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Chapter 4
Introduction to Education
1. INTRODUCTION
The hi stor y of educati on i s bel i ev ed to be as ol d as the hi stor y of
manki nd. Av ai l abl e l i ter atur e suggests that f or mal educati on i n
the f or m of school i ng was star ted i n Egy pt between 3000 and 500
BC. The hi stor y of educati on i s the hi stor y of manki nd because
human bei ngs pass knowl edge, ski l l s, and atti tude f r om one
gener ati on to the other .
Educati on i s a key f actor of the pr osper i ty and dev el opment of a
nati on. Wel l -educated ci ti zens hav e potenti al s f or the gr owth and
pr osper i ty of a countr y . Educati on i s consi der ed the key to success
and gr owth i n the l i f e of a per son.
Being educated i s qui te di f f er ent f r om being informed or
literate. A per son who has compl eted gr aduati on or any degr ee
f r om f or mal educati onal sy stem may be consi der ed as i nf or med or
l i ter ate but not necessar i l y educated. Bei ng an educated
per son means y ou ar e abl e to per cei v e accur atel y , thi nk cl ear l y ,
and act wi sel y to achi ev e sel f -sel ected goal s and aspi r ati ons.
Educati on deter mi nes the way of thi nki ng and doi ng thi ngs.
Ther ef or e, becomi ng l i ter ate, getti ng a degr ee, and gai ni ng
knowl edge i s not educati on.
2. DEFINITION AND MEANING OF EDUCATION
The meani ng of educati on i n common usage i s del i v er y of
knowl edge, ski l l s and v al ues f r om teacher s to students. Thi s
meani ng of educati on i s i ncompl ete because educati on i s not
mer el y the del i v er y of knowl edge and ski l l s to the students; r ather
i t i s the pr ocess of becomi ng an educated per son.
Ety mol ogi cal l y , the wor d educati on i s der i v ed f r om Lati n wor d
educare (means br i ng up), whi ch i s r el ated to educere (means
br i ng f or th what i s wi thi n) and ducere (means to l ead). In
Sanskr i t l anguage, Shiksha or Vidhya wor ds ar e used to r ef er
educati on, whi ch means to di sci pl i ne and to know, r especti v el y .
2.1. Narrow Meaning of Education
The nar r ow meani ng of educati on i s that i t i s pr ov i ded under the
pr emi ses of school s, col l eges, and uni v er si ti es. It doesnt i ncl ude
the educati on that takes pl ace outsi de of the f our wal l s of
educati onal i nsti tuti on.
2.2. Broader Meaning of Education
In i ts br oad per specti v e, educati on i s uni v er sal , not bounded wi th
pl ace and ti me. One can obtai n educati on f r om any wher e, any ti me
other than the educati onal i nsti tute. It i s the l i f el ong pr ocess
whi ch star ts f r om cr adl e and ends to the gr av e.
Educati on i s not meant by the sy l l abus that i s bei ng taught i n
educati onal i nsti tuti ons. It i s nei ther the f or mul as nor the
pr acti cal ; r ather i t i s a way to go ahead and achi ev e y ou. To achi ev e
y our sel f means the tr ue meani ng of y our bei ng and the whol e
pur pose of y our l i f e. It i s a way that makes our l i f e si mpl e and
better by pr ov i di ng the power of sel f -deci si on.

Plants are developed by cultivation and men by
education.
Unknown
Education starts from the cradle and ends to the grave.

Communication and Nursing Education

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2.3. Definition of Education
Some of the gr eat phi l osopher s and educati oni st def i ned educati on
as f ol l ows:
Tagor e def i ned educati on as Enabl i ng the mi nd to f i nd out the
ul ti mate tr uth whi ch emanci pates us f r om the bondage of dust.
Mahatma Gandhi def i ned educati on as mental , mor al , soci al ,
phy si cal and i ntel l ectual dev el opment of chi l dr en. Educati on i s
the al l -r ound dev el opment and dr awi ng out the best i n the chi l d's
mi nd, body , and spi r i t. It i s the pr ocess that begi ns r i ght f r om the
mother 's womb.
Ar i stotl e v i ewed educati on as cr eati on of sound mi nd i n sound
body .
John Dewey def i ned educati on as the dev el opment of al l the
acti v i ti es i n the i ndi v i dual enabl i ng hi m to contr ol hi s
env i r onment.

Education is what remains, afterone has forgotten what
one has learned in school
Albert Einstein
Some educati oni sts def i ned educati on i n the contex t of i ts
pur poses. Accor di ng to Ayn Rand, The onl y pur pose of educati on i s
to teach a student how to l i v e hi s l i f e by dev el opi ng hi s mi nd and
equi ppi ng hi m to deal wi th r eal i ty . The tr ai ni ng he needs i s
theor eti cal , i .e., conceptual . He has to be taught to thi nk, to
under stand, to i ntegr ate, to pr ov e. He has to be taught the essenti al s
of the knowl edge di scov er ed i n the past and he has to be equi pped to
acqui r e f ur ther knowl edge by hi s own ef f or t. Si mi l ar l y , Eric
Hoffer mai ntai ned The centr al task of educati on i s to i mpl ant a
wi l l and f aci l i ty f or l ear ni ng; i t shoul d pr oduce not l ear ned but
l ear ni ng peopl e. The tr ul y human soci ety i s a l ear ni ng soci ety ,
wher e gr andpar ents, par ents, and chi l dr en ar e students together .
3. AIMS OF EDUCATION
The f i r st and f or emost ai m of educati on i s to ensur e the pr ogr essi v e
dev el opment of natur al abi l i ti es i n a chi l d. Many educati oni st and
phi l osopher s emphasi zed that the mai n ai m of educati on i s to r oot
mor al v al ues i n the chi l dr en as i t wi l l hel p them i n hav i ng
super i or i deas and better v i si on of l i v i ng thei r l i f e. Gandhi ji
env i si oned that educati on shoul d hel p i n the f or mati on of good
char acter i n a per son. Educati on al so has a soci al ai m of maki ng
i ndi v i dual s r esponsi bl e towar d the soci ety .
Ral ph Ty l er summar i zed the ai ms of educati on as:
1. Dev el opi ng sel f -r eal i zati on,
2. Maki ng i ndi v i dual s l i ter ate,
3. Encour agi ng soci al mobi l i ty ,
4. Pr ov i di ng the ski l l s and under standi ng necessar y f or
pr oducti v e empl oy ment,
5. Fur ni shi ng tool s r equi r ed f or maki ng ef f ecti v e choi ces
r egar di ng mater i al and nonmater i al thi ngs and
ser v i ces,
6. Fur ni shi ng the tool s necessar y f or conti nued l ear ni ng.
Ronal d Dol l menti oned the ai ms of educati on as per the v ar i ous
di mensi ons of human l i f e:
I ntellectual dimension: Educati on f ocuses on the
acqui si ti on and compr ehensi on of knowl edge, pr obl em
sol v i ng, ski l l s, and v ar i ous l ev el s and methods of thi nki ng.
Socialpersonal dimension: Educati on i s concer ned wi th
per son-to-soci ety , per son-to-per son, and per son-to-
i nter acti ons. These ai ms al so subsume the emoti onal and
psy chol ogi cal aspects of i ndi v i dual s and thei r adapti v e
aspects wi th r egar d to home, f ami l y , chur ch, and l ocal
communi ty .
Productive dimension: Educati on center s on those aspects of
educati on that al l ow the i ndi v i dual to f uncti on i n the
home, on the job, and as a ci ti zen and member of the l ar ger
soci ety .
Physical dimension: Educati on ai ms to dev el op and
mai ntai n str ong and heal thy bodi es.
Aesthetic dimension: Educati on ai ms to hel p an i ndi v i dual
i n deal i ng wi th v al ues and appr eci ati on of the ar ts.
Moral dimension: Educati on ai ms to hel p an i ndi v i dual i n
deal i ng wi th v al ues and behav i or that r ef l ect appr opr i ate
behav i or .
Spiritual dimension: Educati on ai ms to hel p an i ndi v i dual
i n deal i ng wi th the r ecogni ti on and bel i ef i n the di v i ne and
the v i ew of tr anscendence.
The one real object of education is to leave a man in the
condition of continually asking questions.
Bishop Creighton
Indi v i dual and soci al ai ms of educati on ar e compl ementar y to
one another . The pur pose of educati on shoul d be the dev el opment
of the f ul l est possi bl e capaci ti es and potenti al i ti es of phy si cal and
spi r i tual of a total man. It shoul d make a per son capabl e to ear n
hi s/her l i v el i hood r easonabl y wel l to enjoy a happy and secur e l i f e
whi l e maki ng ef f ecti v e contr i buti ons to the soci ety and nati onal
ef f or t of maki ng the Indi a str ong, adv anced, and pr osper ous.
Educati on shoul d be ai med to cr eate a soci ety wher e the condi ti ons
of wor k and gener al env i r onment of f er psy chi c sati sf acti ons and
ef f ecti v e moti v ati ons to i ts member s.
