3.

0 APPLICATIONS

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY.
Assume that a quantity y varies with time and that
d
d
y
ky
t
= (3.1)
for some non-zero constant k. Let ( ) .
kt
y
F t
e
= Then, by the quotient rule,
2 2
d
( )
d
d
0.
d ( )
kt kt
kt kt
kt kt
y
e y ke
F kye kye
t
t e e

= = =
Hence, ( ) F t must be a constant, say C. Thus, ( )
kt
y
F t C
e
= = i.e. ( ) .
kt
y t Ce =
To evaluate C, let 0. t = Then,
0
(0) . y Ce C = = If we let (0) y be
0
, y then
0
, C y = and the
general form of the solution of equation (3.1) is
0
( ) .
kt
y t y e = (3.2)
If 0, k > we say that y grows exponentially and k is called the growth constant.
If 0, k < we say that y decays exponentially and k is called the decay constant.
The constant
0
y is called the initial value.
There are many natural processes, such as bacterial growth or radioactive decay, which
quantities increase or decrease at an exponential rate.
HALF-LIFE. Assume that a quantity y of a certain substance decays exponentially, with decay
constant k. Let
0
y be the quantity at time 0. t = At what time T will only half of the original
quantity remain?
Let
0
( ) .
kt
y t y e = Hence, at time T,
0 0
1
2
kT
y y e =
1
2
kT
e =
Taking natural log on both sides ln2 kT = (3.3)
ln2
. T
k
= (3.4)
T is called the half-life of the substance.
If we know the value of either k or T, we can compute the value of the other. Since 0, T >
0. k < The value of k can be obtained by experiment.
Example 3.1:
Given that the half-life T of radium is 1690 years, how much will remain of one gram of radium
after 1000 years?
Solution:
From equation (3.3),
ln2
.
1690
k =
The quantity of radium is given by
(ln 2)
1690
0
.
t
y y e

= Note that
0
1. y = Substituting 1000, t = we
obtain
(ln2)(1000) 693.1
0.4101
1690 1690
0.6636 y e e e


= grams. Thus, about 663.6milligrams of
radium are left after 1000 years.
Example 3.2:
If 20% of a radioactive substance disappears in one year, find its half-life T. Assume
exponential decay.
Solution:
From equation (3.2),
(1)
0 0 0
0.8 .
k k
y y e y e = =
So, 0.8,
k
e = or
4
ln(0.8) ln( ) ln4 ln5.
5
k = = =
Thus,
ln2 ln2
3.1063
(ln4 ln5) ln5 ln4
T = =

years.
Example 3.3:
If the population of a country is 100 million people and the population is increasing
exponentially with a growth constant ln2, k = calculate precisely the population after 5 years.
Solution:
From equation (3.2), the population
8 (ln2)5 8 ln2 5 8 5 8
0
10 10 ( ) 10 (2) 32(10 ).
kt
y y e e e = = = = =
Thus, the population will reach 3.2 billion people in 5 years.
Example 3.4 (Carbon-dating):
A certain isotope
14
C of carbon occurs in living organisms in a fixed proportion to ordinary
carbon. When that organism dies, its
14
C decays exponentially, and its half-life is 5730 years.
Assume that a piece of charcoal from a wood fire was found in a cave and contains only 9% of
the
14
C expected in a corresponding piece of wood in a live tree. How long ago was the wood
burned to form that charcoal?
Solution:
If y is the amount of
14
C present in the piece of charcoal,
0
.
kt
y y e =
The present quantity
0 0
0.09 ,
k
y y e
t
= where t is the elapsed time.
Thus, 0.09 ,
k
e
t
= or ln(0.09) , kt = i.e.
ln(0.09)
.
k
t =
Since the half-life 5730 T = and
ln2 ln2
,
5730
k
T
= = we obtain
5730ln(0.09)
19906
ln2
t = years.
Example 3.5 (Newtons Law of Cooling):
The rate of change of the temperature of an object is proportional to the difference between the
objects temperature of the surrounding medium. Assume that a refrigerator is maintained at a
constant temperature of 45 F and that an object having a temperature of 80 F is placed inside
the refrigerator. If the temperature of the object drops from 80 F to 70 F in 15 minutes, how
long will it take for the objects temperature to decrease to 60 F?
Solution:
Let u be the temperature of the object. Then by Newtons Law of Cooling,
d
( 45),
d
u
k u
t
= for some (negative) constant k.
Let 45. y u = Then
dy d
.
d d
u
ky
t t
= =
Thus, by equation (3.2),
0
.
kt
y y e =
Since u is initially 80 F,
0
80 45 35. y = = So, 35 .
kt
y e =
When 15, 70 and 70 45 25. t u y = = = = Hence,
15
25 35 .
k
e =
1
(ln5 ln7).
15
k =
When the objects temperature is 60 F, 60 45 15. y = =
So,
3
15 35 ln( ) ln3 ln7.
7
kt
e kt = = =
Thus,
ln3 ln7 ln3 ln7
15 37.7727
ln5 ln7
t
k

