research has suggested that elderly bilinguals have more cognitive control as compared to
monolinguals.
According to a study by C%LA !rofessor Hared Iiamond$ children who grow up in a
bilingual family have lesser chances of developing AlFheimerBs disease.
1n yet another study of Spanish&)nglish bilinguals$ scientists of the Cniversity of %alifornia
found that they were more resistant to such diseases than their monolingual counterparts.
Their research also revealed that the age of onset of AlFheimerBs is directly proportionate to
the degree of bilingualism.
The %haracter? !ersonality Advantage
Bilinguals are able to emote better. Their temperament is generally adaptive and they can be
more genial$ as compared to single language spea"ers. Eith increased familiarity of dialects$
they find greater confidence and sense of self&esteem.
The %ultural Advantage
Bilingualism offers greater eDposure to different cultures and builds bridges between them.
:nowledge of different languages entails a treasure of traditional and contemporary sayings$
idioms$ history$ fol" stories$ music$ movies$ literature$ and poetry of different countries and
cultures. An eDtensive cultural eDperience also creates greater tolerance$ open&mindedness$
and appreciation.
The )mployment Advantage
Bilinguals are preferred over monolinguals for 0obs that require them to travel eDtensively or
communicate with a wider group of people. 1ndividuals who are proficient in a foreign
language can wor" as translators$ diplomats$ teachers$ doctors$ etc. )mploying bilinguals
also helps in eDploring new avenues and pooling in new clients from around the word.
Bilingual and multilingual employees can also help in training new members when the need
arises.
The biggest advantage of being bilingual is that the individual gets to be a part of two
diverse communities without feeling eDcluded. Ehereas$ it can be eDtremely challenging for
monolinguals to step out of their comfort Fone and communicate with people who do not
spea" the same language as them.
Read more at BuFFle> http>??www.buFFle.com?articles?benefits&of&being&bilingual.html
6hat re The $enefits 7f $eing
$ilingual

98 -* StumbleCpon9
6here are a n&mber of religions and c&lt&res in this world and as many n&mber of
lang&ages spoken by the people residing in it. Beside their mother tong&e, people today
prefer to learn other lang&ages also, especially foreign lang&ages. 1e live in a global
melting pot. 4t was never so vital to learn a second, or even a third lang&age, as it is today.
6his is the reason why, nowadays, several instit&tes and schools are offering co&rses in
foreign lang&age, which are often spoken thro&gho&t the world. Many colleges and
&niversities have incl&ded some foreign lang&age co&rses in their reg&lar academic
syllab&s too. 1hile learning another lang&age, the most important thing is to &nderstand its
basic grammar and an efficient knowledge of its vocab&lary.

Being biling&al offers greater sensitivity to lang&age, more fleibility in thinking and a better
ear for listening. 4t also improves a person2s &nderstanding for the native lang&age. 4t opens
the door to other c&lt&res. Moreover, knowledge of other lang&ages increases the career
opport&nities, offering several 'ob options. 1hether it2s abo&t increasing o&r knowledge for
personal reasons, or to add lang&ages as a skill on o&r res&me, there are many benefits
that can come from knowing more than one lang&age. 6hey incl&de improvement in
ling&istic and meta/ling&istic abilities as well as betterment of cognitive fleibility, s&ch as
divergent thinking, concept formation, verbal abilities and general reasoning. 6o eplore
these benefits in detail, go thro&gh the lines that follow.

A"antages #f Being Bilingual
+ne can have a n&mber of advantages by leaning another lang&age, especially in the
contet of cognitive benefits, c&rric&l&m advantages, c&lt&ral benefits, employment
advantages, comm&nication advantages and tolerance of other lang&ages and c&lt&res.

Cogniti"e Benefits
- biling&al person develops a creative thinking and an ability to think more fleibly. 0&ch
people &s&ally have two or more words for each idea and ob'ect. 6hey have specific
advantages in thinking. Biling&als are more sensitive to the needs of the listeners, as
compared to monoling&al people. Being biling&al has a positive effect on intellect&al growth
of a person as well.

Character A"antages
*ang&age b&ilds a bond between people. -nd when a person speaks in yo&r lang&age, yo&
tend to develop a soft corner for him. 6his, in t&rn increases the sense of self/esteem.
Being biling&al creates a powerf&l link in different people from different co&ntries.

Curriculum Benefits
Biling&al people have a better thinking capability. Being versed with two or more lang&ages
gives them the benefit of better &nderstanding. Biling&als tend to show higher performance
in eaminations and tests as well. 6hey find it 3&ite easy to learn and speak even more
lang&ages.

Communication A"antages?
Biling&als en'oy reading and writing in different lang&ages. 6hey can &nderstand and
appreciate literat&res in vario&s lang&ages. 4t gives a deeper knowledge of different ideas
and traditions. Biling&al people don2t face diffic&lties in comm&nication, while in a foreign
co&ntry.

Cultural A"antages
Biling&alism offers an access and epos&re to different c&lt&res. Rnowledge of different
lang&ages offers an advantage of learning history, folk stories, m&sic, literat&re, etc of
different c&lt&res. $&e to a wider c&lt&ral eperience, there is a greater tolerance of
differences in creeds and c&stoms.