3.1. Social ChangeAn Aim of Education
Educati on shoul d not mer el y equi p an i ndi v i dual to adjust wi th
soci ety to i ts customs and conv enti ons, but i t shoul d enabl e
hi m/her to br i ng desi r abl e changes i n the soci ety . It has been,
ther ef or e, suggested that, Ev er y educati onal i nsti tuti on f r om
secondar y school to uni v er si ty col l ege shoul d be dev el oped to
become an agency of change..
Fol l owi ng i s a l i st of ex pected changes caused by educati on
3.1.1. Modernization
Moder ni zati on of soci ety i n ter ms of sci enti f i c and technol ogi cal
adv ancement i s possi bl e onl y thr ough educati on. It i s the educati on
that enabl es the soci ety to mov e wi th ti mes and attai n ex cel l ence
i n sci ence and technol ogy .
3.1.2. Productivity
Educati on shoul d br i ng about a soci al tr ansf or mati on and enhance
gr eater ef f i ci ency and pr oducti v i ty i n al l sector s: Agr i cul tur al ,
i ndustr i al , and ser v i ce. Educati on enabl es an i ndi v i dual to be a
pr oducti v e ci ti zen of a pr oducti v e soci ety .
3.1.3. Focus on Local Community
The educati on sy stem i n al l i ts br anches and sector s shoul d get
i tsel f i nv ol v ed i n acti v i ti es r el ated to pr obl ems of l ocal
communi ty l i f e. Educati on shoul d ai m to study and f ocus the
pr obl ems of l ocal concer ns so that i t wi l l pr ov e to be hel pf ul f or
l ocal communi ty to under stand and manage thei r v ar i ous pr obl ems.
3.1.4. Values
Mor al , cul tur al , and spi r i tual v al ues i n educati on hav e been gi v en
i mmense i mpor tance by the emi nent educati oni st (Mahatma
Gandhi , Rabi ndr anath Tagor e, and Swami Vi v ekananda) as wel l as
by the v ar i ous educati ons commi ssi on of Indi a (r ef er educati onal
r ef or ms and v ar i ous educati on commi ssi ons r epor ts). Educati on
can br i ng out mor al , cul tur al , and spi r i tual changes i n a chi l d by
cul ti v ati ng qual i ti es of cooper ati on, goodwi l l , f or gi v eness,
tol er ance, honesty , and pati ence. These mor al and cul tur al v al ues
ar e necessar y to be a commendabl e ci ti zen of the nati on.
4. PURPOSES AND FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
Educati onal theor i sts hav e made a di sti ncti on between the pur pose
of educati on and the f uncti ons of educati on. A pur pose i s the
f undamental goal of the pr ocess that i s an end to be achi ev ed, whi l e
f uncti ons ar e other outcomes that may occur as a natur al r esul t of
the pr ocess al so known as by -pr oducts or consequences of
school i ng. For ex ampl e, tr ansmi ssi on of knowl edge i s the pr i mar y
pur pose of educati on, whi l e the tr ansf er of knowl edge f r om school
to the r eal wor l d i s somethi ng that happens natur al l y as a
consequence of possessi ng that knowl edge; hence i t i s a f uncti on of
educati on. Because a pur pose i s an ex pr essed goal , mor e ef f or t
shoul d be put i n to attai n i t; on the contr ar y , f uncti ons ar e assumed
to occur wi thout di r ected ef f or t. The f ol l owi ng box r epr esents
v i ews of some emi nent educati oni st that shades of f l i ght on the
pur poses of educati on (Tabl e 4.1).

TABLE 4.1 Di f f er ences i n Pur pose and Functi on of
Educati on
Purpose of education Functions of education
Acqui si ti on of i nf or mati on
about the past and pr esent
i ncl udes tr adi ti onal
di sci pl i nes such as
l i ter atur e, hi stor y , sci ence,
and mathemati cs
For mati on of heal thy soci al
and/or f or mal
r el ati onshi ps among and
between students, teacher s,
and other s
Capaci ty /abi l i ty to
ev al uate i nf or mati on and
to pr edi ct f utur e outcomes
(deci si on maki ng)
Capaci ty /abi l i ty to seek
out al ter nati v e sol uti ons
and ev al uate them
(pr obl em sol v i ng)
Dev el opment of mental and
phy si cal ski l l s: motor ,
thi nki ng, communi cati on,
soci al , and aestheti c
Knowl edge of mor al
pr acti ces and ethi cal
standar ds acceptabl e by
soci ety /cul tur e
Indoctr i nati on i nto the
cul tur e
Capaci ty /abi l i ty to l i v e a
f ul f i l l i ng l i f e
Capaci ty /abi l i ty to ear n a
l i v i ng: car eer educati on
Sense of wel l -bei ng: mental
and phy si cal heal th
Capaci ty /abi l i ty to be a
good ci ti zen
Capaci ty /abi l i ty to thi nk
cr eati v el y
Sel f -r eal i zati on/sel f -
r ef l ecti on: awar eness of
one's abi l i ti es and goal s
Sel f -esteem/sel f -ef f i cacy
No one has yet realized the wealth of sympathy, the
kindness and generosity hidden in the soul of a
child. The effort of every true education should be
to unlock that treasure
Emma Goldman
The aim of education should be to teach us rather
how to think, than what to thinkrather to improve
our minds, so as to enable us to think for
ourselves, than to load the memory with the
thoughts of other men
Bill Beattie
5. HISTORY AND TRENDS IN DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING AND NURSING
EDUCATION IN INDIA
27 2236 BC: Nal anda and Takshashi l a, wor l d-cl ass
uni v er si ti es, of that ti me i ntr oduced medi cal educati on.
The nur ses at that ti me wer e usual l y men or ol d women.
250 BC: The f i r st nur si ng school was establ i shed i n Indi a i n
250 BC and onl y admi tted men Nur si ng di d not f or mal i ze
i nto a pr of essi on i n the west unti l the Cr i mean War i n the
19th centur y . Dur i ng that war , Fl or ence Ni ghti ngal e began
cl eani ng hospi tal s and equi pment. The f i r st nur si ng school
was eatabl i shed i n Indi a. Onl y men wer e el i gi bl e to get
admi ssi on i n nur si ng.
47 6147 5 AD: The monaster i es became the pl aces of
educati on, medi cal car e, and nur si ng.
15001850AD: Dur i ng thi s ti me, nur si ng l ost i ts soci al
status and was not consi der ed as an i ntel l ectual wor k.
Women of l ow soci oeconomi c status, si ngl e and wi dow wi th
no hope of mar r i age, wer e the mai n nur si ng f or ce.
1854: Ni ghti ngal e establ i shed nur si ng school at St. Thomas
Hospi tal , London.
1859: The Roy al Commi ssi on was appoi nted to l ook i nto the
matter s of heal th of Indi an ar my af ter the gr eat Indi an
Muti ny of 1857 .
1865: Mi ss Fl or ence Ni ghti ngal e pr ov i ded suggesti ons on a
sy stem of nur si ng f or hospi tal s i n Indi a.
1867 : St. Stephens hospi tal i n Del hi star ted tr ai ni ng of
nur si ng to the Indi an gi r l s.
187 1: The f i r st school of nur si ng was star ted i n gov er nment
gener al hospi tal , Madr as, wi th 6 months Di pl oma Mi dwi v es
pr ogr am.
1886: School of nur si ng was star ted i n J.J. Hospi tal , Bombay .
1888: Ten f ul l y qual i f i ed cer ti f i ed nur ses f r om Fl or ence
Ni ghti ngal e ar r i v ed to Bombay to l ead nur si ng i n Indi a.
1894: Regul ar sy stem of tr ai ni ng f or or der l i ness (men f or
hospi tal wor k) was star ted.
1901: Men wer e banned to ser v e as nur se i n Mi l i tar y
Nur si ng of USA.
1908: Tr ai ned Nur ses Associ ati on of Indi a (TNAI) was
establ i shed.
1910: Nursing Journal of I ndia star ted publ i shi ng f r om the
TNAI. Uni ted boar d of ex ami nati on was or gani zed to
conduct ex ami nati on f or nur ses i n Indi a.
19111912: South Indi a and Nor th Indi a Ex ami ni ng Boar d
wer e cr eated to conduct ex ami nati ons of nur si ng.
1918: Tr ai ni ng school s wer e star ted f or heal th v i si tor s and
dai s at Del hi (Indi a) and Kar achi (Paki stan).
1926: Fi r st r egi str ati on counci l f or nur ses was f or med at
Madr as pr esi dency . Mi dwi v es Regi str ati on Act was al so
f or med to ensur e better tr ai ni ng of mi dwi v es.
1935: Bombay nur si ng counci l s wer e establ i shed.
1943: School of Nur si ng was establ i shed at Rajkumar i Amr i t
Kaur (RAK) Col l ege, New Del hi . Di pl oma pr ogr amme i n
nur si ng admi ni str ati on was al so star ted i n New Del hi .