= =

minutes.
Hence, it would take about 22.7727 minutes for the objects temperature to drop from 70 F to
60 F.

TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES.
The slope m of the tangent line at a point of the curve ( ) y f x = is
0
( ) ( )
lim ,
x
f x x f x
x
A
+ A
A

which is the derivative ( ). f x '
If 0, m= then the curve has a horizontal tangent line at that point.
In general, if the derivative of f at a point
0 0
( , ), x y then the point-slope equation of the tangent
line is
0 0
( ). y y m x x =
If f is continuous at
0
, x but
0
lim ( ) , i.e. either or ,
x x
f x

' = + then the curve has a

vertical tangent line at
0
. x
The normal line to a curve at one of its points
0 0
( , ) x y is the line that passes through the point
and is perpendicular to the tangent line at that point.
A perpendicular to a line with non-zero slope m has slope 1/ . m
Hence, if 0 m= is the slope of the tangent line, then
0 0
(1/ )( ) y y m x x = is a point-
slope equation of the normal line.
If the tangent line is horizontal, then the normal line is vertical and has equation
0
. x x =
If the tangent line is vertical, then the normal line is horizontal and has equation
0
. y y =
Example 3.6:
Find equations of the tangent and normal lines to
2 2
3 5 x xy y + + = at (1, 1).
Solution:
By implicit differentiation, 2 3( ) 2 0. x xy y yy ' ' + + + = So,
2 3
.
3 2
x y
y
x y
+
' =
+

Thus, the slope of the tangent line at (1, 1) is
2 3
1.
3 2
m
+
= =
+

So, an equation of the tangent line is 1 ( 1) y x = or 2. y x = +
An equation of the normal line is 1 1 y x = or . y x =
Example 3.7:
Find equations of the vertical lines that meet the curves
(a)
3 2
2 4 5 y x x x = + + and
(b)
3 2
3 2 9 3 3 y x x x = +
at points in which the tangent lines to the two curves are parallel.
Solution:
Let
0
x x = be such a line.
The tangent lines at
0
x have slopes:
(a)
2
1 0 0
3 4 4; m x x = +
(b)
2
2
0 0
2 0 0
6 18 3
2 6 1.
3
x x
m x x
+
= = +
The tangent lines are parallel
1 2
. m m =
Thus,
2 2
0 0 0 0
3 4 4 2 6 1 x x x x + = + or
2
0 0
2 3 0, x x = i.e.
0 0
( 3)( 1) 0. x x + =
Hence,
0 0
3 or 1. x x = =
Thus, the vertical lines are 3 and 1. x x = =

LAW OF THE MEAN, INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS.
RELATIVE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM.
A function f is said to have a relative maximum at
0
x if
0
( ) ( ) f x f x > for all x in some open
interval containing
0
x (and for which ( ) f x is defined).
A function f is said to have a relative minimum at
0
x if
0
( ) ( ) f x f x s for all x in some open
interval containing
0
x (and for which ( ) f x is defined).
By a relative extremum of f we mean either a relative maximum or a relative minimum of f.

