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SOLUTION

FINAL EXAM IN COURSE TPG4150 RESERVOIR RECOVERY TECHNIQUES

Monday December 12, 2011

Time: 0900-1300













Allowed material: -Type-approved calculator, with empty memory, according to
NTNUs list of approved calculators is allowed.
-No printed or hand-written materials permitted.



The grading will be ready on January 6, 2012

TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 2 of 14
Symbols used are defined in the enclosed table


Question 1 (10 points)

This question relates to the Gullfaks project work.

a) Please outline (briefly) the process of investigation of the K1/K2 segment of the Gullfaks field
using Material Balance analysis.
By use of MBE based on the volumes and reservoir rock and fluid properties of the
K1/K2 segment, and the reported production and injection data, the theoretical
pressure development may be compared with the real (reported) pressure
development, and thus give insight into the communication between the segment and
the surrounding reservoir.
b) What type of measured parameters, both initially and during production, are normally available
for a real reservoir system
Reservoir rock and fluid properties, initial volumes and fault communication estimates,
production and injection rates, and wellhead pressures.
c) Based on your experience of the project work, list the major uncertainties normally encountered
when addressing a real reservoir system.
Effective reservoir volumes (pore volume, oil, gas cap, water volumes)
fault communication
communication with surrounding reservoir
aquifer strength

Question 2 (15 points) - 2-2008

Write or derive an expression (equation or text) that defines each of the following terms (see list of
symbols at the back):
d) Formation volume factor
e) Solution gas-oil ratio
f) Fluid compressibility
g) Pore compressibility
h) Total reservoir compressibility
i) Expansion volume (approximate) due to compressibility and pressure change
j) Real gas law for hydrocarbon gas
k) Reservoir oil density
l) Reservoir gas density
m) Reservoir water density
n) Relationship between oil compressibility (undersaturated) and formation volume factor
o) An expression for gas compressibility using the real gas law
p) What do we mean with "microscopic" and "macroscopic" recovery factors?
q) How can we improve the "microscopic" recovery of a reservoir?
r) How can we improve the "macroscopic" recovery of a reservoir?

solution---15x1 points---
a) Formation volume factor

B =
(res.vol.)
(st.vol.)

TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 3 of 14
b) Solution gas-oil ratio

R
so
=
(st.vol. gas)
(st.vol. oil)

c) Fluid compressibility c
f
= !
1
V
f
(
"V
f
"P
)
T

d) Pore compressibility c
r
=
1
!
(
"!
"P
)
T

e) Total reservoir compressibility c
T
= c
r
+ c
i
i =o, w, g
!
S
i

f) Expansion volume (approximate) due to compressibility
!V = V
2
"V
1
# "V
1
c(P
2
" P
1
)
g) Real gas law for hydrocarbon gas PV = nZRT
h) Reservoir oil density !
oR
=
!
oS
+ !
gS
R
so
B
o

i) Reservoir gas density !
gR
=
!
gS
B
g

j) Reservoir water density !
wR
=
!
wS
B
w

k) Relationship between oil compressibility (undersaturated) and formation volume factor


C
o
= !
1
V
o
dV
o
dP
, and V
o
= V
oS
B
o
Thus, C
o
= !
1
B
o
dB
o
dP

l) An expression for gas compressibility using the real gas law

C
g
= !
1
V
g
dV
g
dP
, and PV
g
= nZRT
Thus, C
g
=
1
P
!
1
Z
dZ
dP

m) What do we mean with "microscopic" and "macroscopic" recovery factors?
microscopic is related to the end point residual saturation, as seen on relative
permeability curves
macroscopic is related to large-scale recovery factors mainly influenced by layering,
heterogeneity, well coverage, etc.
n) How can we improve the "microscopic" recovery of a reservoir?
By reducing interfacial tension between rock and fluids, eg. by surfactant additions to
the injection water
o) How can we improve the "macroscopic" recovery of a reservoir?
By better volumetric sweep, through better well coverage, blocking of thief zones, etc.