1946: Four -y ear basi c Bachel or Degr ee pr ogr ams wer e
establ i shed at the RAKCol l ege of Nur si ng (1946) and CMC
Vel l or e (1947 ) as per the r ecommendati on of the Bhor e
commi ttee. Nur si ng educati on was i ntegr ated i nto the
sy stem of uni v er si ty educati on as per the r ecommendati on
of Uni v er si ty Educati on Commi ssi on headed by Dr .
Radhakr i shnan.
1947 1949: The Indi an Nur si ng Counci l (INC) act was passed
by or di nance on December 31, 1947 . The INC was
consti tuted i n the y ear 1949.
1951: The sy l l abus was pr epar ed f or l ady heal th v i si tor
cour se by INC, and dur ati on of the cour se was r educed to 2
y ear s f r om 2.5 y ear s. The f i r st ANMcour se i n Indi a was
star ted at St. Mar y 's Hospi tal i n the Punjab. One-y ear
dur ati on cour se i n publ i c heal th was star ted at the RAK
Col l ege of Nur si ng, Del hi . INC al so pr escr i bed sy l l abus f or
gener al nur si ng and mi dwi f er y cour se i n the y ear 1951, and
a speci al pr ov i si on was made f or the admi ssi on of mal e i n
Gener al Nur si ng and Mi dwi f er y (GNM) cour se i n 1954.
19531954: Fi r st or gani zed cour se i n psy chi atr i c nur si ng
star ted at Al l Indi a Insti tute of Mental Heal th.
1954: Shetty commi ttee r ecommended i mpr ov ement i n
condi ti ons of tr ai ni ng of nur ses. Mi ni mum r equi r ement f or
admi ssi on was suggested to be i n accor dance wi th
r egul ati on of the INC.
19591960: Master i n nur si ng degr ee cour se was star ted at
the RAKCol l ege of Nur si ng, Del hi . Later on, i n the y ear
19681969, Col l ege of Nur si ng Chr i sti an Medi cal Col l ege,
Vel l or e, al so star ted the same pr ogr amme.
1961: Mudal i ar commi ttee r ecommended mi ni mum entr ance
qual i f i cati on f or GNMand B.Sc. Nur si ng Pr ogr amme.
Matr i cul ati on was pr escr i bed as mi ni mum qual i f i cati on
f or admi ssi on i nto GNMpr ogr amme; si mi l ar l y , hi gher
secondar y was pr escr i bed as mi ni mum qual i f i cati on f or
admi ssi on i nto degr ee cour se of nur si ng.
1962: Di pl oma i n pedi atr i c nur si ng was establ i shed at the
J.J. Gr oup of Hospi tal s, Bombay .
1963: School of Nur si ng i n Tr i v andr um star ted the f i r st 2
y ear s postcer ti f i cate bachel or degr ee pr ogr am. Fi r st
r ev i si on of GNMcour se was done i n the same y ear . In the
y ear 19641965, psy chi atr i c nur si ng was i ncl uded i n the
cur r i cul um.
197 3: Kar tar Si ngh Commi ttee r ecommended mul ti pur pose
heal th wor ker scheme and change i n the desi gnati on of
ANMand LHV.
1985: M.Sc. Nur si ng Cour se star ted i n Col l ege of Nur si ng
CMC, Ludhi ana (Punjab).
1986: M.Phi l . Nur si ng Pr ogr amme was star ted i n RAK
Col l ege of Nur si ng, Del hi .
1988: M.Sc. Nur si ng Pr ogr amme was star ted at the Nati onal
Insti tute of Mental Heal th and Neur osci ences, Bangal or e.
1990: Sar oji ni Var adappan commi ttee r ecommended that
Master s i n nur si ng pr ogr amme to be i ncr eased and
str engthened and Doctor ate i n nur si ng pr ogr amme shoul d
be star ted i n sel ected uni v er si ty . Conti nui ng educati on and
staf f dev el opment f or nur ses was al so emphasi zed.
1991: Wor ki ng gr oup on nur si ng educati on and manpower
r ecommended that by the y ear 2020, the GNMpr ogr amme
shoul d be phased out f r om Indi a and cur r i cul um of B.Sc.
nur si ng to be modi f i ed.
1992: Post Basi c B.Sc. Nur si ng Pr ogr amme was l aunched by
The Indi r a Gandhi Nati onal Open Uni v er si ty (IGNOU),
New Del hi . Ph.D. pr ogr amme was star ted i n RAKCol l ege,
New Del hi .
1994: M.Sc. Nur si ng Pr ogr amme was star ted at MAHE,
Mani pal .
1996: M.Phi l . and Ph.D. nur si ng pr ogr ammes wer e star ted at
MAHE, Mani pal .
2004: Col l ege of Nur si ng, Al l Indi a Insti tute of Medi cal
Sci ences, New Del hi , star ted super speci al ty master cour ses
i n nur si ng (Car di ol ogi cal &CTVS, Nephr ol ogi cal ,
Neur ol ogi cal , Cr i ti cal Car e and Oncol ogi cal Nur si ng).
2005: Nati onal Consor ti um f or Ph.D. i n Nur si ng was
establ i shed under the l eader shi p of the INC, sev en l eadi ng
nur si ng i nsti tuti ons of Indi a, Wor l d Heal th Or gani zati on,
and the Raji v Gandhi Uni v er si ty of Heal th Sci ences,
Bangal or e.
6. CHANGING TRENDS, IMPACT OF SOCIOECONOMICAL, POLITICAL,
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES ON NURSING EDUCATION
Sci enti f i c dev el opment, gl obal i zati on, mi gr ati on, and the
phenomenon of the gl obal v i l l age hav e si gni f i cantl y changed the
phi l osophy and way of l i f e of the pr esent cosmopol i tan soci ety .
Soci al tr ansi ti ons hav e br ought out tr emendous changes i n the
gener al as wel l as i n the nur si ng educati on sy stem. The phi l osophy
of nur si ng educati on has been af f ected by these soci al , techni cal ,
and sci enti f i c changes. Ther e i s change towar d cr eati v i ty i n
educati on, tr ansf or mati on i n teachi ng, l ear ni ng, ev al uati on
pr ocess, and sci enti f i cal l y adv anced educati onal technol ogy .
The theor eti cal as wel l as pr acti cal knowl edge i n nur si ng
educati onal sy stem i s l ar gel y bor r owed f r om other di sci pl i nes, f or
ex ampl e, medi ci ne, sur ger y , psy chol ogy , soci ol ogy , and many
other s. Sci enti f i c and technol ogi cal adv ancements i n medi ci ne
(stem cel l ther apy and v acci nati on of cer v i cal cancer ) and sur ger y
(Gama kni f e sur ger y and r oboti cs) al ong wi th the gener ati on of
new knowl edge thr ough numer ous r esear ches i n other di sci pl i nes
pi oneer ed changes i n nur si ng educati on al so. These changes hav e to
be i ncor por ated i n the nur si ng cur r i cul a i n or der to keep pace
wi th the sci enti f i c and technol ogy adv ancement i n the r el ated
di sci pl i nes.
Popul ati on ex pl osi on, i mpr ov ed l i v i ng status of peopl e,
pr obl ems of nucl ear f ami l y , two or one chi l d nor m, mi gr ati on f r om
r ur al to ur ban ar eas, ov er cr owdi ng i n ci ti es, i ncr eased pol l uti on,
emer gence of new di seases (bi r d f l u, swi ne f l u), and i ncr eased
pr ev al ence of chr oni c i l l ness (di abetes mel l i tus, asthma, mor bi d
obesi ty , cor onar y ar ter y di sease, hy per tensi on) ar e some of the
soci al changes of twenty -f i r st centur y . The educati onal sy stem of
the medi ci ne, sur ger y , as wel l as i n the nur si ng sci ences has
r esponded to these soci al changes by dev el opi ng speci al i ti es and
super speci al i ti es cour ses. The i ncr eased el der l y popul ati on has
pl aced demand f or mor e ger i atr i c nur ses i n the f utur e. In or der to
cater to thi s demand, ther e i s a need to dev el op a cadr e of ger i atr i c
nur ses f or f utur e by openi ng mor e cour ses i n ger i atr i c nur si ng i n
Indi a.
Tr ansf or mati on i n the di sci pl i ne of medi ci ne and sur ger y i n tur n
has af f ected the nur si ng pr of essi on, r esul ti ng i n emer gence of new
speci al i ty and super speci al i ty cour se i n nur si ng educati on, f or
ex ampl e, anestheti c nur si ng, car di ov ascul ar nur si ng, oncol ogy
nur si ng, nephr ol ogi cal nur si ng, cr i ti cal car e nur si ng, and f or ensi c
nur si ng. The Al l Indi a Insti tute of Medi cal Sci ences, New Del hi , a
pr emi er heal th i nsti tuti on of Indi a, has taken l eader shi p steps i n
the dev el opment of these super speci al i ty ar eas i n Indi an nur si ng
educati on sy stem. Adv ancement i n medi cal technol ogy has al so
emphasi zed the need of conti nui ng educati on pr ogr ammes i n
nur si ng.