Theorem 3.1:
If f has a relative extremum at a point
0
x at which
0
( ) f x ' is defined, then
0
( ) 0. f x ' =
Rolles Theorem:
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [ , ] a b and differentiable on the open
interval ( , ). a b Assume that ( ) ( ) 0. f a f b = = Then
0
( ) 0 f x ' = for at least one point
0
x in
( , ). a b
Generalised Rolles Theorem:
Let g be continuous on the closed interval [ , ] a b and differentiable on the open interval ( , ). a b
Assume that ( ) ( ). g a g b = Then
0
( ) 0 g x ' = for at least one point
0
x in ( , ). a b
Law of the Mean Theorem:
Let f be continuous on the closed interval [ , ] a b and differentiable on the open interval
( , ). a b Then there is at least one point
0
x in ( , ) a b for which
0
( ) ( )
( ).
f b f a
f x
b a

' =

Extended Law of the Mean Theorem:
Assume that ( ) f x and ( ) g x are continuous on [ , ] a b and differentiable on ( , ). a b Also
assume that ( ) 0 g x ' = for all x in ( , ). a b Then there exists at least one point
0
x in ( , ) a b for
which
0
0
( ) ( ) ( )
.
( ) ( ) ( )
f b f a f x
g b g a g x
'
=
'


INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS.
A function f is said to be increasing on an interval if u v < implies ( ) ( ) f u f v < for all u
and v in the interval.
Similarly, f is said to be decreasing on an interval if u v < implies ( ) ( ) f u f v > for all u
and v in the interval.
Theorem 3.2:
(a) If f ' is positive on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
(b) If f ' is negative on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.

CURVE SKETCHING.
A stationary point is a point on the curve ( ) y f x = where the gradient is zero. Since
d
d
y
x
(or
) y' is the gradient function, a stationary point is a point on the curve such that
d
0
d
y
x
= (or 0). y' =
In your lecture, the figure on the white board shows a graph of a function with stationary points,
A, B and C.
A critical number of f is a number
0
x in the domain of f such that either
0
( ) 0 f x ' = or
0
( ) f x ' is not defined.
Local (relative) maximum is a stationary point where the value of y is greater than all the
other values of y in the neighbourhood of that point.
A stationary point where the value of y is smaller than all the other values of y in the
neighbourhood of that point is called a local (relative) minimum.

SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST FOR RELATIVE EXTREMA.
Assume that
0
( ) 0 f x ' = and
0
( ) f x '' exists. Then:
1. If
0
( ) 0, f x '' < then f has a relative maximum at
0
; x
2. If
0
( ) 0, f x '' > then f has a relative minimum at
0
; x
3. If
0
( ) 0, f x '' = no conclusion can be made of what is happening at
0
. x
FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST. Assume
0
( ) 0. f x ' =
Case {+, -}: If f ' is positive in an open interval immediately to the left of
0
, x and negative in
an open interval immediately to the right of
0
, x then f has a relative maximum at
0
. x
Case {-, +}: If f ' is negative in an open interval immediately to the left of
0
, x and positive in
an open interval immediately to the right of
0
, x then f has a relative minimum at
0
. x
Case {+, +} and {-, -}: If f ' has the same sign in open intervals immediately to the left and to
the right of
0
, x then f has neither a relative maximum nor a relative maximum at
0
. x
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM. An absolute maximum of a function f on a set
S occurs at
0
x in S if
0
( ) ( ) f x f x s for all x in . S An absolute minimum of a function f
on a set S occurs at
0
x in S if
0
( ) ( ) f x f x > for all x in . S
Example 3.8:
Find the stationary points of
3 2
5 . y x x x =

Solution:
2
d
3 2 5 0 (3 5)( 1) 0
d
y
x x x x
x
= = + =
So,
5
and 1.
3
x x = =
When
3 2
5 5 5 5 175
, 5 .
3 3 3 3 27
x y
| | | | | |
= = =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