$mplo!ment Benefits
Being biling&al adds to the epansion of one2s knowledge and &nderstanding. 4t works as a
wonder in a res&me. - biling&al person is always given a first priority on a monoling&al
person. 4t offers a wider choice of 'obs in vario&s fields. Biling&als can get prospero&s
career opport&nities in the retail, transport, to&rism, administration, secretarial work, p&blic
relations, marketing and sales, banking and acco&ntancy, translation, law and teaching
sectors.
http://lifestle.iloveindia.com/lounge/what-are-the-benefits-of-being-bilingual--.'&.html
%iling"ali! and Second &ang"age Ac'"i!ition
Teachers will var in their understandings of bilingualism and the processes of second language ac/uisition. 0ome
teachers will be bilingual or plurilingual themselves and have a wealth of personal e!perience to draw on. 1thers ma
be ver familiar with multilingual school environments. 0ome ma have had no contact with bilingual or EA2
learners.
3ere we outline aspects of bilingualism and the development of first and additional languages which can inform
teachers4 approaches to bilingual and EA2 learners in schools. Teachers should( for e!ample( be aware that::
The learner5s first or home language plas a significant role in the learning of the additional language
in terms of cognitive( linguistic and socio-cultural influences.
2earning a second language will not necessaril proceed in an orderl and sstematic fashion.
2earners will use prior linguistic( learned and world "nowledge. The will learn when there is a need to
communicate and to learn.
6ost EA2 and bilingual learners will develop a functional level of English in the first two ears of
schooling in English but the will need continued support to develop the cognitive academic language
proficienc necessar for academic success.
Bilingual education can be ver beneficial in the development of the second language
2earning a language and becoming bilingual is also about learning and living in different societies and
cultures. 7t is not 8ust about ac/uiring a new language( but also about understanding another culture and
developing another identit.
These materials provide an introduction to bilingualism and second language ac/uisition and its implications for the
classroom. 6ost initial teacher training providers include sessions on bilingualism and second language ac/uisition
within their programmes.
9hat is Bilingualism:
;ut simpl( bilingualism is the abilit to use two languages. 3owever( defining bilingualism is problematic since
individuals with varing bilingual characteristics ma be classified as bilingual. <efinitions of bilingualism range
from a minimal proficienc in two languages( to an advanced level of proficienc which allows the spea"er to
function and appear as a native-li"e spea"er of two languages. A person ma describe themselves as bilingual but
ma mean onl the abilit to converse and communicate orall. 1thers ma be proficient in reading in two or more
languages =or bi-literate>. A person ma be bilingual b virtue of having grown up learning and using two languages
simultaneousl =simultaneous bilingualism>. 1r the ma become bilingual b learning a second language sometime
after their first language. This is "nown as se/uential bilingualism. To be bilingual means different things to different
people.
Bilingualism encompasses a range of proficiencies and conte!ts. A oung child entering school ma be called
bilingual but it ma be that she uses her first or home language for domestic and familial purposes and that English is
her preferred language for communication outside the home. 1r she ma be largel monolingual in her first language
onl when she starts school. A child who has recentl arrived in England from overseas ma have a good level of
literac in English but ma be unable to converse or use spo"en English in the classroom conte!t. 1n the other hand(
man pupils described as bilingual routinel use three languages or more and thus 4plurilingual4 would be a better
description. 7n terms of competence( a bilingual ma have ver high levels of proficienc in both languages or ma
have onl limited proficienc in one and be far more proficient in the other.
The use of the term ?bilingual5 is thus dependent upon: conte!t@ linguistic proficienc and purpose. 6an educators
use ?bilingual pupils5 in preference to 4pupils learning EA24 in order to heighten awareness of pupils4 linguistic
"nowledge and e!pertise as well as their cultural affiliations. Aampton =&..*> suggested replacing terms such as
4native spea"er4 and 4mother tongue4 with language e!pertise( language affiliation and language inheritance. These
terms ma help teachers to understand the comple! nature of bilingualism and plurilingualism in multiethnic schools.
Bilingual 2anguage Ac/uisition
7n the same wa as children learn their first language( se/uential bilingual learners must also learn how to use their
newl ac/uired language accuratel and appropriatel. Although the process of language learning ma be similar(
there are also differences. Bor e!ample( bilingual learners address the process of learning another language alread
possessing "nowledge of a linguistic sstem( its structures and rules. 7n addition( se/uential bilingual learners start
learning their second language at different ages( rather than from birth( and will be able to use different learning
strategies.
0econd language development would appear to proceed in an orderl fashion. Aesearchers have discovered that there
is a fairl common se/uence of ac/uisition for second language learners across a range of languages and conte!ts.
9hat is not "nown is e!actl what aspects of the second language are learned in what se/uence. 3owever it is "nown
that some aspects are learned when there is a perceived need b the learner and some items can be learned in no
particular se/uence. 1ther research has suggested that there is a developmental se/uence which precludes the earl
learning of certain items. 0econd language learners will demonstrate some of the stages of first language
development. Bor e!ample( the ma go through a period when a rule is generalised to all instances. 3owever( the
rate of ac/uisition and the level of proficienc achieved in second language learning will depend upon the individual
learner.
The popular belief that ounger children have an advantage over adults in developing bilinguall is not necessaril
true. Earl ac/uisition of the speech sound sstem of a language ma result in a native-li"e pronunciation and the
impression of fluenc( but older learners ma have an advantage in terms of increased metalinguistic awareness that
enables them to learn the new language more /uic"l. Bor the oung child( bilingual development is ta"ing place
alongside conceptual development and learning about the world. Bor older learners who have greater "nowledge and
understanding( it is the learning of new labels for ob8ects( ideas and concepts alread "nown.
As the learn the new language( second language learners incorporate the new linguistic input into their e!isting
model of the language. There are man aspects of language that are common. Bor e!ample all languages have was
of denoting time( of indicating actions and actors. 2anguages do this with different vocabularies and often with
different grammars( but all languages are rule-governed. ;art of the process of language ac/uisition involves the
discover and application of these rules. 47nterlanguage4 is the term used to describe the language that learners
produce as the learn the second language. 7t is also used to describe the evolving development of the learner4s
"nowledge and use of the second language as the become increasingl proficient. 7t will change as the learner learns
more and incorporates new linguistic "nowledge into e!isting "nowledge. Error analsis appears to suggest that the
ma8orit of interlingual errors are developmental and a sign of progress.
2earners and their learning strategies will change over time. A five ear old will have a different language learning
profile and language learning strategies than a fifteen ear old. Bor bilingual learners( their first language "nowledge
will be helpful in the ac/uisition of the second language. The e!tent of this help will be dependent upon their
proficienc in their first language( their age and other factors.
B7C0 and CA2;
These terms are commonl used in discussion of bilingual education. The arise from the earl wor" of Cummins
=&.',> in which he demonstrated his ideas about second language development in a simple matri!. B7C0 describes
the development of conversational fluenc =Basic 7nterpersonal Communicative 0"ills> in the second language(
whereas CA2; describes the use of language in deconte!tualiCed academic situations = Cognitive Academic
2anguage ;roficienc >.
The horiContal a!is of the B7C0/CA2; matri! represents a continuum from 4conte!t-embedded4 to 4conte!t-reduced4(
ranging from the situation in which the learner uses e!ternal clues and information( such as facial gestures( real
ob8ects and pictorial representation to enable understanding( to the other e!treme where the learner must rel on
linguistic cues( and "nowledge about language and te!t to understand meanings. The vertical a!is relates to the
degree of cognitive involvement in a tas"( and moves from tas"s that are not ver demanding to increasing
challenging activities. 0o( an activit in the lower left corner =cognitivel undemanding and conte!t-embedded> such
as matching words to a picture might be appropriate for a beginner( but tas"s in the upper right corner =more
cognitivel demanding and conte!t-reduced> such as a poem b %eats( would be a tas" for advanced learners.
Cummins4 model has proved helpful in identifing and developing appropriate tas"s for bilingual pupils. Bor
e!ample( in preparing tas"s for a newl arrived second language learner( teachers might start with conte!tualiCed
tas"s and practical activities that are of low cognitive demand( such as naming items or a simple matching e!ercise.
6ore proficient learners would re/uire conte!tual support( but would need more cognitivel demanding tas"s. This
approach to planning and assessing EA2 learners was developed and reported in Cline and Brederic"son =&..D>.
7n conceptualiCing bilingual proficienc in this wa( Cummins and other researchers suggest that it ta"es learners( on
average( appro!imatel two ears to achieve a functional( social use of a second language but that it ma ta"e five to