As a r esul t of popul ati on ex pl osi on, ther e i s a di r e need of
gr owi ng number s of nur ses acr oss the gl obe. In Indi a, to cater to the
i ncr ease demand of nur ses, INC has r el ax ed nor ms to establ i sh
school or col l eges of nur si ng that pav ed the way to i ncr ease the
number of nur si ng i nsti tuti ons i n Indi a.
Tr anscul tur al nur si ng i s the other ar ea that has emer ged out as a
r esul t of mi gr ati on of nur ses f r om dev el opi ng to dev el oped
countr i es as wel l as due to moder n tr end of heal th tour i sm. Pati ents
f r om dev el oped countr i es wher e heal th car e costs ar e r i si ng
shar pl y ar e mov i ng towar d dev el opi ng countr i es to get cheaper
and qual i ty tr eatment. Incr easi ng tr end of heal th tour i sm pav ed
the way f or i mpr ov ed phy si cal i nf r astr uctur e of cor por ate and
other hospi tal s i n Indi a. Ther e i s gr eat demand of qual i f i ed and
competent nur ses to f ul f i l l the need of gr owi ng heal th tour i sm i n
Indi a. Cul tur al di f f usi on and f ami l y di si ntegr ati on has gi v en r i se
to the pr obl ems of dr ug addi cti on, al cohol i sm, pr emar i tal sex , and
emer gence of HIV/AIDS. Ther e i s a shi f t of emphasi s on the
concer ned ar eas of pr esent i nter est i n nur si ng educati on.
The di r e need of hi ghl y competent nur ses by the heal th car e
i ndustr y has i nf l uenced the cur r i cul um model s i n nur si ng
educati onal sy stem. Ther e i s a shi f t f r om tr adi ti onal nur si ng
cur r i cul um to objecti v e- and competency -based cur r i cul um. The
INC has taken i ni ti ati v e i n thi s di r ecti on by i ncor por ati ng
competency statements i n the gui del i nes of v ar i ous nur si ng
pr ogr ammes i n Indi a. Si mi l ar l y , to cater to the need of saf e
del i v er y among r ur al women, the concept of nur se mi dwi f e
pr acti ti oner has emer ged out. INC has dev el oped gui del i nes and
pr otocol s of dr ugs that a mi dwi f e pr acti ti oner can admi ni ster .
Incr eased cost of l i v i ng has r ai sed i mpor tance of such educati on
pr ogr ammes whi ch can be i mpl emented on the job. In Indi a, post
basi c di pl oma pr ogr ammes i n v ar i ous speci al i ty ar eas (post basi c
di pl oma i n car di othor aci c nur si ng, oncol ogy nur si ng, and OT
nur si ng) ar e f i ghti ng wi th the pr obl em of l ow admi ssi on r ate of the
students. Remedy to sol v e thi s i ssue may be pr ov i si on of on-the-job
admi ssi ons i n these pr ogr ammes or pr ov i si on of sti pend equal to
the sal ar y to these students. To cater to the need of i ncr easi ng
number s of nur si ng gr aduates, di stance-educati on pr ogr ammes
shoul d be ex panded l i ber al l y but wi thout compr omi si ng the
qual i ty of educati on.
Adv ancement i n communi cati on technol ogy and computer has
i ncor por ated some super i or teachi ng str ategi es i n the nur si ng
cur r i cul um such as pr ogr ammed i nstr ucti on, computer -assi sted
l ear ni ng, and onl i ne and e-l ear ni ng. Computer as an ai d to nur si ng
educati on i s usel ess wi thout sof twar e desi gn to suppor t l ear ni ng;
ther ef or e, f acul ty of nur si ng sci ences need to put ex tr a ef f or ts to
dev el op content mater i al s as wel l as sof twar e so that technol ogi cal
adv ancement can be ex pl oi ted to pr ov i de better nur si ng educati on.
Mobi l e phone has become an i ntegr al par t of ev er y day 's l i f e
whi ch has al so af f ected the educati on. Nowaday s, a nur se can know
the si de ef f ects and doses of newer dr ugs and r ev i ew the l atest
r esear ch ar ti cl es any ti me any wher e by just cl i cki ng cer tai n key s
on her mobi l e or tabl oi d or 3G tab.
The l ar ge number of gr aduates passi ng out ev er y y ear poses a
chal l enge f or r egul ator y bodi es of nur si ng to mai ntai n the qual i ty
of nur si ng educati on i n Indi a so that competent f i r st-l i ne nur ses
can be pr epar ed to ser v e the humani ty i n thi s er a of qual i ty
assur ance and pati ent r i ghts bi l l . Ther e i s a need to change the
educati onal model of nur si ng, whi ch i s l ar gel y based on the
tr adi ti onal medi cal model . The concept of dual posi ti on needs to be
appl i ed i n nur si ng educati on so that theor y pr acti ce gap can be
pl ugged. New methods of assessment such as objecti v e str uctur ed
cl i ni cal ev al uati on (OSCE) and objecti v e str uctur ed pr acti cal
ex ami nati on (OSPE) r equi r e modi f i cati ons i n the cur r i cul um of
nur si ng educati on.
Issues and tr ends f aci ng nur si ng educati on pose chal l enges f or
students as wel l as f or nur se educator s. Cur r i cul um changes i n
v ar i ous nur si ng educati on pr ogr ammes must r ef l ect these soci al
changes, tr ends, and technol ogi cal adv ancement.
7. TYPES OF EDUCATION
Educati on can be di v i ded i nto thr ee ty pes:
1. For mal educati on
2. Inf or mal educati on
3. Nonf or mal educati on
7.1. Formal Education
For mal educati on i s l i nked wi th school s, col l eges, uni v er si ty , and
tr ai ni ng i nsti tuti ons. It i s a sy stem of educati on that star ts f r om
pr enur ser y school and ends i n uni v er si ty . It al so i ncl udes a v ar i ety
of speci al i zed cour ses and i nsti tuti ons f or f ul l -ti me techni cal and
pr of essi onal tr ai ni ng.
Due to r api d ex pansi on of popul ati on and the pr opagati on of
compul sor y educati on, UNESCO has esti mated that i n the nex t 30
y ear s, mor e peopl e wi l l r ecei v e f or mal educati on than i n al l of
human hi stor y so f ar .
7.2. Informal Education
Inf or mal educati on i s the l i f el ong pr ocess i n whi ch peopl e l ear n
f r om ev er y day ex per i ence. Inf or mal educati on cov er s what we
l ear n thr ough i nter acti ons wi th f r i ends, f ami l y , and wor k
col l eagues and al so thr ough our own i ni ti ati v e. It i s tr ul y a
l i f el ong pr ocess wher eby ev er y i ndi v i dual acqui r es atti tudes,
v al ues, ski l l s, and knowl edge f r om l i f e ex per i ences, f ami l y and
nei ghbor s, wor k and pl ay , l i br ar y , and the mass medi a.
7.3. Nonformal Education
Nonf or mal educati on i s an or gani zed educati onal acti v i ty that
occur s outsi de the f or mal sy stems of educati on. It may i ncl ude any
or gani zed educati onal acti v i ty outsi de the establ i shed f or mal
sy stem. Nonf or mal educati on i s l ear ni ng acqui r ed i ndependentl y
thr ough nonacademi c means. It can ei ther mean that y ou ar e sel f -
taught thr ough y our own r eadi ng and r esear ch or thr ough
ex per i ence. Someti mes, nonf or mal educati on i s al so r ef er r ed to as
the school of l i f e (Tabl e 4.2)

TABLE 4.2 Di f f er ences i n For mal , Nonf or mal , and Inf or mal
Educati on
8. DISTANCE EDUCATION
Di stance educati on ai ms to del i v er teachi ng to students who ar e not
phy si cal l y pr esent i n a tr adi ti onal educati onal setti ng such as a
cl assr oom. It has been descr i bed as a pr ocess to cr eate and pr ov i de
access to l ear ni ng when the sour ce of i nf or mati on and the l ear ner s
ar e separ ated by ti me and di stance, or both. Di stance-educati on
cour ses that r equi r e a phy si cal onsi te pr esence f or any r eason
(i ncl udi ng taki ng ex ami nati ons) hav e been r ef er r ed to as hy br i d or
bl ended cour ses of study .
Di stance educati on uses a v ar i ety of i nf or mati on technol ogi es to
connect students and f acul ty who ar e not abl e to meet because of
bar r i er s of ti me or space. Instr ucti on ar e speci al l y desi gned f or
di stance educati on that tr anscends the cl assr oom, suppor ti ng the
l ear ner who must assume addi ti onal r esponsi bi l i ty f or l ear ni ng
and pr omoti ng meani ngf ul i nter acti on that ov er comes the
separ ati on of the teacher and student.
8.1. Types of DistanceEducation
Ther e ar e two ty pes of di stance educati on: sy nchr onous and
asy nchr onous di stance educati on.
Synchronous Distance Education
Sy nchr onous di stance educati on takes pl ace when the teacher and
student, al though separ ated, ar e par ti ci pati ng i n the educati onal
ex per i ence at the same ti me ai ded by some connecti ng technol ogy
(e.g., l i v e, i nter acti v e tel ev i si on or onl i ne computer chats)
r esembl i ng tr adi ti onal cl assr oom teachi ng method despi te the
par ti ci pants bei ng l ocated r emotel y .