Question 3 (13 points)

For displacement of oil by water in a reservoir cross-section, answer following questions:

Solution---13x1 points---
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 4 of 14

a) What does the term "segregated flow" mean, and which factors determine this flow condition?
Fluids separate according to density, and the flow is segregated flow if gravity gradients
dominate the flow
ie.

g!" >>
#P
#x

b) What does the term "diffuse flow" mean, and which factors determine this flow condition?
Fluids do not separate according to density, and the flow is diffuse flow if dynamic
pressure gradients dominate the flow
ie.

!P
!x
>> g"# (leads to uniform saturation distribution vertically)
c) What does the term "vertical equilibrium" mean in reservoir analysis, and when is it a realistic
assumption?
Fluids segregate vertically immediately (in accordance with capillary pressure), and may
be realistic in high-permeability reservoirs with small dynamic gradients
ie.

g!! >>
"P
"x
(the ultimate segregated flow)
May be a reasonable assumption in high permeability reservoirs where
dynamic gradiens are small and vertical segregation takes place quickly
d) Sketch typical saturation profiles (in vertical direction) for diffuse flow conditions and
segregated flow conditions.














e) What does the term "piston displacement" mean in reservoir analysis, and when is it a realistic
assumption?
All movable oil is displaced immediately; require a very low mobility ratio
f) What is the Dykstra-Parsons method used for, and which assumptions are made for the method?
Displacement in layered systems without communication
Assumptions
o Constant pressure drop for all layers
o piston displacement
o capillary pressure negligible
o No communication between layers
g) For a real reservoir, how realistic is the Dykstra-Parsons method?
piston displacement requires a very favourable mobility ratio, and gravity segregation
within layers may be significant. Also, communication between layers may be
significant
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 5 of 14
h) What is the Buckley-Leverett method used for, and which assumptions are made for the
method?
Displacement calculations under diffuce flow conditions
Assumptions
o diffuse flow conditions
o no capillary dispursion at front
o incompressible fluids
i) For a real reservoir, how realistic is the Buckley-Leverett method?
For a high-permeability reservoir the condition of diffuse flow may not be realistic
j) What is the Dietz method used for, and which assumptions are made for the method?
stable displacement in inclined systems
Assumptions
o vertical equilibrium
o piston displacement
o negligible capillary pressure
k) For a real reservoir, how realistic is the Dietz method?
instant vertical segregation of fluids may not be realistic for medium to low-permebility
reservoirs
l) What is the Vertical Equilibrium (VE) method used for, and which assumptions are made for
the method?
It is used for recovery calculations assuming instant segregation of fluids, ie. that the
vertical saturation distribution is known
Assumptions
o instant segregation of fluids
o

g!! >>
"P
"x

m) For a real reservoir, how realistic is the VE method?
It requires instant segregation of fluids, which may not be realistic in medium to low-
permeability reservoir


Question 4 (12 points)

a) Sketch a typical Dietz analysis displacement situation. Include interface, angles and flow
direction

!

!

TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 6 of 14
b) Sketch a typical Dykstra-Parsons analysis displacement situation. Include layers, fluid fronts
and flow direction



c) Sketch a typical Buckley-Leverett analysis displacement situation. Include a typical saturation
distribution profile.

S w
x
Typical
saturation
profile

layer 1: h
1
!
1
k
1
"S
1
M
1

layer 2 : h
2
!
2
k
2
"S
2
M
2

layer N: h
N
!
N
k
N
"S
N
M
N

P
1

P
2

L

Water
injection

Oil and water
production
fluid front position
depends on layer
properties
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 7 of 14
d) Sketch a typical Vertical Equilibrium (VE) displacement situation. Include a typical vertical
saturation distribution profile.


