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Solid Film Lubricants: A Practical Guide
Noria Corporation
Tags: industrial lubricants
It is widely believed that extreme conditions are uncommon; however nearly every
manufacturing plant has at least one application in which the operating conditions could be
characterized as extreme from a lubrication perspective. Common extremes could include high
and low shaft speeds, high and low temperatures, high pressures, concentrated atmospheric
and process contaminants, and inaccessibility.
Mineral oil-based fluid lubricants (oil and grease materials) function properly where the
designed surface areas and shaft speeds allow for the effective formation of an oil film, as
long as the machine operating temperature envelope falls between -20C and 100C (-4F to
212F). The only absolute limits that apply for fluid lubricants, regardless of the base oil type,
are conditions that cause a change in the state of the fluid that prohibits fluid film formation.
Fortunately, that is not the end of the story.
Various materials that protect interacting surfaces after the fluid film is lost have been either
discovered or created. These materials may be applied to a surface in the form of an additive
to a fluid lubricant, or in a pure form, and may also be added or alloyed into the surface when
the component is being manufactured. The more common types of materials include the
following:
Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) also known as moly
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) also known as Teflon
Graphite
Boron nitride
Talc
Calcium fluoride
Cerium fluoride
Tungsten disulfide
These materials are characterized as dry film or solid film lubricants. Moly, graphite and Teflon
are the most commonly recognized by practitioners of machinery lubrication. Molybdenum and
graphite are agents that are extracted from mined ore. Teflon was created by DuPont
Chemical Company and is manufactured by various companies for many purposes.
Dry Film Lubrication
Dry film lubricants are solid materials that provide low frictional resistance between surfaces
when applied directly to interacting surfaces. Each material has different properties.
Crystalline lattice (lamella) structure materials, such as molybdenum disulfide, tungsten
disulfide and graphite, are widely used as agents in lubricants and as stand-alone lubricants.
These materials are used independently or in combination with other agents and metals (lead,
copper) to achieve the desired results. Lamella lubricating powders have low shear forces
between their crystalline lattice layers that minimize resistance between sliding surfaces.
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Figure 1. Crystal Structure of MoS2
(Reference: Dynamic Coating, Inc.)
As seen in Figure 1, these materials have structured layers that form and interact against
other structure layers. Most dry lubrication film materials work well in dry environments and
are excellent supplemental or boundary layer materials in fluid systems.
1
The long chain fluorocarbon molecules, such as polytetrafluoroethylene, tend to have wetting
angles that promote release and prevent sticking, as well as a variety of other attractive
characteristics for high-temperature operation. This article addresses the most frequently
used dry film lubricating agents.
General Dry Lubricant Properties
Each dry lubricating material has different properties.
Molybdenum disulfide, graphite and tungsten disulfide are oilioscopic. Their structure is unable
to tolerate detergents. These layer lattice lamella structures are analogous to stacks of
nonadherent plates which, with slight tangential loading, slip out of place. It is comparable to
walking across a room full of flat slippery plates. The lamella materials have good load-bearing
capacity in sliding and rolling mode. Graphite has high-temperature capability and functions
well in radiation atmospheres. MoS2 and WS2 function well in hard vacuum and tolerate higher
loads better than graphite.
2
Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2)
Molybdenum was not discovered until the latter part of the 18th century, and does not occur
in the metallic form in nature. Despite this, its predominant mineral - molybdenite - was used
in ancient times (a 14th-century Japanese sword has been found to contain molybdenum) but
would have been indistinguishable from other similar materials such as lead, galena and
graphite. Collectively, these substances were known by the Greek word molybdos, which
means lead-like.
Molybdenum was first positively identified in 1778 by a Swedish scientist, Carl Wilhelm
Scheele. Shortly thereafter, in 1782, Peter Jacob Hjelm reduced molybdenite oxide with
carbon to obtain a dark metallic powder which he named molybdenum.
Molybdenum remained a laboratory curiosity throughout most of the 19th century until the
technology for the extraction of commercial quantities became practical. In 1891, the French
company Schneider and Co. first used molybdenum as an alloying element in the production of
armor plates. It was quickly noted that molybdenum was an effective replacement for
tungsten in numerous steel alloying applications because its density is only slightly more than
half that of tungsten.
MoS2 occurs naturally in the form of thin solid veins within granite. It is mined and highly
refined to achieve purity suitable for lubricants. MoS2 has a hexagonal crystalline structure as
shown in Figure 1. The intrinsic property of easy shear occurs at the interface between the
sulfur molecules. The interaction between layers provides an effect similar to what a person
may experience if trying to maneuver across a floor completely covered with brand new
playing cards. Each playing card slides easily with respect to each individual layer. As the
total surface resistance is reduced or redistributed among many other interacting surfaces,
the net effect is reduced total surface friction and resistance.
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Because there is no vapor present between lattice plates, MoS2 is effective in high-vacuum
conditions, where graphite will not work. The particle size and film thickness are important
parameters that should be matched to the surface roughness of the lubricated component.
Particle size selection is much larger for rough cut surfaces, such as hobbed open gears, than
for highly finished surfaces, such as those found on bearings. Improperly matched particle
sizes may result in excessive wear by abrasion caused by impurities in the MoS2.
The temperature limitation of MoS2 at 400C (752F) is imposed by oxidation. MoS2 oxidizes
slowly in atmospheres up to 600F. In a dry, oxygen-free atmosphere it can function as a
lubricant up to 1300F. The oxidation products of MoS2 are molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) and
sulfur dioxide. MoS3 is hydroscopic and causes many of the friction problems in standard
atmosphere. MoO3 is a preferred form of the metal used as an additive for various other
metals, which is its primary use.
The issue of where molybdenum disulfide should be used, versus graphite or tungsten
disulfide, is generally best addressed by a lubrication engineer. For most commercial
applications, these are relatively simple judgments. In aerospace applications where unique
environments and exotic materials are employed, these questions often take substantial
research to provide the best answers.
3
The low friction coefficients of MoS2 often exceed that of graphite.
Graphite
Graphite as a lubricant dates to antiquity. It was first referenced in the mid-1500s as being
used as pencils. Graphite is a soft, crystalline form of carbon. It is gray to black, opaque, has
a metallic luster, and is flexible but not elastic. Graphite occurs naturally in metamorphic rocks
such as marble, schist and gneiss. It exhibits the properties of a metal and a nonmetal, which
makes it suitable for many industrial applications. The metallic properties include thermal and
electrical conductivity. The nonmetallic properties include inertness, high thermal resistance
and lubricity. Some of the major end uses of graphite are in high-temperature lubricants,
brushes for electrical motors, friction materials, and battery and fuel cells.
4
Graphite is a layer lattice lamella crystal structure where the bonds between the carbon
atoms in the crystal structure of the layer are stronger than the carbon bonds between
layers. Graphite is comprised of carbon and water vapor. Each carbon atom is bonded to three
other surrounding carbon atoms. The flat rings of carbon atoms are bonded into hexagonal
structures, as shown in Figure 2. The hexagonal carbon structure is referred to as a benzene
ring. These plates exist in layers, which are not covalently connected to the surrounding
layers.
Figure 2. Graphite Lamella Lattice Structure
(Reference: Dynamic Coating, Inc.)
Graphite has excellent lubricating properties, as long as moisture vapor is available, and will
function as a lubricant up to approximately 1450F, and as a release and antiseize up to
about 2400F. The oxidation product is CO2. Due to the requirement for entrained moisture
vapor, graphite does not function well as a lubricant in a hard vacuum and is therefore seldom
used in deep-space applications.
5
Graphite blends and pure graphite dry film lubricant systems are commonly used in applications
such as hot and cold forming, wire drawing and billet coatings; on high-speed cutting tools;
as a mold release for die cast, plastic and rubber mold applications; cylinder head and exhaust
bolts; ammunition and armament applications; automotive engine and many common industrial
applications.
Figure 3. Graphite Ore