Asynchronous Distance Education
In asy nchr onous mode of di stance educati on, the student and
f acul ty ar e not par ti ci pati ng at the same ti me i n teachi ng
l ear ni ng. The student accesses cour se mater i al s as per hi s/her
conv eni ence; ther ef or e, i t i s consi der ed as a mor e f l ex i bl e
appr oach of di stance educati on. Mai l cor r espondence, whi ch i s the
ol dest f or m of di stance educati on, i s an asy nchr onous del i v er y
technol ogy of di stance educati on.
The two methods can be combi ned i n the del i v er y of one cour se.
For ex ampl e, some cour ses (Post Basi c B.Sc. Nur si ng) of f er ed by
IGNOU, New Del hi , use per i odi c sessi ons of r esi denti al or day
teachi ng to suppl ement the r emote teachi ng (mai l cor r espondence).
8.2. Effectiveness of DistanceEducation
Di stance educati on has pr ov ed to be an ef f ecti v e del i v er y sy stem
f or nur si ng educati on. Resear ch studi es compar i ng di stance
educati on wi th tr adi ti onal cl assr oom ex per i ences concl uded that
academi c achi ev ement, soci al i zati on, and mentor i ng oppor tuni ti es
ar e compar abl e or i mpr ov ed by usi ng di stance educati on. In
addi ti on, students r epor t sati sf acti on wi th l ear ni ng at a di stance,
pr obabl y because of the conv eni ence of bei ng abl e to take cour ses
at thei r chosen ti me and pl ace. Di stance-l ear ni ng cour ses ar e
getti ng popul ar i n Indi a, and l ots of students want to ear n thei r
degr ee whi l e wor ki ng wi th thi s mode of educati on.
Her e i s a l i st of uni v er si ti es of f er i ng Post Basi c B.Sc. Nur si ng
Pr ogr amme thr ough di stance l ear ni ng:
1. IGNOU-B.Sc. Nur si ng (Post Basi c): El i gi bi l i ty : 10+;2
wi th 3 y ear s Di pl oma i n GNMwi th mi ni mum of 2 y ear s
ex per i ence i n the pr of essi on. OR 10th cl ass
(Matr i cul ati on) or i ts equi v al ent wi th 3 y ear s Di pl oma
i n GNMwi th mi ni mum of 5 y ear s ex per i ence i n the
pr of essi on.
2. Vi nay aka Mi ssi on Uni v er si ty Sal em, Tami l Nadu.
9. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
9.1. Meaning of Philosophy
Phi l osophy i s def i ned as love of wisdom, the pur sui t f or knowl edge.
It i s of ten concer ned wi th such thi ngs as power, provocation,
personality of f er i ng br ai nstor m to peopl e caught up i n the stor m of
soci al cr i si s and i deol ogi cal ar guments. It i s a sear ch f or meani ng
and tr uth and pr ov i des a f r amewor k f or l i f e and our acti on. It i s
al so usef ul i n sol v i ng educati onal pr obl ems.
Educati oni st phi l osopher s ar e concer ned wi th questi ons of
cur r i cul um, teacher , school s, students, and soci ety . Phi l osophy of
educati on i s a the phi l osophi cal study of educati on and i ts
pr obl ems. It seeks to addr ess questi ons r egar di ng the ai ms of
educati on, educati on pol i cy , and cur r i cul um as wel l as the pr ocess
of l ear ni ng. Ther ef or e, i t can be sai d that phi l osophy of educati on
i s the phi l osophi cal study of the pur pose, pr ocess, natur e, and
i deal s of educati on. Educati onal ai ms and objecti v es ar e der i v ed
f r om the under l y i ng phi l osophy of the educati onal sy stem (Fi gur e
4.1). A phi l osophi cal enqui r y f ocuses on thr ee major ar eas whi ch
ar e as f ol l ows:
Metaphysics i s concer ned wi th the natur e of r eal i ty .
Epistemology i s concer ned wi th the natur e of knowl edge
or what can be known. It deal s wi th theor i es of the natur e
of knowl edge. Epi stemol ogi cal questi ons i ncl ude: How do
peopl e l ear n? What ar e the di f f er ent ty pes of knowl edge?
Ax i ol ogy i s concer ned wi th the natur e of v al ues (ethi cs
and aestheti cs: r i ght or wr ong and the beauti f ul ).


Figure 4.1 Major Ar eas of Phi l osophi cal Concer n
In moder n ti mes ther e ar e opposi ng v i ews about the pr acti ce of
educati on. Ther e i s no gener al agr eement about what the y oung
shoul d l ear n ei ther i n r el ati on to v i r tue or i n r el ati on to the best
l i f e; nor i s i t cl ear whether thei r educati on ought to be di r ected
mor e towar ds the i ntel l ect than towar ds the char acter of the soul .
And i t i s not cer tai n whether tr ai ni ng shoul d be di r ected at thi ngs
usef ul i n l i f e, or at those conduci v e to v i r tue, or at non-essenti al s.
And ther e i s no agr eement as to what i n f act does tend towar ds
v i r tue.Ar i stotl e
Ar i stotl e wr ote thi s passage mor e than 2,300 y ear s ago, and today
educator s ar e sti l l debati ng the i ssues he r ai sed. Di f f er ent
appr oaches to r esol v i ng these and other f undamental i ssues hav e
gi v en r i se to di f f er ent school s of thought i n the phi l osophy of
educati on.

Education should be for the highest good. Most
important thing to teach is values of the highest
sort
Plato
Impor tant phi l osophi cal school s of thoughts that hav e
i nf l uenced the educati onal sy stem ar e as f ol l ows:
9.2. Idealism (Idea-ism)
An i deal i st bel i ev es that i deas ar e the onl y tr ue r eal i ty . The
mater i al wor l d i s char acter i zed by change, i nstabi l i ty , and
uncer tai nty , but some i deas ar e endur i ng. We shoul d be concer ned
pr i mar i l y wi th the sear ch f or tr uth. Si nce tr uth i s per f ect and
eter nal , i t cannot be f ound i n the wor l d of matter that i s both
i mper f ect and constantl y changi ng.

Leaders of idealism: Socrates, Plato, St. Augustine,
Descartes, Berkeley, and Kant
Ideal i sm bel i ev es i n the study of the cl assi cs f or uni v er sal tr uths
such as mathemati cs (2+2=4 i s an absol ute tr uth) and di al ecti c
(cr i ti cal di scussi on) to l ook at both si des of the coi n. Accor di ng to
i deal i sm, tr ue educati on i s concer ned wi th i deas r ather than
matter . The i deal i sts want to gi v e students a br oad under standi ng of
the wor l d i n whi ch they l i v e. The ai ms of educati on accor di ng to
thi s school of thought i ncl ude dev el opi ng the mi nd, sear ch f or tr ue
i deas, char acter dev el opment, and sel f -r eal i zati on.
Vi ews of Plato, the father of idealism, towar d educati on ar e as
f ol l ows:
Students wi th l i ttl e abi l i ty f or abstr acti on shoul d go i nto
the mi l i tar y , busi ness, and i ndustr y .
Those who demonstr ate pr of i ci ency i n the di al ecti c woul d
conti nue thei r educati on and become phi l osopher s i n
posi ti ons of power to l ead the state towar d the hi ghest good.
He bel i ev ed that both boy s and gi r l s shoul d be educated and
gi r l s shoul d be equal s.
Descartes, a gr eat pr oponent of i deal i sm, concl uded that I thi nk,
ther ef or e I am. Thi nki ng and i deas ar e the ul ti mate tr uth.
I mmanuel Kant v i ewed that educati on shoul d teach students how
to thi nk accor di ng to pr i nci pl es, mor al l aws, mor al i deal s, and
mor al i mper ati v es. Enl i ghtenment i s the goal of educati on.

Example: The i deal i st and the car : To an i deal i st, the
concept of car i s i mpor tant. You coul d destr oy al l the
car s i n the wor l d, but they woul d sti l l ex i st i n the mi nd.
The i dea of a car i s the ul ti mate tr uth.
9.3. Realism
On contr ar y to i deal i sm, the phi l osophy of r eal i sm mai ntai ns that
mater i al and phy si cal wor l d ex i sts i ndependent of i deas and
thoughts. Whether we thi nk about a mountai n or not, i t does ex i st.
It wi l l ex i st ev en i f we dont thi nk about i t or hav e nev er had an
i dea of what a mountai n i s l i ke. Ther ef or e, r eal i st educati oni sts
woul d f ocus the students to l ear n thr ough thei r senses of smel l ,
f eel , and taste si nce they bel i ev e i n the ex i stence of the natur al
wor l d. Real i sti c educati oni st str ongl y bel i ev es that the best way of
l ear ni ng i s thr ough ex per i enci ng the phy si cal wor l d wi th the
senses.