When
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
1, 1 1 5 1 3. x y = = =
Hence,
5 175
,
3 27
| |

|
\ .
and
( )
1,3 are the stationary points of
3 2
5 . y x x x =
Generally, if at , x C = a function ( ) y f x = has the property
d
0
d
y
x
= and
2
2
d
0
d
y
x
<
then we say that y has a local (relative) maximum at . x C =
Similarly, if at , x C = a function ( ) y f x = has the property
d
0
d
y
x
= and
2
2
d
0
d
y
x
>
then we say that y has a local (relative) minimum at . x C =
If ( ) 0 f x '' > for x in ( , ), a b then the graph of f is concave upward for . a x b < <
If ( ) 0 f x '' < for x in ( , ), a b then the graph of f is concave downward for . a x b < <
POINTS OF INFLECTION.
A point of inflection on a curve ( ) y f x = is a point at which the concavity changes, that is, the
curve is concave upward on one side and concave downward on the other side of the point.
If the graph of f has an inflection point at
0
x and f '' exists in an open interval containing
0
x
and f '' is continuous at
0
, x then 0. f '' =
Generally, if at , x C = a function ( ) y f x = has the property
d
0,
d
y
x
=
2
2
d
0
d
y
x
= and
2
2
d
d
y
x
changes sign close to , x C =
then the function y has a (horizontal) point of inflection at . x C =
Example 3.9:
Find the absolute maximum and minimum of
3 2
( ) 2 f x x x x = + on [0, 2].
Solution:
2
( ) 3 2 1 (3 1)( 1). f x x x x x ' = = +
Hence,
1
3
x = and 1 x = are the critical numbers. But only 1 x = is the critical number in
[0, 2].
Compare the values of f at the critical number with the endpoints 0 and 2, we get:
x
( ) f x
0 2
1 1
2 4

From the above table, the maximum value of f on [0, 2] is 4, and the minimum value is 1.
HINTS FOR SKETCHING THE GRAPH OF y = f(x).
1. Calculate , y' and, if convenient, . y''
2. Use y' to find any critical numbers (where 0, y' = or y' is undefined and y is
defined). Determine whether these critical numbers yield relative maxima or minima by
using the second derivative test or the first derivative test.
3. Use y' to determine the intervals on which y is increasing (when 0) y' > or decreasing
(when 0). y' <
4. Use y'' to determine where y' is concave upward (when 0) y' > or concave downward
(when 0) y' < . Check points where 0 y'' = to determine whether they are inflection
points (if 0 y'' > on one side and 0 y'' < on the other side of the point).
5. Look for vertical asymptotes. If
( )
,
( )
g x
y
h x
= there is a vertical asymptote
0
x x = if
0
( ) 0 h x = and
0
( ) 0. g x =
6. Look for horizontal asymptotes. If
0
lim ( ) ,
x
f x y
+
= then
0
y y = is a horizontal
asymptote on the right. If
0
lim ( ) ,
x
f x y

= then
0
y y = is a horizontal asymptote on
the left.
7. Determine the behaviour at infinity. If lim ( )
x
f x
+
= + (respectively, ), then the
curve moves upward (respectively, downward) without bound to the right. Similarly, if
lim ( )
x
f x

= + (respectively, ), then the curve moves upward (respectively,

downward) without bound to the left.
8. Find the y intercepts (where the curve cuts the y axis, that is where 0) x = and the x
intercepts (where the curve cuts the x axis, that is where 0). y =
9. Indicate any corner points, where y' approaches one value from the left and another
value from the right. An example is the origin on the graph of . y x =
10. Indicate any cusps, where y' approaches + from both sides or y' approaches
from both sides. An example is the origin on the graph of . y x =
11. Find any oblique asymptotes y mx b = + such that lim( ( ) ( )) 0
x
f x mx b
+
+ = or
lim( ( ) ( )) 0.
x
f x mx b

+ =
Example 3.10:
The energy w absorbed by a particular resistor at time t is given by
sin(2 )
5( ).
2
t
w t =
Sketch the graph of w against t for 0 2 . t t s s