Question 5 (10 points)

For the two situations below (i and ii) please derive expressions for surface gas production, surface
water production, and surface oil production. You may neglect capillary pressures.

i) ii)

Cur
rent
WO
C
Water
saturation
De
pth
Typical VE
saturation
distribution
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 8 of 14

solution:

i) (4 points) Oil in stock-tank: Q
oR
/ B
o

Surface volume of gas: Q
oR
R
so
/ B
o

Surface volume of water: 0.
ii) (6 points) Oil in stock-tank: Q
oR
/ B
o

Surface volume of gas: solution gas + free gas = Q
oR
R
so
/B
o
+
k
rg

g
k
ro
B
g
!
"
#
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
&

Surface volume of water: = Q
oR
k
rw

w
k
ro
B
w


Question 6 (12 points)

a) List all steps and formulas/equations/definitions used in the derivation of a (one-phase) fluid
flow equation.
Continuity equation
Darcys equation (velocity as function of pressure)
Fluid description (density as function of pressure)
Pore description (porosity as function of pressure)

Which coordinate systems are used for the following flow equations?
b)

!
2
P
!x
2
= (
"c
k
)
!P
!t
Cartesian (linear)
c)

1
r
!
!r
r
!P
!r
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
= (
(c
k
)
!P
!t
Cylindrical (radial)
d)

1
r
2
!
!r
r
2
!P
!r
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
= (
(c
k
)
!P
!t
Spherical
e) Which two main types of boundary conditions are normally used to represent reservoir fluid
production and injection?
Bottom hole pressure specified
Production rate specified
f) Write the steady-state form of equation d) above, and solve for pressure as a function of
radius for boundary conditions

P(r = r
e
) = P
e
and

P( r = r
w
) = P
w


TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 9 of 14


!
!r
r
2
!P
!r
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
= 0 ( r
2
!P
!r
= A (
!P
!r
=
A
r
2
( P = )
A
r
+ B
P(r = r
e
) = P
e
= )
A
r
e
+ B
P(r = r
w
) = P
w
= )
A
r
w
+ B
*
+
,
,
-
,
,
A =
P
e
) P
w
1
r
w
)
1
r
e
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
, B = P
e
)
P
e
) P
w
1
r
w
)
1
r
e
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
r
e
P = P
e
)
P
e
) P
w
1
r
w
)
1
r
e
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
1
r
)
1
r
e
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'


Question 7 (22 points)

The general form of the Material Balance Equation may be written as (se attached definitions of the
symbols used):


N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
! R
so2
( )
B
g2 [ ]
+ W
p
B
w2
=
N B
o2
! B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
! R
so2
( )
B
g2
+ mB
o1
B
g2
B
g1
! 1
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
! 1+ m
( )
B
o1
C
r
+C
w
S
w1
1! S
w1
P
2
! P
1
( )
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
+ W
i
+ W
e
( )
B
w2
+G
i
B
g2


a) What is the primary assumption behind the use of the Material Balance Equation, and which
"driving mechanisms" or "energies" are included in the equation?

solution--- 4 p ---
Primary assumption: Zero-dimensional system
(homogeneous system/no flow inside reservoir)
Driving mechanisms: -Expansion/contraction of reservoir fluids (including gas cap)
-Expansion/contraction of reservoir rock
-Aquifer influx
-Gas/water injection

b) Reduce the equation and find the expression for oil recovery factor (

N
p
/ N ) for the following
reservoir system:
The reservoir is originally 100% saturated with oil at a pressure higher than the bubble point
pressure
The production stream consists of oil and gas
No injection of fluids
No aquifer

solution--- 4 p ---
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 10 of 14

N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
! R
so2
( )
B
g2 [ ]
+ W
p
B
w2
=
N B
o2
! B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
! R
so2
( )
B
g2
+ mB
o1
B
g2
B
g1
! 1
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
! 1+ m
( )
B
o1
C
r
+C
w
S
w1
1! S
w1
P
2
! P
1
( )
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
+ W
i
+ W
e
( )
B
w2
+G
i
B
g2