Leaders of realism: Aristotle (384322 BC), Thomas
Aquinas (12251274), Francis Bacon (15611626), and
John Locke (16321704)
Natur e pl ay s an i mpor tant r ol e i n l ear ni ng, so an educati oni st
shoul d pr ef er to teach students thr ough obser v ati on of natur al
or der . The teacher s wi th r eal i sti c bend of mi nd woul d want
students to dev el opment judgment and ethi cs by ex per i enci ng and
obser v i ng the wor l d.
Real i sm mai ntai ns that:
At bi r th, the mi nd i s a bl ank sheet of paper . Al l i deas ar e
der i v ed f r om ex per i ence by way of sensati on and r ef l ecti on
John Locke.
Real i ty , knowl edge, and v al ue ex i st i ndependent of the
human mi nd. Tr ees, sti cks, and stones ex i st whether or not
ther e i s a human mi nd to per cei v e them.
Uni v er sal pr oper ti es of objects r emai n constant and nev er
change, wher eas par ti cul ar components do change.
Need to study natur e sy stemati cal l y .
Deducti v e r easoni ngtr uth i s der i v ed f r om
gener al i zati ons.
Ideas may be i mpor tant, but a pr oper study of matter coul d
l ead us to better and mor e di sti nct i deas.
Tr uth was passed f r om God to humans by di v i ne r ev el ati on,
but God al so has endowed humans wi th the r easoni ng
abi l i ty to seek out tr uth.
Sci ence must be concer ned wi th i nqui r y , pur e and si mpl e,
wi th no pr econcei v ed noti ons.
9.3.1. Realism and Education
Real i sm pr omotes the study of sci ence and the sci enti f i c
method.
Ther e ar e essenti al i deas and f acts to be l ear ned; ther ef or e
l ectur e and other f or mal methods of teachi ng ar e usef ul .
Appr ov e of competenci es, per f or mance-based teachi ng, and
accountabi l i ty .
Teacher shoul d pr esent mater i al i n a sy stemati c, or gani zed
way and teach that ther e ar e cl ear l y def i ned cr i ter i a f or
maki ng judgments i n ar t, economi cs, pol i ti cs, etc.
Example: The r eal i st and the car : To a r eal i st, the
actual i ty of car i s i mpor tant. A r eal i st woul d measur e
the car , wei ght i t, ex ami ne the phy si cal char acter i sti cs,
etc. The f act that the car ex i sts i s the ul ti mate tr uth i n
r eal i sm school of thought.
9.4. Pragmatism
The r oot of the wor d pr agmati sm l i es i n a Gr eek wor d whi ch means
Wor k. It i s pr i mar i l y a twenti eth-centur y phi l osophy dev el oped
by Amer i cans. Char l es Sander s Pei r ce i s wi del y acknowl edged as
the f ather of pr agmati sm who wr ote an ar ti cl e on How to make our
i deas cl ear i n a popul ar Sci ence monthl y that i s r egar ded as the
basi s f or pr agmati sm. Pr agmati sm emer ged out f r om the wr i ti ngs of
John Dewey who bel i ev ed that ex per i mentati on was the best
appr oach f or educati ng y oung mi nds. Geor ge R. Kni ght i n hi s book
on educati on phi l osophi es menti oned that pr agmati sm f ocuses on
r eal -l i f e ex per i ences as the mai n sour ce of knowl edge and
educati on.
For ex ampl e, f i el d tr i ps and educati onal ex cur si ons/ex hi bi ti ons,
whi ch pr ov i de r eal -l i f e ex per i ences, ar e mor e ef f ecti v e i n
teachi ng students about the wor l d i nstead of l ectur e cum
di scussi on or audi ov i sual ai ds. In or der to pr ov i de l ear ni ng about
dai r y pr oducts, i t i s better to take a student to a stor e and l et
hi m/her ex per i ence the whol e thi ng hi msel f /her sel f i nstead of
showi ng hi m/her a mov i e (audi ov i sual ai d) on the subject.
Pr agmati c educati on phi l osophy doesnt assi gn a tr adi ti onal r ol e to
the teacher s. Rather , they ar e seen as gui des and not ex actl y mor e
knowl edgeabl e bei ngs.
Pragmatism maintains that:
The tr uth of an i dea i s i ts wor kabi l i ty . Tr uth i s not
absol ute and i mmutabl e; r ather i t i s made i n actual , r eal -
l i f eWilliam James
Ideas shoul d be appl i ed to sol v i ng pr obl ems, i ncl udi ng
soci al pr obl ems.
Real i ty i s not f ound i n bei ng, but i n becomi ng. Real i ty i s
open ended, i n pr ocess, wi th no f i x ed end.
Leaders in pragmatism: Auguste Comte (17981857),
Charles Darwin (18091882), William James (1842
1910), and John Dewey (18591952)
John Dewey, an emi nent educati oni st and phi l osopher suppor ti ng
pr agmati sm, mai ntai ns that:
Educati on shoul d conf or m to r eal -l i f e ex per i ences.
Ai ms of educati on ar e f or max i mum soci etal par ti ci pati on
and mor al r ef l ecti on.
Ther e i s tensi on between school 's necessi ty of bal anci ng
the needs of soci ety and of i ndi v i dual s.
Educated per son i s al way s wi thi n a soci al contex t.
Educati on and mor al i ty ar e l i nked wi th each other .
Teacher 's r ol e i s to sel ect the appr opr i ate ex per i ences f or
the chi l d. Al l educati onal ex per i ences i n school i ng ar e
i nter r el ated.f or er unner of i nter di sci pl i nar y l ear ni ng.
Educati on i s the f undamental method of soci al pr ogr ess and
r ef or ms.
9.4.1. Pragmatism and Education
Educati on shoul d be pr epar ati on f or l i f e. It shoul d be
acti on or i ented.
Sol v i ng pr obl ems i s i mpor tant; ther ef or e use r eal -l i f e
si tuati ons i n teachi ngl ear ni ng pr ocess.
Teachi ng methods shoul d be v ar i ed and f l ex i bl e. Pr oject
appr oach to teachi ng i s desi r abl e.
Needs and i nter ests of students shoul d be consi der ed; hence
cur r i cul um shoul d be di v er se and a br oad educati on i s mor e
desi r abl e.
Example: The pr agmati st and the car : To a pr agmati st,
the use or wor kabi l i ty of the car i s i mpor tant. The
pr agmati st i s concer ned wi th the questi on What i s the
pur pose of the car and does i t f ul f i l l that pur pose? The
wor kabi l i ty of a car i s the ul ti mate tr uth f or hi m.
9.5. Naturalism
Natur al i sm i s the doctr i ne that separ ates the natur e f r om God,
consi der s matter super i or to spi r i t, and sets up unchangeabl e l aws
as supr eme. Accor di ng to thi s phi l osophi cal school of thought,
natur e i s supr eme, al l answer s shoul d be sought i n natur e, and i t
al one can sol v e al l the phi l osophi cal pr obl ems. Natur al i sm came to
sur f ace at a ti me when educati on was conf i ned wi thi n the r i gi d
r ul es of di sci pl i ne under the i nf l uence of i deal i sm. Natur al i sm
ai ms at maki ng educati on f r ee f r om the bondage of r i gi d di sci pl i ne
under whi ch chi l dr en wer e tor tur ed. Natur al i sti c v i ewed the
educati on as a natur al bi ol ogi cal pr ocess of chi l dr en, whi ch shoul d
take pl ace wi thi n natur e. They f i r ml y af f i r med that educati on
shoul d not be meant by f or mal tr ai ni ng.

Naturalism is a word applied to those principles of
training which do not depend on schools and
books but upon the laws of natural life of the
educant
Adams
9.5.1. Naturalism &Curriculum
Natur al i sm does not f av or i n i mposi ng any boundar y on the
chi l dr en. So adv ocates of thi s theor y hav e not f r amed any
cur r i cul um of educati on. They bel i ev ed that each and ev er y chi l d
has the capaci ty to f r ame hi s/her own cur r i cul um as per hi s/her
r equi r ements. A chi l d wi l l gather ex per i ence f r om natur e
accor di ng to hi s/her own demand. He shoul d not be f or ced to
pr acti ce any f i x ed cur r i cul um. Later on, under the i nf l uence of
sci enti f i c dev el opment, natur al i sm bel i ev ed that to gi v e natur al
pl easur e to man, sci ence shoul d be uti l i zed i n l i f e. Ther ef or e, thei r
concept of cur r i cul um al so changed under the i nf l uence of
sci enti f i c dev el opment. Accor di ng to neonatur al i sts, cur r i cul um
shoul d be br oad and the pr acti ce of sci ence shoul d be gi v en
pr i or i ty . Consi der i ng the v i ews and needs of the chi l dr en, the
ex per i ences of the cur r i cul um shoul d be sel ected. Neonatur al i sts
hav e adv i sed to i ncl ude the f ol l owi ng i n the cur r i cul um:
Sci ence deal i ng wi th natur e: Phy si cs, Chemi str y , and
Botany to acquai nt the chi l d wi th natur e.
Mathemati cs and l anguage. These wi l l be hel pf ul to acqui r e
the knowl edge of the subjects of sci ence.