seven ears or longer( for some bilingual learners to achieve a level of academic linguistic proficienc comparable to
monolingual English spea"ing peers.
Common Enderling ;roficienc
Cummins =&.', and )***> also argues for a common underling proficienc or interdependence hpothesis( in which
cross-lingual proficiencies can promote the development of cognitive( academic s"ills. Common underling
proficienc refers to the interdependence of concepts( s"ills and linguistic "nowledge found in a central processing
sstem. Cummins states that cognitive and literac s"ills established in the mother tongue or 2& will transfer across
languages. This is often presented visuall as two icebergs representing the two languages which overlap and share(
underneath the water line( a common underling proficienc or operating sstem. Both languages are outwardl
distinct but are supported b shared concepts and "nowledge derived from learning and e!perience and the cognitive
and linguistic abilities of the learner.
This representation also demonstrates one view of how linguistic "nowledge is stored in the brain. 1ne wa of
thin"ing of this is to consider bilingual spea"ers as having separatel stored proficiencies in each language( and this
ma include pronunciation( vocabular and grammar in the wor"ing memor( which in turn( have access to long-term
memor storage that is not language specific. 7n other words( the use of the first or second language is informed b
the wor"ing memor( but the concepts are stored as underling proficienc.
Cummins also describes language proficienc in terms of surface and deeper levels of thin"ing s"ills. 3e argues that
the deeper levels of cognitive processing such as analsis( snthesis and evaluation are necessar to academic
progress. 3e distinguishes these aspects of proficienc from what he describes as more e!plicit or superficial
realisations of linguistic and cognitive processing. Cummins proposes a minimum threshold of first language
cognitive/academic development necessar for success in second language learning. Cummins also suggests that if
the threshold of cognitive proficienc is not achieved( the learner ma have difficulties achieving bilingual
proficienc.
This representation of bilingual proficienc would also suggest that continued conceptual and linguistic development
in the first language would help second language learners in their learning of the second language. 0o the continued
support of the first language whilst learning the second language would be beneficial for cognitive development as
well as for other socio-cultural reasons. 7n his later wor"( Cummins =)***> presents the wor" of man other
researchers which support this hpothesis and the claim that bilingualism and continued development in the first
language enhances metalinguistic s"ills and development in proficienc in the second language.
Threshold 3pothesis
The threshold hpothesis assumes that a child needs to achieve a certain level of proficienc or competence in the
first or second language to ta"e advantage of the benefits of bilingualism. A minimum threshold needs to be achieved
if there are to be an benefits from bilingualism( and this hpothesis posits that if there is a low level of competence
in both languages there ma be negative conse/uences. 0ometimes this has been referred to as semi-lingualism( but
this term and description is not often used nowadas. 7t would seem that there needs to be a minimum level of
linguistic and conceptual "nowledge in the first language to successfull add a second and develop bilinguall. At the
upper threshold( 4additive bilingualism4 occurs when 4balanced bilinguals4 have age appropriate competence in both
languages. This conceptualiCation of bilingualism is often depicted as a steps in a ladder or floors in a house. This
threshold hpothesis cannot be defined in absolute terms( rather it is a theoretical description( but it can help in
e!plaining the development of bilingual learners. 7t also supports the arguments for the benefits of additive
bilingualism and bilingual education.
There are several implications and benefits of additive bilingualism for teaching and learning. Bor e!ample( bilingual
education ma provide the greatest support for bilingual learners in the development of their second or additional
language. 7t is important that new input is connected to the learner4s previous "nowledge( including linguistic(
conceptual and learned "nowledge. 7t would seem that additive bilingualism has positive conse/uences for learners4
metalinguistic development( learning of additional languages and more generall( for learners4 verbal cognitive
operations. The threshold hpothesis also suggests that both languages must be given an opportunit to develop if
there is to be a long-term positive impact. Additive bilingualism brings with it man positive attributes that can
enable learners4 linguistic and academic development.
Bilingual Education
Enli"e the E%( there is a wide variet of education programmes for bilingual pupils in other countries. Bilingual
education can be defined as an educational programme in which two languages are used to provide instruction. As
with the term bilingualism( bilingual education is a simple label for a comple! phenomenon. An important distinction
is between those programmes that use and promote two languages and those where bilingual children are present( but
bilingualism is not fostered in the curriculum. 0"uttnab-%angas =&.',> offers three broad categories that encompass
the range of education programmes. 1ther educationalists have further refined and developed these categories =Ba"er(
&..+>.
Ier!ion prograe! promote additive bilingualism for ma8orit language spea"ers.These are highl valued
educational programmes and the most well "nown are the Brench immersion programmes for English spea"ing
children in Canada. Although teaching is provided in the second language( the teacher "nows and ma use both
languages.
S"(er!ion prograe! are programmes where linguistic minorities are taught through the medium of the
ma8orit language with minimal or no support to enable learners to understand the language of instruction nor access
the curriculum content. 1ften the minorit languages and cultures are not highl valued b the ma8orit group.
)aintenance prograe! provide teaching in the first language in order to maintain use of the home language and
culture. These programmes are often allied to transitional bilingual education programmes where the learners
graduall move towards full use of the ma8orit language. E!amples can be found in the Enited 0tates where( until
recentl( transitional bilingual education in 0panish and English was widel available. Transitional bilingual
education programmes var in the amount of first language instruction provided and the duration of the programme.
Earl e!it programmes are where pupils move rapidl to English onl instruction( for e!ample( within the first one or
two ears.
6ost bilingual education programmes have two goals@ the ac/uisition of the language of the countr and academic
success@ and the continuing development of the heritage language. 6an bilingual education programmes can be
defined as a wa of using the first language to accelerate second language ac/uisition.
7n the Enited 0tates( Thomas and Collier =)**)> compared the outcomes of different teaching programmes available.
The concluded that bilingual education and dual language programmes were the most effective was to empower
EA2 pupils to be successful students in the English language mainstream.
<ebates around bilingualism and bilingual education are proliferating in the conte!t of globaliCation and the rapid
spread of English. Bor man( bilingual education is important to the maintenance of first language and culture( whilst
at the same time promoting the academic achievement and future success of children. Bor others( bilingual education
has become an issue in socio-political debates about nationalism( integration and identit.
The Bilingual 2earner
An discussion of bilingualism and the bilingual learner must also ta"e into consideration the individual learner. As
children learn language the also learn through language about relationships and social structures. The begin to learn
about the culture into which the are born. 7t is through language( in the everda interactions with the famil( peers
and school( that culture is transmitted to the child. 7n this conte!t the learner5s sense of identit develops and
language is central to this process. 3owever( what happens when that culture is overlaid with other cultural
influences( as happens in larger urban areas where diverse populations mi! and change: Brom the historical
perspective( a bilingual learner could be defined in terms of the cultures in which he or she functions( with the home
language and culture plaing a significant role in his or her life. Teachers ma describe their learners as 7ndian( ;olish
or 0omalian as a pro! label to indicate their bilingualism and biculturalism. But how do teachers define the child of
Chinese or ;a"istani heritage who has grown up in 2ondon or Birmingham( who identifies with the peer group and
outh culture and for whom the heritage culture is one that is associated with grandparents and histor: Fotions of
cultural identit that are part of the debate and discussion of bilingualism must change along with our changing
societ.
2arge numbers of ethnic minorit pupils in British schools have spent a significant proportion of their lives in Britain
and use everda collo/uial English with ease. 6an of these pupils ma have reached a 4plateau4 in which the do
not seem able to ma"e further progress in English. Current sstems in education continue to identif such pupils as
one-dimensional bilinguals spea"ing a minorit language at home whilst learning English at school. These concepts
ma be little help for teachers in developing ade/uate teaching approaches and strategies. 3arris =&..-> argues that
we should rethin" the ?romantic5 notion of bilingualism and ta"e a more realistic loo" at what we call ?bilingual
learners5 in face of the multilingual and multiethnic outh who inhabit a world where language( culture and ethnicit
are fluid and change from generation to generation. 3is interviews with pupils about their language use reveal a
comple! linguistic and cultural picture of these bilingual and plurilingual pupils:
"My first language is English. I read, write, speak and think in English. I also speak Gujarati because my mum and
dad are Gujarati first language speakers...my mum speaks to me in Gujarati and I answer back in English, which is
common."
"I know Punjabi, rdu, !wahili, German, English and "rabic. I can speak Punjabi perfectly and understand it #ery
well. I know a lot of German, and I know how to speak it, and understand it and write it mainly. I know "rabic #ery
little but can write a little bit of it."
The FA2<7C series of pupil portraits written b serving teachers provide further accounts of the language affiliations
and learning of bilingual learners in schools.
Aeferences and Burther Aeading
Ba"er( C. =&..+> $oundations of %ilingual Education and %ilingualism. Clevedon( ;hiladelphia : 6ultilingual
6atters Bialsto"( E. =)**&> %ilingualism in &e#elopment' (anguage, (iteracy and )ognition. Cambridge :
Cambridge Eniversit ;ress
Cline( T. G Brederic"son( F. =Eds.> =&..D> )urriculum *elated "ssessment, )ummins and %ilingual )hildren.
Clevedon : 6ultilingual 6atters
Cummins( $. =&.',> %ilingualism and special education. Clevedon : 6ultilingual 6atters
Cummins( $. =)***> (anguage, Power and Pegagogy. Clevedon : 6ultimlingual 6atters
3arris( A. =&..-> 4Aomantic Bilingualism: time for a change:4 in 2eung( C. G Cable( C. =Eds.> English as an
"dditional (anguage' )hanging Perspecti#es. 9atford: FA2<7C
Aampton( B. =&..*> 4<isplacing the Hnative spea"erH: E!pertise( affiliation and inheritance4 in E(+ ,ournal --, pp.
.--&*&
0"uttnab-%angas( T. =&.',> %ilingualism or .ot/ Clevedon : 6ultilingual 6atters.
Thomas( 9.;.( G Collier( I.;. =)**)>. " national study of school effecti#eness for language minority students0 long1
term academic achie#ement. 0anta CruC( CA: Center for Aesearch on Education( <iversit and E!cellence(
Eniversit of California-0anta CruC.
Author
Charlotte Branson
http://www.naldic.org.u"/eal-initial-teacher-education/resources/ite-archive-bilingualism
\
T3E EBBECT7IE TEAC3EA
2eo A. 0and
There are several dimensions ta"en together in varing levels of degree that embod the effective teacher.
0ince teachers range from preschool through post secondar levels( and are uni/ue people( no two
teachers will have the same combination nor will all of them be present in ever e!cellent teacher. There
are also /ualities that effective teachers have that ma not be included here. 7 invite others to add to the
list.
;erhaps the most important /ualit of an effective teacher is that she be a learner . ;aulo Breire refers to
this role as Hteacher-studentH because the teacher presents the material to the students for their
consideration( and reconsiders her earlier considerations as the students e!press their own. The effective
teacher( then( is one who e!tends a cordial invitation to her Hstudent-teachersH to enter into a dialogic
relationship with her and the sub8ect matter.
The effective teacher must be a leader who can inspire and influence students through e!pert and referent
power but never coercive power. This teacher "nows his sub8ect well and is "ind and respectful toward
his students. 3e also has high standards and e!pectations coe!isting with encouragement( support( and
fle!ibilit. This teacher empowers students and gets them to do things of which the did not thin" the
were capable. This teacher has students who surpass him.
The effective teacher is a provocateur who probes( prods( as"s incessant wh /uestions( poses problems(
throws curves( plas Hdevil4s advocateH( and stimulates frustration and conflict all in an attempt to Hbust
bubbles and plant seedsH so that tid and stereotpical e!planations are unmas"ed and discarded.
The effective teacher e!emplifies what 6a!ine Jreen calls teacher as stranger . B "eeping students at a
health emotional distance( this teacher can( through continuous reflection( emplo greater ob8ectivit in
her abilit to balance the needs of individuals with the needs of the class as a whole. This allows the
teacher to not onl determine what those needs are but also how the can be accommodated to b
innovative approaches.
The effective teacher models enthusiasm not onl for his sub8ect but also for teaching and learning in
general. B showing e!uberance( a positive attitude( e!citement( and passion( the effective teacher ma"es
it clear to his students that he would prefer to be nowhere else. Effective teachers value their craft and
pro8ect this value to all in their presence.
The effective teacher is an innovator who changes strategies( techni/ues( te!ts( and materials when better
ones are found and/or when e!isting ones no longer provide a substantive learning e!perience for her
students. This teacher also emplos a combination of lecture-discussion( simulation( service learning(
cooperative learning( visual media( role-plaing( guest spea"ers( and debates( and whatever is age and
grade appropriate in order to accommodate diverse learning stles and to present the sub8ect from
different angles to facilitate insights and connections. This teacher values and uses students4 ideas about
how to enhance their own learning.
The effective teacher is a comedian/entertainer who uses humor in the service of learning rather than as a
distraction from it.
The effective teacher is a coach or guide who helps students to improve on their s"ills and insights. B
neither letting them flounder nor prematurel offering assistance( the effective teacher enables students to
own their own successes and to learn from their mista"es. B returning the students4 wor" promptl with
constructive comments( and b being available for assistance( the effective teacher helps students to
develop responsibilit for their own learning( or to become what is "nown as self-reliant.
The effective teacher is a genuine human being or humanist who is able to laugh at herself and the
absurdit in the world without being cnical and hopeless. 0he is a person who can self-disclose so that
her students will see both her virtues and imperfections. B being a down-to-earth person( the effective
teacher helps her students develop the will( courage and hope to fulfill their own potential as human
beings.
The effective teacher is a sentinel who provides an environment of intellectual safet in which opposing
ideas can be aired without fear of censure or retribution. This teacher can e!press his opinions and beliefs
while ta"ing care to distinguish fact from opinion. 3is students feel free to e!press their views with e/ual
ease even if those views are at odds with those of the teacher.
The effective teacher is an optimist or idealist who firml believes that without an ideal or mission( there
will be no appro!imation of it. This teacher sees herself in each of her students and feels that her legac is
what she contributes to their development. This teacher achieves a sense of immortalit b the positive
influence she has on the lives of her students.
The effective teacher is one with others . 3e is a collaborator who places a high value on collegialit. 3e
shares ideas and materials with others( solicits input and involvement b parents( and see"s help from his
fellow teachers when he encounters a problem. The classroom walls in this teacher4s room are thin.
This teacher is effective because she aspires to all these /ualities and more. 0he values truth more than
certaint and the rightness of a cause more than personal popularit. As this teacher attempts to change
the world( she transforms herself and others in the process. Thus( the effective teacher is a revolutionar
because she "nows that( with the e!ception of parenthood( her role is the most vital one on earth in the
preservation of the sanctit of life and its natural outcome - the elevation of huhmanit .
http://www.teachersessa.com/what-ma"es-an-effective-teacher/h
.
0earch
9hat ma"es an effective teacher:
$un Dth( )*&+ K &&:+' am L Teacher Jracia <. Aubiano
M 0"ip to comments
Teaching is one of the world5s most challenging occupations. Teachers hold a uni/ue position in our
societ. As" ourself whether ou have the characteristics of an effective teacher. 7f ou feel that ou
have the characteristics( consider was to improve and learn more on how to become an effective teacher.
An effective teacher ma"es good use of instructional time and inspires students to do well and to "now
more. Each and ever student in the class has to feel comfortable and have the sense of belonging. The
classroom has to be conducive to learning and has the proper lighting so that learning easil ta"es place.
Being an effective teacher has to be able to handle ever situation that comes our wa. 9e surel
encounter different problems regarding pupil5s attitudes and others. Teacher should be fle!ible to ta"e
control of an situation. Teachers are values-oriented mentor.
Effective teachers tend to have similar characteristics: enthusiastic( creative and positive. Nou can e!press
these characteristics in different was( but tpicall this means that( most time of the da( ou trul want
to be in classroom and see our pupils learn and e!cel.
Being organiCed in the classroom is another "e element of an effective teacher. B organiCing and
planning each da( the teacher surel presented the lesson in effective manner. 9hen the teacher is
organiCing in the classroom( pupils will observe( imitate and appl it in their dail lives.
As teacher( one must be honest to himself( to the school and to his profession. A teacher must alwas be
truthful in whatever he does or sa.
2atest posts b Teacher Jracia <. Aubiano
http://www.onlineuniversities.com/blog/)*&*/*D/O)-habits-of-highl-effective-teachers/
F )+( )*&*
O) 3abits of 3ighl Effective Teachers
0hare on Baceboo" 0hare on Twitter 0hare on Joogle 0hare b Email
b 0taff 9riters
Being an effective teacher largel boils down to being able to diagnose problems earl( roll with changes(
and straddle a line between being a ruler and being a leader. 9hether ou5ve been in the industr for
ears or are 8ust now studing education at an online universit( these habits will help ou focus our
teaching and have a bigger impact on our students. 0ome are about attitude( while others are basic
approaches to class structure( but the5re all helpful. Ta"e a loo":
3abits for Communicating
These habits will help ou build better avenues of communication between ou and our students.
Build a student5s confidence: 2ow self-esteem is a problem for man students( which is wh effective
teachers wor" to build that confidence through reinforcement and encouragement.