! N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
" R
so2
( )
B
g 2
[ ]
= N B
o2
" B
o1
( ) + R
so1
" R
so2
( )B
g2
" B
o1
C
r
P
2
" P
1
( )
[ ]
RF =
N
p
N
=
B
o2
" B
o1
( ) + R
so1
" R
so2
( )B
g2
" B
o1
C
r
P
2
" P
1
( )
B
o2
+ R
p
" R
so2
( )
B
g 2


c) Simplify the expression in b) for the following situations:
i) P
2
! P
bp

ii) P
2
< P
bp
, c
r
and c
w
may be neglected
solution--- 2 p ---
P
2
! P
bp


N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
! R
so2
( )
B
g2
[ ]
= N B
o2
! B
o1
( ) + R
so1
! R
so2
( )B
g 2
! B
o1
C
r
P
2
! P
1
( )
[ ]


! RF =
N
p
N
=
B
o1
B
o2
B
o2
B
o1
"1
#
$
%
&
'
(
" C
r
P
2
" P
1
( )
)
*
+
,
-
.

solution--- 2 p ---
P
2
< P
bp
, c
r
and c
w
may be neglected

N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
! R
so2
( )
B
g2 [ ]
= N B
o2
! B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
! R
so2
( )
B
g 2
! B
o1
C
r
P
2
! P
1
( )
[ ]
" RF =
N
p
N
=
B
o2
! B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
! R
so2
( )
B
g 2
B
o2
+ R
p
! R
so2
( )
B
g2 [ ]



d) Make the following sketches for the reservoir in b):

A typical curve for GOR vs. time for the reservoir . Explain details of the curve.

solution--- 3 p ---


GOR
time

P > P
bp
S
g
= 0

R
so
(P > P
bp
)

S
g
< S
gc

P < P
bp
S
g
> 0
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 11 of 14
A typical curve for oil recovery factor,

N
p
/ N , vs. cumulative gas-oil ratio,

R
p
. Explain
details of the curve.

solution--- 4 p ---

RF =
N
p
N
=
B
o2
! B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
! R
so2
( )
B
g2
! B
o1
C
r
P
2
! P
1
( )
B
o2
+ R
p
! R
so2
( )
B
g 2
" RF =
A
B + R
p
(for a given set of P
1
and P
2
)



e) Reduce the equation for the following reservoir system:
The reservoir is originally at bubble point pressure and has a gas cap
The production stream consists of oil and gas
No injection of fluids
No aquifer

solution--- 2 p ---


N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
! R
so2
( )
B
g2 [ ]
+ W
p
B
w2
=
N B
o2
! B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
! R
so2
( )
B
g2
+ mB
o1
B
g2
B
g1
! 1
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
! 1+ m
( )
B
o1
C
r
+C
w
S
w1
1! S
w1
P
2
! P
1
( )
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
+ W
i
+ W
e
( )
B
w2
+G
i
B
g2



! N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
" R
so2
( )
B
g 2 [ ]
=
N B
o2
" B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
" R
so2
( )
B
g2
+ mB
o1
B
g 2
B
g1
"1
#
$
%
&
'
(
" 1 + m ( )B
o1
C
r
+ C
w
S
w1
1" S
w1
P
2
" P
1
( )
)
*
+
,
-
.