Hi stor y and Soci al Sci ence: In or der to acqui r e moder n
knowl edge, one shoul d f ocus on the pr ocess of ev ol uti on. It
wi l l al so hel p to r eal i ze the i mpor tance of those i n thei r
pr esent l i f e.
Agr i cul tur e and car pentr y wi l l of f er oppor tuni ty to the
chi l dr en to act them i n f r eedom and wi l l i ncr ease thei r
power of obser v ati on.
Natur al i sts f el t the i mpor tance of Phy si cal Educati on and
Heal th Tr ai ni ng f or sel f -pr otecti on.
Dr awi ng natur al i sts hav e consi der ed dr awi ng as the mai n
techni que of sel f -ex pr essi on. They hav e i ncl uded dr awi ng
as compul sor y i n the cur r i cul um. They al so mai ntai ned
that ethi cal tr ai ni ng shoul d not be i mposed on chi l dr en.
They wi l l bui l d thei r own ethi cal sense i n natur al or der by
r ecei v i ng r ewar ds and puni shments.
9.5.2. Role of Teacher
Natur al i st phi l osopher s env i saged that a chi l d can l ear n by sel f -
acti v i ty , thr ough the senses, l ear ni ng by doi ng, and pl ay educati on;
ther ef or e, the method that makes a chi l d i nacti v e cannot be
consi der ed as a teachi ng. The r ol e of the teacher i s not to del i v er
knowl edge; r ather they shoul d f ocus to cr eate a pr oper
env i r onment i n whi ch a chi l d wi l l get oppor tuni ty of wor ki ng i n
f r eedom. The r ol e of the teacher shoul d be that of an obser v er and
f aci l i tator . He/She wi l l obser v e thei r pr ocess of wor ks and
pr otects them, ther eby f aci l i tator thei r l ear ni ng pr ocesses. A wel l -
known natur al i st phi l osopher r emar ked that Teacher i s a sel l er of
the stage, a suppl i er of mater i al s and oppor tuni ti es, a pr ov i der of
an i deal env i r onment and cr eator of condi ti ons, conduci v e to
natur al dev el opment of pupi l s.
9.6. Reconstructionism
The doctr i ne of r econstr ucti oni sm env i saged that soci ety i s i n need
of constant r econstr ucti on, and such soci al change i nv ol v es both a
r econstr ucti on of educati on and the use of educati on i n
r econstr ucti ng soci ety . Reconstr ucti oni sts emphasi zed that
educati on shoul d enabl e a chi l d to l i nk thought wi th acti on, theor y
wi th pr acti ce, and i ntel l ect wi th acti v i sm. The goal of educati on
shoul d be to emphasi ze the need f or change.

Reconstructionists: George S. Counts, Theodore
Brameld, Paole Freire, Karl Marx, and Ivan Illich
Example: The r econstr ucti oni st and the car : To a
r econstr ucti oni st, the r edesi gn of the car to better
ser v e the needs of soci ety i s i mpor tant. How can the car
be i mpr ov ed to better ser v e the moder n soci ety of the
f utur e?
9.7. Existentialism
Ex i stenti al i sm spr ang f r om a str ong r ejecti on of the tr adi ti onal ,
essenti al i st appr oach to educati on. Ex i stenti al i sm r ejects the
ex i stence of any sour ce of objecti v e, author i tati v e tr uth about
metaphy si cs, epi stemol ogy , and ethi cs. Instead, they bel i ev ed that
i ndi v i dual s ar e r esponsi bl e f or deter mi ni ng f or themsel v es what i s
tr ue or f al se, beauti f ul or ugl y . For the ex i stenti al i st, ther e
ex i sts no uni v er sal f or m of human natur e; each of us has the f r ee
wi l l to dev el op as we see sui tabl e. They bel i ev e that peopl e come
f i r st, then i deas. Peopl e cr eate i deas so emphasi s of educati on
shoul d be on sel f -di scov er y .

Existentialists: Soren Kierkegaard, Martin
Heidigger, Martin Buber, and Jean-Paul Sartre
9.7.1. Existentialism as an Educational Philosophy
A good educati on emphasi zes i ndi v i dual i ty . Educati on
shoul d be v ar i ed as per the i ndi v i dual pr ef er ences.
Students shoul dnt hav e to attend cl asses, take
ex ami nati ons, and r ecei v e gr ades, and ther e shoul d not be
set cur r i cul um.
The teacher 's r ol e i s to hel p students def i ne thei r own
essence by ex posi ng them to v ar i ous paths they may take i n
l i f e and cr eati ng an env i r onment i n whi ch they may f r eel y
choose thei r own pr ef er r ed way .
Lear ni ng i s sel f -paced, sel f -di r ected, and i ncl udes a gr eat
deal of i ndi v i dual contact wi th the teacher , who r el ates to
each student openl y and honestl y .
Example: The ex i stenti al i st and the car : To an
ex i stenti al i st, the i ndi v i dual 's use of car i s i mpor tant.
Whatev er the i ndi v i dual wants to do wi th the car i s
much mor e i mpor tant. The ex per i ence of the i ndi v i dual
wi th the car i s the ul ti mate tr uth.
9.8. Educational Reforms and Various Education Commission
Reports
Af ter i ndependence, the gov er nment of Indi a appoi nted Uni v er si ty
Educati on Commi ssi on to l ook i nto the ex i sti ng sy stem of the
educati on i n the nati on. Ther eaf ter , i n or der to keep pace wi th the
soci al changes as wel l as sci enti f i c and technol ogi cal
adv ancements, the gov er nment of Indi a appoi nted some other
educati on commi ssi ons to r ef or m the ex i sti ng educati onal sy stem
i n or der to sati sf y soci al changes and sci enti f i c adv ancement.
9.8.1. University Education Commission, 19481949
Uni v er si ty educati on commi ssi on was appoi nted under the
chai r manshi p of Dr . Radha Kr i shnan by the gov er nment of Indi a
wi thi n a y ear af ter i ndependence. The commi ssi on was gi v en the
r esponsi bi l i ty to suggest str uctur al and qual i tati v e changes i n
hi gher educati on, whi ch wer e necessar y af ter f r eedom as the
Engl i sh sy stem of educati on was not appr opr i ate i n f r ee
democr ati c Indi a. Gi v en bel ow ar e the hi ghl i ghts of the r epor t
submi tted by the commi ssi on to the gov er nment of Indi a.
The commi ssi on suggested that the pur pose of school
educati on shoul d not be mer el y pr epar i ng the students f or
uni v er si ty wor k; r ather , i t shoul d al so f ocus on v ocati onal
wor k so that a student can ear n hi s/her l i v el i hood i f he/she
i s not goi ng to uni v er si ty f or hi gher educati on.
The school educati on shoul d al so f ocus on phy si cal tr ai ni ng
and gr oup acti v i ti es other than the i ntel l ectual knowl edge.
Secondar y School s shoul d i nsi st on the equal di gni ty and
i mpor tance of the di f f er ent cour ses they of f er . Ev er y pupi l
shoul d hav e knowl edge of the phy si cal wor l d i n whi ch he
l i v es (Geogr aphy ). Ev er y one shoul d know somethi ng of the
soci ety i n whi ch he/she l i v es, the gr eat f or ces that moul d
contempor ar y ci v i l i zati on (Soci al Sci ences). The study of
the l anguage and the l i ter atur e of our mother tongue shoul d
occupy the f i r st pl ace i n gener al educati on.
The commi ssi on suggested i n r el ati on to r ef or m of
secondar y educati on that a student shoul d not be admi tted
to a uni v er si ty unti l he/she has passed the i nter medi ate
ex ami nati on.
In r el ati on to pr of essi onal educati on, the commi ssi on
suggested that the f oundati on of pr of essi onal educati on
shoul d not onl y i ncl ude techni cal ski l l , but al so a sense of
soci al r esponsi bi l i ty , an appr eci ati on of soci al and human
v al ues and r el ati onshi ps, and di sci pl i ned power to see
r eal i ti es wi thout pr ejudi ce. Al l techni cal educati on shoul d
tr ansmi t techni cal under standi ng, ski l l , and method, not as
an i sol ated di sci pl i ne, but i n i ts total human and soci al
setti ng.
Women educati on was an i mpor tant ar ea that was
emphasi zed by the commi ssi on. It r ecommended that women
educati on shoul d f ami l i ar i ze a woman wi th pr obl ems of
home management and ski l l s i n meeti ng them.
The commi ssi on al so f ocused on nur si ng educati on and
suggested two ty pes of nur si ng cour ses: one i s di pl oma gr ade
cour se of 2 y ear s dur ati on af ter 10 y ear s of school i ng to
pr oduce practical nurse; other i s B.Sc. degr ee cour se af ter
hi gh school to pr oduce professional nurses. Studi es f or
degr ee cour ses shoul d i ncl ude gener al educati on, together
wi th cour se i n phy si cal and bi ol ogi cal sci ence as
pr epar ati on f or the speci al i zed cour ses of nur si ng
educati on. The nur si ng cour ses shoul d be combi ned wi th
actual pr acti ce at car i ng f or the si ck. The dur ati on of the
cour se shoul d be the same as that r equi r ed f or the B.Sc.
degr ee.