Solution:
When 0, t =
sin(0)
5(0 ) 0.
2
w= = So, (0, 0) is a point on the graph.
d 2cos(2 )
5(1 ) 5(1 cos(2 )) 0
d 2
w t
t
t
= = =
1 cos(2 ) 0 t =
or cos(2 ) 1 2 0, 2 , 4 t t t t = =
i.e. 0, , 2 . t t t =
2
2
d
5(2sin(2 )) 10sin(2 ).
d
w
t t
t
= =
If 0, t =
2
2
d
10sin(0) 0.
d
w
t
= =
For 0, t < and t close to 0,
2
2
d
10sin(2 ) 0.
d
w
t
t
= <
For 0, t > and t close to 0,
2
2
d
10sin(2 ) 0.
d
w
t
t
= >
Hence, the graph has a horizontal point of inflexion at 0. t =
If , t t =
2
2
d
10sin(2 ) 0.
d
w
t
t = =
For , t t < and t close to t ,
2
2
d
10sin(2 ) 0.
d
w
t
t
= <
For , t t > and t close to t ,
2
2
d
10sin(2 ) 0.
d
w
t
t
= >
Hence, the graph has a horizontal point of inflexion at . t t =
If 2 , t t =
2
2
d
10sin(4 ) 0.
d
w
t
t = =
For 2 , t t < and t close to 2 , t
2
2
d
10sin(2 ) 0.
d
w
t
t
= <
For 2 , t t > and t close to 2 , t
2
2
d
10sin(2 ) 0.
d
w
t
t
= >
Hence, the graph has a horizontal point of inflexion at 2 . t t =
When , 5 . t w t t = =
When 2 , 10 . t w t t = =
Refer to the white board in your lecture for the graph of w.

GENERAL OPTIMIZATION.
Example 3.11:
A square of edge x metres is cut from each corner of a rectangular sheet of metal of length 5
metres by 2 metres. The remaining piece is folded to make an open box of volume V. Show that
3 2
4 14 10 . V x x x = +
Find the value of x to 2 decimal places for which the volume V is a maximum.
Solution:
The base of the box after cutting away the corners is (5 2 ) x metres by (2 2 ) x metres. The
height of the box is x. So, volume V is given by
base height (5 2 )(2 2 ) V x x x = =
2 2 3
(10 14 4 ) 10 14 4 x x x x x x = + = +
i.e.
3 2
4 14 10 . V x x x = +
2 2
d
12 28 10 0 6 14 5 0
d
V
x x x x
x
= + = + =
Using the quadratic formula
2
( 14) ( 14) 4(6)(5)
0.44 or 1.89.
2(6)
x

= =
But 1.89, x = because if 1.89, x = then the width of the base 2 2 0. x <
Putting 0.44 x = into the second derivative:
2
2
d
24 28 24(0.44) 28 0.
d
V
x
x
= <
Therefore, a square piece of edge 0.44m gives maximum volume of box.
Example 3.12:
A cylindrical container of radius r and height h holds a volume of 1 litre
3
(1000 cm ).
Show that the surface area, A is given by
2 1
2 2000 . A r r t

= +
Find the dimensions so that the surface area is a minimum (i.e. minimizing the material used).
Solution:
(Volume =
2
r h t and surface area =
2
2 2 ). r rh t t +
Since the volume is
3
1000 cm , we have
2
2
1000
1000 . r h h
r
t
t
= =
Therefore,
2 2 2 1
2
1000 2000
2 (2 ) 2 2 2000 . A r r r r r
r r
t t t t
t

= + = + = +
For stationary points, differentiate A with respect to r, and equate the result to 0:
2 3
d 2000 500
4 2000 0 .
d 4
A
r r r
r
t
t t

= = = =
Therefore,

3
500
5.42 (to 2 decimal points). r
t
= =
Putting
3
500
5.42 r
t
= = into
2
3 3
2
d
4 4000 4 4000(5.42) 0.
d
A
r
r
t t

= + + >
Thus,
3
500
5.42 cm r
t
= = gives minimum A.
Substituting 5.42 r = into
2 2
1000 1000
10.84
(5.42)
h h
r t t
= = = cm (to 2 decimal points).