9or" on our communication s"ills: 0trive to alwas be better at clearl e!pressing our ideas and hopes
for our students in an authoritative but caring manner.

Be precise: 7t5s easier for a student to remember a lesson or grasp a theor if it5s e!plained to them in
simple( accurate language. This is especiall true for math classes. 9or" on ma"ing lessons as
straightforward as possible.

Cut out the clutter: 0o man things that seem urgent P phone calls( e-mails( te!t messages P aren5t
worth the time. B eliminating the clutter and non-urgent communications coming into our life( ou can
better focus on being present in the classroom and communicating better with our students.

0low down: <on5t rush through concepts if ou thin" students aren5t understanding them. Ad8ust our
learning timeline and slow our pace until ou "now that the lessons has sun" in.

EmphasiCe problem-solving: 7t5s a cliche because it5s true: a big part of education is teaching students
how to thin" for themselves. ;resent lessons as opportunities to solve problems and wor" independentl.

Ese practical e!amples: 0o often( education relies on the recitation of abstract theor or dr fact.
Effective teachers get students involved b presenting real-world e!amples of what the5re teaching in
order to give a concrete feel to the lesson.

EmphasiCe safet: Nour classroom needs to be an emotionall safe place where students can as" /uestions
without worring about feeling dumb or left behind. 6a"ing a safe space drasticall increases the amount
and /ualit of classroom communication.

0tud individual students: Everone learns differentl. ;a attention to how our students learn and
respond accordingl if ou want to be more effective.

0a it again: Another effective communication method to help students remember the lesson is called
Hfront-loading.H Basicall( ou address a concept at the beginning of class and again at the end( letting the
repetition drive home its importance.

3abits for Building Aelationships
These tips will help ou strengthen our relationships with our students.
Trust our students: 7t5s vital that ou come to trust our students and their abilit to help ou learn more
about ourself and our methods. Nou5ll grow so much as a teacher.

0mile more: 7t5s a simple habit but a great one: Alwas give our students an encouraging smile when
ou tal" to them( as a group or individuall.

Jet the names down: 7t might seem small( but learning the names of our students as soon as possible
will show ou care about them( which will enhance our relationship.

Embrace enlightened ignorance: Enlightened ignorance means ou admit that there are things ou don5t
"now and /uestions ou can5t answer. Admitting this will help ou search for those answers as well as
inspire students to learn( as well. The5ll see that learning is a lifelong process.

Bocus on the students: 7t5s all too eas to get distracted b everthing from internal politics to career
advancement( but as a teacher( ou5re not wor"ing with abstract figures but real people. %eep our focus
and energ directed toward our students( and our teaching will get better and better.

;ublicl praise positive behavior: 0how students that "indness matters b celebrating their achievements.

3abits for Classroom 6anagement
These methods will help ou build a better classroom and more engaging learning environment.
2ead b e!ample: 9ant our students to treat others with respect: 0how them model behavior.

0et specific goals: 9hat do ou want students to achieve b the end of the wee": The semester: The
ear: ;lan these goals accordingl and watch our

0et ma8or goals: 7t5s important to set goals for student achievement( but ou should also set some big-
picture goals( as well. Bor instance( don5t 8ust e!pect our students to memoriCe facts@ prepare them to
wor" after the5ve moved on from our class.

Ese student feedbac": A great wa for teachers to be effective( especiall with ounger students( is to as"
them what activities the5ve en8oed and then use those answers to shape upcoming events.

Jet there earl: 0howing up earl and getting our lesson read is a simple but effective wa to be
prepared for a da of teaching.

Brea" the rules: Iariet is the spice of the classroom. Ese different or unorthodo! sources to get our
lessons across. 7f it wor"s( it wor"s.

0ta upbeat: This one5s tough because it5s tempting to 8ust ta"e a da ever now and then to la low or
slac" off( but our students deserve better. 0trive to alwas be upbeat and energetic( and to create a
dnamic wor"ing environment.

2et them teach each other: 6an teachers have found that an effective wa to drive home a lesson is to let
students /uestion each other about certain issues before turning to the teacher for help.

0et the tone earl: 6a"e it clear from da one that ou are "nowledgeable and prepared and that ou
re/uire students5 attention( and the5ll be more li"el and willing to follow ou.

%eep an ee out for new tools: Brom te!tboo"s to software( effective teachers "now about the tools
available for them to use in the classroom.

0et rules and stic" with them: 0ome teachers let students move freel about the room to sharpen their
pencils( while others re/uire permission to be as"ed. 0ome teachers let students choose their seats( while
others dictate a seating chart. 9hatever ou do( stic" with it. Consistenc provides a structure that builds
trust( which helps teaching.

Be fle!ible: 0ome teaching methods might not wor" ear to ear( or even among different students in the
same class. Effective teachers can tailor their lessons and ad8ust as needed.