RF
R
p


RF @ R
p
= R
so1

RF =
A
B + R
p
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 12 of 14
f) Make the following sketches:
A typical curve for reservoir pressure vs. time for a large gas cap.
A typical curve for reservoir pressure vs. time for a small gas cap.

solution--- 2 p ---


g) Reduce the equation for the following reservoir system:
The reservoir is originally at a pressure higher than the bubble point pressure and
contains oil and water
The production stream consists of oil, water and gas
No injection of fluids
Water flows into the reservoir from an aquifer.

solution--- 2 p ---


N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
! R
so2
( )
B
g2 [ ]
+ W
p
B
w2
=
N B
o2
! B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
! R
so2
( )
B
g2
+ mB
o1
B
g2
B
g1
! 1
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
! 1+ m
( )
B
o1
C
r
+C
w
S
w1
1! S
w1
P
2
! P
1
( )
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
+ W
i
+ W
e
( )
B
w2
+G
i
B
g2



! N
p
B
o2
+ R
p
" R
so2
( )
B
g2
#
$
%
&
'
(
+W
p
B
w2
= N B
o2
" B
o1
( )
+ R
so1
" R
so2
( )
B
g2
" B
o1
C
r
+C
w
S
w1
1"S
w1
P
2
" P
1
( )
+W
e
B
w2
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(


P
time
Large gas cap
Small gas cap
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 13 of 14
h) Make the following sketches:
A typical curve for reservoir pressure vs. time for a reservoir with a strong aquifer.
A typical curve for reservoir pressure vs. time for a reservoir with a weak aquifer.
Please indicate a (relative) point where the bubble point pressure is crossed.

solution--- 2 p ---



Question 8 (6 points)

Applying Dietz' stability analysis to displacement of oil by water or by gas in an inclined layer
(angle !), we may derive the following formula for the angle (") between the fluid interface and the
layer:


tan(!) = tan(") +
1# M
e
M
e
N
ge
cos(")

where the gravity number is defined as


N
ge
=
( ! k
ro
/
o
)kA"#
q
inj

and

M
e
is the end-point mobility ratio, both computed using endpoint relative permeabilities.

a) What is the criterion for the stability of the fluid front?
solution

! > 0
b) When is the front completely stable (in the equation above)?
solution

M
e
! 1
c) When is the front conditionally stable?
solution

M
e
> 1
P
time
Strong aquifer
Weak aquifer
P=P
b
p

P=P
b
p

TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques
Final exam 12.12.11


Page 14 of 14
Attachment - Definition of symbols

B
g
Formation volume factor for gas (res.vol./st.vol.)
B
o
Formation volume factor for oil (res.vol./st.vol.)
B
w
Formation volume factor for water (res.vol./st.vol.)
C
r
Pore compressibility (pressure
-1
)
C
w

Water compressibility (pressure
-1
)
!P

P P
2 1
!
G
i
Cumulative gas injected (st.vol.)
GOR

Producing gas-oil ratio (st.vol./st.vol.)
G
p
Cumulative gas produced (st.vol.)

k Absolute permeability

k
ro
Relative permeability to oil

k
rw
Relative permeability to oil

k
rg
Relative permeability to oil
m

Initial gas cap size (res.vol. of gas cap)/(res.vol. of oil zone)

M
e
End point mobility ratio

N
Original oil in place (st.vol.)

N
ge
Gravity number
N
p
Cumulative oil produced (st.vol.)

P Pressure

P
cow
Capillary pressure between oil and water

P
cog
Capillary pressure between oil and gas

q
inj
Injection rate (res.vol./time)
R
p
Cumulative producing gas-oil ratio (st.vol./st.vol) = G N
p p
/
R
so
Solution gas-oil ratio (st.vol. gas/st.vol. oil)
S
g
Gas saturation
S
o
Oil saturation
S
w
Water saturation
T

Temperature
V
b
Bulk volume (res.vol.)
V
p
Pore volume (res.vol.)
WC

Producing water cut (st.vol./st.vol.)
W
e
Cumulative aquifer influx (st.vol.)
W
i
Cumulative water injected (st.vol.)
W
p

Cumulative water produced (st.vol.)
!
Density (mass/vol.)
!

Porosity

g
Gas viscosity

o
Oil viscosity

w
Water viscosity
!
Hydrostatic pressure gradient (pressure/distance)