Figure 4. Teflon Molecular Structure
Long Chain Fluorocarbon - Teflon

The linear long chain molecule polytetrafluoroethylene, was accidentally discovered by Dr.
Roy Plunkett on April 6, 1938, at DuPonts Jackson Laboratory in New Jersey. Plunkett was
working with gases related to Freon

refrigerants (also known as chlorofluorocarbons),

another DuPont product. Upon checking a frozen, compressed sample of tetrafluoroethylene,
he discovered that the sample had polymerized spontaneously into a white, waxy solid to form
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
6
The chemical formula is [C2F4] N. PTFE is a saturated aliphatic fluorocarbon.
Figure 5
Figure 6
PTFE does not have mechanical occlusion characteristics similar to graphite or molybdenum. In
fact, Teflon itself resists wetting, and the surfaces coated with these materials likewise resist
wetting. For surfaces to bond with PTFE and the variety of other long chain fluorocarbons, it
is necessary for them to be properly prepared through surface roughing or pickling.
PTFE is inert to virtually all chemicals and is considered the most slippery material in
existence. The coefficient of static and dynamic friction is nearly equal to the level of wet ice
on wet ice. As DuPont registered trademark Teflon

, it has become a household name

associated with its use as a coating on cookware and as a soil and stain repellant for fabrics
and textile products. It does not absorb water, and is unaffected by acids, bases and
solvents normal to industry at temperatures less than 500F.
Figure 7
Various fillers can be added to PTFE to enhance certain characteristics, such as glass fiber
(high wear resistance, good electrical, low friction), graphite (low friction, excellent chemical
resistance, high creep resistance), carbon fiber (high wear resistance, high load resistance,
high bend resistance), glass fiber and molybdenum disulfide (high wear resistance, low friction,
high creep resistance), and bronze (high wear resistance, heat dissipation). In some
industries, such as the bearing pad industry, filled PTFE has become the standard, where
various percentages of glass fiber are added to the base PTFE resin to create an extremely
tough, weatherproof, interface material that can be cut or stamped into configurations to
match the dimensions of the opposing surfaces.
7
PTFE is licensed to many manufacturing firms
for a variety of material types.
Solid film lubricants offer protection beyond the normal properties of most mineral and
synthetic oil-based fluid lubricants. Conditions that warrant the use of these agents in a pure
form, or as an additive, include extremes of temperature, pressure, chemical and
environmental contamination. Some agents have a strong affinity for metallic surfaces, and
will adhere to those surfaces through loose covalent forces. These may be applied directly as

a topical coating or indirectly in the form of an additive to a fluid lubricant. Some agents have
no natural attractiveness to metallic surfaces, and therefore must be bonded to the surface
through specialized treatment.
The solid lubricating materials tend to have upper temperature ranges well above the surface-
protecting capabilities of mineral and most synthetic base stocks. Fluorinated hydrocarbons
are stable in liquid or solid form to roughly 600F, but will begin to degrade and may produce
noxious fumes at that temperature. Graphite and molybdenum can operate in a similar
temperature range, and molybdenum disulfide can also function in a vacuum without losing its
slippery property.
References
1. Kleimann, Colonel. Dynamic Coatings, Inc.
2. Kleimann, Colonel. Dynamic Coatings, Inc.
3. Climax Molybdenum Company.
4. Kleimann, Colonel. Dynamic Coatings, Inc.
5. U.S. Geological Survey.
6. Dupont Corporation.
7. Fluoropolymer Products.
Machinery Lubrication (3/2006)
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