0how respect for our students: <on5t 8ust treat them "indl@ treat them with respect. Ialue their
e!periences and insights. 7t5s our 8ob to get them to appl those e!periences to what ou5re teaching( and
the won5t do that unless the "now ou respect them as people.

0et class rewards: Establish fun rewards that our class can earn b wor"ing as a team on special
assignments. 7t will help them bond and also give them a tangible goal.

2ove our sub8ect: The best wa to get students interested in our sub8ect( from sciences to languages to
arts( is to love it so much that our passion for the field shows in our attitude. 0tudents respond to
authenticit.

Ese shorter activities: 0tudents tend to let their attention wander if the5re as"ed to underta"e long
activities( especiall in groups. Counteract this b using shorter activities that let them focus without
getting bored.

Tell the students our goals: <on5t 8ust set goals for a lesson or activit@ conve them to the students. The
more specific our instructions( the closer attention the5ll pa to the goal ou5ve set.

Jive them options: 1ne great wa to inspire students to increase their productivit is to give them a
choice in how to complete the assignment. Bor instance( students reading a novel might be allowed to
either write a summar of a chapter or answer a few short-answer /uestions.

Bocus on improvement: Effective teachers don5t 8ust reward high scorers. The praise and encourage
those low-scoring students who ma"e big improvements in their grades. ;a attention to these students
and than" them for their hard wor".

3abits for 7mproving Nourself
These habits can help ou improve our teaching methods and personal life.
Adapt or die: Being a teacher is li"e being a shar": Nou have to "eep moving forward if ou want to live.
<on5t be afraid to adapt to changing media( trends( or ideas if it means having a bigger effect on our
"ids.

Fever stop ta"ing ris"s: $ust because ou5ve found a method or idea that wor"s doesn5t mean it5s the onl
wa to do things. %eep ta"ing ris"s and tring new things.

Be ourself: This one goes bac" to authenticit( which is vital in education. <on5t force ourself to put on
a persona for our students. $ust be who ou are.

Be prepared: 7t might not be possible to e!pect the une!pected( but ou can prepare ourself for change
b "nowing that( ever da( something will happen beond our control. The more prepared ou are for
this to happen( the better ou5ll be able to deal with crisis when it comes.

3ang in there: 7t might sound chees P ou5re probabl picturing a "itten hanging on a clothesline P
but the most effective teachers are those who refuse to give up when things get tough. Fever give up on
students. Ever.

%eep up with trends: The most effective teachers are those who activel see" out new teaching methods.
0ta ahead of the curve b reading teaching magaCines and websites to get new ideas.

<on5t tr to beat them on tests: Tests aren5t a contest between ou and the students@ the5re chances for
the students to demonstrate what the5ve learned =or forgotten>. Construct fair e!ams that let them displa
their "nowledge( not cruel ordeals designed to highlight our master of the content.

0tand firm( especiall at the beginnings: 7t5s a lot easier to graduall loosen our disciplinar procedures
than to suddenl step them up. 0tart the ear tough( then mellow out a little.

Jet into a routine: 7t can be tough to balance a desire for spontaneit with the need to provide structure.
6a"e it clear from the beginning that each class period will follow a set routine( and then use that frame
to slowl allow for e!perimentation.

3abits for E!panding Nour Communit
A ma8or part of being an effective teacher is wor"ing well with other educators to inspire each other to
become better. 3ere are some was to ma"e that happen.
Be a visionar: Effective teachers have to be imaginative if the want to ma"e an impact on their
students( period. 0trive to thin" outside the bo! and see what new tools or media could help ou reach
our students.

Collaborate: Ese blogs and social networ"ing to sta in touch with fellow educators and learn what5s
happening in all areas of our field.

Ael on others: <evelop relationships with other educators. 3aving a support sstem of people who "now
what ou5re going through is a great survival tool.

Be there for others: The flip side of loo"ing to other teachers for support is 8ust as important: ou need to
remember to offer that support to teachers who need it. 0haring our e!pertise will ma"e ou both
stronger and more effective educators.

;a attention to the needs of the communit: 9hat are the income levels li"e where ou teach: The
situations at home: %nowing these and more is an invaluable wa to understand the students in our class
and give ou a better method of reaching them.

9or" with parents: Nes( it can be intimidating to approach a parent about their child5s success or failure.
But establishing a rapport with our students5 parents and guardians is a helpful wa to "now what
the5re going through and how to teach them better.

0end home positive notes: 6an teachers onl send a note home with a student for his or her parents if
the student is in trouble or failing. 7nstead( tr sending home regular notes for parents in which ou praise
the student for the wor" the are doing and the successes the5ve had. 7t5s a great wa to inspire students
and parents ali"e.

Avoid gossip: The teachers5 lounge can be a great escape as well as a dangerous opportunit to tal" trash
about cowor"ers. This can paralCe a teaching communit. <on5t engage in it at all.

Q Everthing Nou Feed to 0tart Nour 1wn Cowor"ing JroupR O* Bun and Educational 9ebsites
%eeping 2atin Alive
AE2ATE< B21J ;10T0
Aeflections on a <a at the 6useum of ;la
Esing Technolog to Balance Nour Education and 2ife
Building the 7deal 0"ill 0et for )&st Centur Emploment
O Eas 0teps to SJamifing S3igherEd
7t5s Time to Embrace the ;ost-Te!tboo" Era in S3igherEd
9ant to Be a 0uccess in 2ife: ;ersonaliCe Nour S3igherEd <egree
Establish Jood Tech 3abits Fow to 2ast a 2ifetime
Balancing 2oan Aepament with ;ursuing Nour ;assion
T97TTEA BEE<
Tweets b K1E#com
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)O Things 0uccessful Teachers <o <ifferentl
*&/)'/)*&+( TeachThought 0taff( )+ Comments
in0hare
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Editor5s Fote: 9e often loo" at the /ualities and characteristics of good teaching and learning( including
the recent following pieces:
3ow A Jood Teacher Becomes Jreat
9hat Nou 1we Nour 0tudents
Ten 0ecrets To 0urviving As A Teacher
The Characteristics 1f A 3ighl Effective 2earning Environment
3ow To Be A 6ediocre Teacher
0o it made sense to ta"e a loo" at the characteristics of a successful educator( which $ulie <uFeen does
below.
)O Things 0uccessful Teachers <o <ifferentl
b $ulie <uFeen
7f ou as" a student what ma"es him or her successful in school( ou probabl won5t hear about some
fantastic new boo" or video lecture series. 6ost li"el ou will hear something li"e( U7t was all 6r. $ones.
3e 8ust never gave up on me.V
9hat students ta"e awa from a successful education usuall centers on a personal connection with a
teacher who instilled passion and inspiration for their sub8ect. 7t5s difficult to measure success( and in the
world of academia( educators are continuall re-evaluating how to /uantif learning. But the first and
most important /uestion to as" is:
Are teachers reaching their students:
3ere are )O things successful educators do differentl.
&. 0uccessful teachers have clear ob8ectives
3ow do ou "now if ou are driving the right wa when ou are traveling somewhere new: Nou use the
road signs and a map =although nowadas it might be 07A7 or a J;0>. 7n the world of education( our
ob8ectives for our students act as road signs to our destination. Nour plan is the map. 6a"ing a plan
does not suggest a lac" of creativit in our curriculum but rather( gives creativit a framewor" in which
to flourish.
). 0uccessful teachers have a sense of purpose
9e can5t all be blessed with UepicV wor"das all the time. 0ometimes( life is 8ust mundane and tedious.
Teachers with a sense of purpose that are able to see the big picture can ride above the hard and boring
das because their ee is on something further down the road.
+. 0uccessful teachers are able to live without immediate feedbac"
There is nothing worse than sweating over a lesson plan onl to have our students wal" out of class
without so much as a smile or a( UJreat 8ob teachWV 7t5s hard to give &**X and not see immediate results.
Teachers who rel on that instant gratification will get burned out and disillusioned. 2earning(
relationships( and education are a mess endeavor( much li"e nurturing a garden. 7t ta"es time( and some
dirt( to grow.
,. 0uccessful teachers "now when to listen to students and when to ignore them
Aight on the heels of the above tip is the concept of discernment with student feedbac". A teacher who
never listens to his/her students will ultimatel fail. A teacher who alwas listens to his/her students will
ultimatel fail. 7t is no simple endeavor to "now when to listen and adapt( and when to sa( UFo- we5re
going this wa because 7 am the teacher and 7 see the long term picture.V
O. 0uccessful teachers have a positive attitude
Fegative energ Caps creativit and it ma"es a nice breeding ground for fear of failure. Jood teachers
have an upbeat mood( a sense of vitalit and energ( and see past momentar setbac"s to the end goal.
;ositivit breeds creativit.
D. 0uccessful teachers e!pect their students to succeed
This concept is similar for parents as well. 0tudents need someone to believe in them. The need a wiser
and older person to put stoc" in their abilities. 0et the bar high and then create an environment where it5s
o"a to fail. This will motivate our students to "eep tring until the reach the e!pectation ou5ve set for
them.
-. 0uccessful teachers have a sense of humor
3umor and wit ma"e a lasting impression. 7t reduces stress and frustration( and gives people a chance to
loo" at their circumstances from another point of view. 7f ou interviewed &*** students about their
favorite teacher( 75ll bet .OX of them were hsterical.
'. 0uccessful teachers use praise authenticall
0tudents need encouragement es( but real encouragement. 7t does no good to praise their wor" when ou
"now it is onl O*X of what the are capable of. Nou don5t want to create an environment where there is
no praise or recognition@ ou want to create one where the praise that ou offer is valuable BECAE0E
ou use it 8udiciousl.
.. 0uccessful teachers "now how to ta"e ris"s
There is a wise saing that reads( UThose who go 8ust a little bit too far are the ones who "now 8ust how
far one can go.V Ais"-ta"ing is a part of the successful formula. Nour students need to see ou tr new
things in the classroom and the will watch closel how ou handle failure in our ris"-ta"ing. This is as
important as what ou are teaching.
&*. 0uccessful teachers are consistent
Consistenc is not to be confused with Ustuc".V Consistenc means that ou do what ou sa ou will do(
ou don5t change our rules based on our mood( and our students can rel on ou when the are in
need. Teachers who are stuc" in their outdated methods ma boast consistenc( when in fact it is cleverl-
mas"ed stubbornness.
&&. 0uccessful teachers are reflective
7n order to avoid becoming the stuc" and stubborn teacher( successful educators ta"e time to reflect on
their methods( their deliver( and the wa the connect with their students. Aeflection is necessar to
uncover those wea"nesses that can be strengthened with a bit of resolve and understanding.
&). 0uccessful teachers see" out mentors of their own
Aeflective teachers can easil get disheartened if the don5t have someone a bit older and wiser offering
support. Nou are never too old or wise for a mentor. 6entors can be that voice that sas( UNes our
reflections are correct(V or UFo( ou are off becauseY.V and provide ou with a different perspective.
&+. 0uccessful teachers communicate with parents
Collaboration between parents and teachers is absolutel crucial to a student5s success. Create an open
path of communication so parents can come to ou with concerns and ou can do the same. 9hen a
teacher and parents present a united front( there is a lower chance that our student will fall through the
crac"s.
&,. 0uccessful teachers en8o their wor"
7t is eas to spot a teacher who loves their wor". The seem to emanate contagious energ. Even if it on a
sub8ect li"e advanced calculus( the sub8ect comes alive. 7f ou don5t love our wor" or our sub8ect( it
will come through in our teaching. Tr to figure out wh ou feel so unmotivated and uninspired. 7t
might have nothing to do with the sub8ect( but our e!pectations. Ad8ust them a bit and ou might find
our love of teaching come flooding bac".
&O. 0uccessful teachers adapt to student needs
Classrooms are li"e an ever-evolving dnamic organism. <epending on the da( the attendance roster( and
the phase of the moon( ou might have to change up our plans or our schedule to accommodate our
students. As the grow and change( our methods might have to as well. 7f our goal is to promote a
curriculum or method( it will feel li"e a personal insult when ou have to modif it. 6a"e connecting
with our student our goal and ou5ll have no trouble changing it up as time moves on.
&D. 0uccessful teachers welcome change in the classroom
This relates to the above tip( but in a slightl different wa. 3ave ou ever been so bored with our house
or our bedroom( onl to rearrange it and have it feel li"e a new room: Change ignites the brain with
e!citement and adventure. Change our classroom to "eep our students on their toes. 0imple changes
li"e rearranging des"s and routines can breathe new life in the middle of a long ear.
&-. 0uccessful teachers ta"e time to e!plore new tools
9ith the advance of technolog( there are fresh new resources and tools that can add great functionalit to
our classroom and curriculum. There is no doubt that the students ou are teaching =far ounger than
ou> probabl alread use technologies ou haven5t tapped into et. <on5t be afraid to push for
technolog in the classroom. 7t is often an underfunded area but in this current world and climate( our
students will be growing up in a world where technolog is everwhere. Jive them a headstart and use
technolog in our classroom.
&'. 0uccessful teachers give their students emotional support
There are das when our students will need our emotional support more than a piece of information.
Connecting to our students on an emotional level ma"es it more li"el that the will listen to our
counsel and ta"e our advice to heart. 0tudents need mentors as much as the need teachers.
&.. 0uccessful teachers are comfortable with the un"nown
7t5s difficult to teach in an environment where ou don5t "now the future of our classroom budget( the
involvement of our student5s parents( or the outcome of all our hard wor". 1n a more philosophical
level( educators who teach the higher grades are tas"ed with teaching students principles that have a lot of
un"nowns =i.e. phsics>. 3ow comfortable are ou with not having all the answers: Jood teachers are
able to function without everthing tied up neatl in a bow.
)*. 0uccessful teachers are not threatened b parent advocac
Enfortunatel( parents and teachers are sometimes threatened b one another. A teacher who is insecure
will see parent advocac as a threat. 9hile there are plent of over-involved helicopter parents waiting to
point out a teacher5s mista"es( most parents 8ust want what5s best for their child. 0uccessful educators are
confident in their abilities and not threatened when parents want to get into the classroom and ma"e their
opinions "nown. Jood teachers also "now the don5t have to follow what the parent recommendsW
)&. 0uccessful teachers bring fun into the classroom
<on5t be too serious. 0ome das( UfunV should be the goal. 9hen students feel and see our humanness( it
builds a foundation of trust and respect. Bun and educational aren5t mutuall e!clusive either. Esing
humor can ma"e even the most mundane topic more interesting.
)). 0uccessful teachers teach holisticall
2earning does not happen in a vacuum. <epression( an!iet( and mental stress have a severe impact on
the educational process. 7t5s crucial that educators =and the educational model> ta"e the whole person into
account. Nou can have the funniest and most innovative lesson on algebra( but if our student has 8ust
been told his parents are getting a divorce( ou will not reach him.
)+. 0uccessful teachers never stop learning
Jood teachers find time in their schedule to learn themselves. Fot onl does it help bolster our
"nowledge in a certain sub8ect matter( it also puts ou in the position of student. This gives ou a
perspective about the learning process that ou can easil forget when ou5re alwas in teaching mode.
),. 0uccessful teachers brea" out of the bo!
7t ma be a self-made bo!. U1h 7 could never do that(V ou sa to ourself. ;erhaps ou promised ou5d
never become the teacher who would let students grade each other =mabe ou had a bad e!perience as a
"id>. 0ometimes the biggest obstacle to growth is us. 3ave ou built a bo! around our teaching
methods: Jood teachers "now when it5s time to brea" out of it.
)O. 0uccessful teachers are masters of their sub8ect
Jood teachers need to "now their craft. 7n addition to the methodolog of UteachingV( ou need to master
our sub8ect area. 2earn( learn( and never stop learning. 0uccessful educators sta curious.
This is a cross-post from opencolleges.edu.au@ image attribution flic"r user nwabr@ +* 3abits 1f 3ighl
Effective Teachers
http://www.teachthought.com/teaching/)O-things-successful-teachers-do-differentl/
https://teachingcommons.stanford.edu/resources/teaching/planning-our-approach/characteristics-
effective-teachers
Teachers
1IEAI7E9
Effective teachers appear again and again to displa certain characteristics( while ineffective teachers tend
to ma"e the same mista"es repeatedl. Below is a loo" at some of the things more effective teachers tend
to do right and less effective teachers tend to do wrong.
93AT EBBECT7IE TEAC3EA0 <1 A7J3T
Based on a scheme originall developed b 6. 3ildebrand( &.-&.
1rganiCation and Clarit
e!plains clearl
is well prepared =see ;reparing for the Birst <a>
ma"es difficult topics eas to understand
uses e!amples( details( analogies( metaphors( and variet in modes of e!planation to ma"e material not
onl understandable but memorable
ma"es the ob8ectives of the course and each class clear =see Course <esign( Course Joals and 2earning
1utcomes>
establishes a conte!t for material
Analtic/0nthetic Approach
has a thorough command of the field
contrasts the implications of various theories
gives the student a sense of the field( its past( present( and future directions( the origins of ideas and
concepts =see Consider Nour Audience>
presents facts and concepts from related fields
discusses viewpoints other than his/her own
<namism and Enthusiasm
is an energetic( dnamic person
seems to en8o teaching
conves a love of the field
has an aura of self-confidence
7nstructor-Jroup 7nteraction
can stimulate( direct( and pace interaction with the class =see 3ow to 2ead a <iscussion>
encourages independent thought and accepts criticism
uses wit and humor effectivel
is a good public spea"er =see 0pea"ing at the 3ume Center for 9riting and 0pea"ing>
"nows whether or not the class is following the material and is sensitive to students5 motivation
is concerned about the /ualit of his/her teaching
7nstructor-7ndividual 0tudent 7nteraction
is perceived as fair( especiall in his/her methods of evaluation =see 3ow to Evaluate 0tudents>
is seen b students as approachable and a valuable source of advice even on matters not directl related to
the course =see 7nteracting with 0tudents>
93AT 2E00 EBBECT7IE TEAC3EA0 <1 9A1FJ
<oing the right things with our teaching is of course critical but so is avoiding the wrong things.
Aichard 6. Belder( Forth Carolina 0tate Eniversit and Aebecca Brent( Education <esigns( 7nc.( have
come up with a list to the ten worst mista"es teachers ma"e. The are summariCed here in increasing
order of badness. Burther details and additional material can be found at Aichard Belder5s 3ome ;age.
6ista"e S&*: 9hen ou as" a /uestion in class( immediatel call for volunteers. 9hen ou do this most
students will avoid ee contact( and either ou get a response from one of the two or three who alwas
volunteer or ou answer our own /uestion
6ista"e S.: Call on students cold. 7f ou fre/uentl call on students without giving them time to thin"
=Hcold-callingH>( the ones who are intimidated b it won4t be following our lecture as much as praing
that ou don4t land on them. Even worse( as soon as ou call on someone( the others breathe a sigh of
relief and stop thin"ing.
6ista"e S': Turn classes into ;ower;oint shows. <roning through lecture notes put into ;ower;oint
slides is generall a waste of time for everone.
6ista"e S-: Bail to provide variet in instruction. Effective instruction mi!es things up: boardwor"(
multimedia( stortelling( discussion( activities( individual assignments( and group wor" =being careful to
avoid 6ista"e SD>. The more variet ou build in( the more effective the class is li"el to be.
6ista"e SD: 3ave students wor" in groups with no individual accountabilit. The wa to ma"e group
wor" wor" is cooperative learning( an e!haustivel researched instructional method that effectivel
promotes development of both cognitive and interpersonal s"ills
6ista"e SO: Bail to establish relevance. To provide better motivation( begin the course b describing how
the content relates to important technological and social problems and to whatever ou "now of the
students4 e!perience( interests( and career goals( and do the same thing when ou introduce each new
topic.
6ista"e S,. Jive tests that are too long. 7f ou want to evaluate our students4 potential to be successful
professionals( test their master of the "nowledge and s"ills ou are teaching( not their problem-solving
speed.
6ista"e S+: Jet stuc" in a rut. Things are alwas happening that provide incentives and opportunities for
improving courses. This is not to sa that ou have to ma"e ma8or revisions in our course ever time ou
give it-ou probabl don4t have time to do that( and there4s no reason to. Aather( 8ust "eep our ees open
for possible improvements ou might ma"e in the time available to ou.
6ista"e S). Teach without clear learning ob8ectives. A "e to ma"ing courses coherent and tests fair is to
write learning ob8ectives-e!plicit statements of what students should be able to do if the have learned
what the instructor wants them to learn-and to use the ob8ectives as the basis for designing lessons(
assignments( and e!ams.
6ista"e S&. <isrespect students. 7f ou give students a sense that ou don4t respect them( the class will
probabl be a bad e!perience for everone no matter what else ou do( while if ou clearl conve
respect and caring( it will cover a multitude of pedagogical sins ou might commit.
F1TE0
Aichard 6. Belder( Forth Carolina 0tate Eniversit and Aebecca Brent( Education <esigns( 7nc.
6. 3ildebrand( A.C. 9ilson( and E.A. <ienst( Evaluating Eniversit Teaching. =Ber"ele: EC Ber"ele(
Center for Aesearch and <evelopment in 3igher Education( &.-&>