9.8.2. The Secondary Education Commission (Mudaliar
Commission), 1952
Secondar y Educati on Commi ssi on was appoi nted i n 1952 under the
Chai r manshi p of Dr . A. Lakshmanaswamy Mudal i ar to suggest
r ef or ms necessar y i n secondar y educati on.
Recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission
Commi ssi on suggested a new or gani zati on patter n of
secondar y educati on that shoul d commence af ter 4 or 5
y ear s per i od of pr i mar y educati on.
The i nter medi ate stage shoul d be r epl aced by the hi gher
secondar y stage, whi ch shoul d be of 4 y ear s dur ati on, 1 y ear
of the pr esent i nter medi ate bei ng i ncl uded i n i t.
Admi ssi on to pr of essi onal col l eges shoul d be open to those
who hav e compl eted the hi gher secondar y cour se, or hav e
taken the pr euni v er si ty cour se.
The mother tongue or the r egi onal l anguage shoul d
gener al l y be the medi um of i nstr ucti on thr oughout the
secondar y school stage.
At the hi gh and hi gher secondar y stage, at l east two
l anguages shoul d be studi ed, one of them bei ng the mother
tongue or the r egi onal l anguage.
Educati onal gui dance shoul d r ecei v e much gr eater
attenti on on the par t of educati onal author i ti es; the
ser v i ces of tr ai ned gui dance of f i cer s and car eer master s
shoul d be made av ai l abl e gr adual l y and i n i ncr easi ng
measur e to al l educati onal i nsti tuti ons.
The number of ex ter nal ex ami nati ons and subjecti v i ty i n
the essay -ty pe tests shoul d be mi ni mi zed by i ntr oduci ng
objecti v e tests and al so by changi ng the ty pe of questi ons.
9.8.3. National Education Commission (Kothari Commission),
196466
The commi ssi on i denti f i ed that the most i mpor tant and ur gent
r ef or m needed i n educati on i s to r el ate i t to the l i f e, needs, and
aspi r ati ons of the peopl e and ther eby make i t a power f ul
i nstr ument of soci al , economi c, and cul tur al tr ansf or mati on
necessar y f or r eal i zati on of the nati onal goal . Some i mpor tant
r ecommendati ons gi v en by the Nati onal Educati on Commi ssi on ar e
as f ol l ows:
Sci ence educati on shoul d be an i ntegr al par t of school
educati on and ul ti matel y become a par t of al l cour ses at the
uni v er si ty stage.
Vocati onal i zati on of secondar y educati on as wel l as
agr i cul tur al and techni cal educati on shoul d be emphasi zed.
Common school sy stem of publ i c educati on shoul d be
adopted as the nati onal goal .
The dev el opment of a common school sy stem of publ i c
educati on i n whi ch no f ees woul d be char ged, wher e access
to good school s wi l l be open to al l chi l dr en on the basi s of
mer i t, and wher e the standar d mai ntai ned woul d be hi gh
enough.
Adopti on of r egi onal l anguage as the medi um of
i nstr ucti ons.
Ener geti c acti on i s r equi r ed f or pr oducti on of books and
l i ter atur e, par ti cul ar l y sci enti f i c and techni cal , i n
r egi onal l anguages.
Pr ov i si on of f r ee and compul sor y educati on of good qual i ty
f or al l chi l dr en up to the age of 14 y ear s.
The educati on sy stem shoul d emphasi ze the dev el opment of
f undamental , soci al , mor al , and spi r i tual v al ues.
Upgr ade the r emuner ati on of teacher s substanti al l y ,
par ti cul ar l y at the school stage.
The qual i ty of the pr ogr amme of teacher educati on shoul d
be i mpr ov ed.
The most i mpor tant r ef or m f or hi gher educati on i s the
dev el opment of some major uni v er si ti es wher e f i r st cl ass
postgr aduate wor k and r esear ch woul d be possi bl e and
whose standar ds woul d be compar abl e to the best
i nsti tuti ons of thei r ty pe i n any par t of the gl obe.
At the ear l i er stage of the under gr aduate cour se, the bul k of
the i nstr ucti on may be gi v en thr ough the r egi onal
l anguage whi l e at the postgr aduate stage i t may be i n
Engl i sh.
9.8.4. National Policy on Education, 1968
Nati onal pol i cy on educati on sur f aced out f r om the di scussi on i n
the par l i ament on r ecommendati ons of the Kothar i Commi ssi on. It
l ai d str ess on the need f or a r adi cal r econstr ucti on of the educati on
sy stem, to i mpr ov e i ts qual i ty at al l stages, and gav e much gr eater
attenti on to sci ence and technol ogy , the cul ti v ati on of mor al
v al ues, and a cl oser r el ati on between educati on and the l i f e of the
peopl e. The hi ghl i ghts of the pol i cy ar e as f ol l ows:
Uni f or m str uctur e of educati on sy stem thr oughout the
countr y based on 10+;2+;3 sy stem of educati on.
Gr adual i ncr ease of i nv estment i n educati on up to 6%of
nati onal i ncome to meet the need of ex tr a r esour ces
r equi r ed f or r estr uctur i ng of educati on.
Sal ar y and ser v i ce condi ti ons of the teacher s shoul d be i n
accor dance wi th thei r qual i f i cati ons and wor k
r esponsi bi l i ti es. In-ser v i ce tr ai ni ng of the teacher s shoul d
be ensur ed.
In or der to r ecti f y r egi onal i nequal i ti es i n educati onal
f aci l i ti es, good educati onal i nf r astr uctur e has to be
dev el oped i n r ur al and backwar d ar eas.
Compul sor y women educati on to ensur e soci al justi ce.
Pr ov i si ons to ensur e educati on to backwar d cl ass, schedul e
caste, schedul e tr i be, and handi capped chi l dr en.
Need to i mpr ov e cur r i cul um to make i t usef ul as wel l as to
i mpr ov e tex tbooks and teachi ng str ategi es.
Speci al emphasi s to sci ence, techni cal , and v ocati onal
educati on i n school educati on.
Incr ease i n schol ar shi p schemes to moti v ate the students of
weaker secti on of soci ety f or educati on as pr ov i si on of
shor t-ter m cour ses and di stance-educati on cour ses.
9.8.5. National Education Policy, 1986
The hi ghl i ghts of nati onal educati on pol i cy (1986) ar e as f ol l ows:
Dev el opment of necessar y ski l l s and abi l i ti es i n chi l dr en
as per the r equi r ement of twenty -f i r st centur y .
Impr ov ement i n f aci l i ti es f or the ex pansi on and
dev el opment of pr i mar y educati on.
Admi ssi on to hi gher educati on and techni cal educati on
shoul d be based on qual i f i cati on.
Due emphasi s on open and di stance educati on, i nf or mal
educati on, nati onal l i ter acy pr ogr amme to i ncr ease the
oppor tuni ti es of educati on and dev el opment of soci ety .
Dev el opment of mi ni mum admi ssi on cr i ter i a at ev er y l ev el
of educati on so that equal i ty and qual i ty of educati on can
be mai ntai ned thr oughout the countr y .
Appr opr i ate f or mal and nonf or mal pr ogr ammes of
techni cal educati on shoul d be dev i sed f or the benef i t of
women, the economi cal l y and soci al l y weaker secti ons, and
the phy si cal l y handi capped.
Speci al emphasi s on the r emov al of di spar i ti es and to
equal i ze educati onal oppor tuni ty by pay i ng attenti on to
the speci f i c needs of those who hav e been deni ed equal i ty so
f ar .
Uni v er sal enr ol ment and uni v er sal r etenti on of chi l dr en
up to 14 y ear s of age.
A l ar ge and sy stemati c pr ogr amme of nonf or mal educati on
shoul d be l aunched f or school dr opouts, f or chi l dr en f r om
habi tati ons wi thout school s, and f or wor ki ng chi l dr en and
gi r l s who cannot attend whol e-day school s.
A begi nni ng shoul d be made i n del i nki ng degr ees f r om jobs
i n sel ected ar eas. Del i nki ng wi l l be appl i ed i n ser v i ces f or
whi ch a uni v er si ty degr ee need not be a necessar y
qual i f i cati on.
The new patter n of the r ur al uni v er si ty wi l l be
consol i dated and dev el oped on the l i nes of Mahatma
Gandhi 's r ev ol uti onar y i deas on educati on.
9.8.6. Yashpal Committee, 1992
The i mpor tant r ecommendati ons of the Yashpal Commi ttee ar e as
f ol l ows:
Setti ng up educati on commi ttees at v i l l age, bl ock, and
di str i ct l ev el to under take pl anni ng and super v i si on of
school s under thei r jur i sdi cti on.
Suf f i ci ent conti ngency amount (not <10 per cent of the
total sal ar y bi l l of the school ) to be pl aced at the di sposal of
the heads of school s f or pur chase, r epai r , and r epl acement
of pedagogi cal equi pment.
Jur i sdi cti on of CBSE be r estr i cted to Kendr i y a and
Nav oday a Vi dy al ay as and al l other school s be af f i l i ated to
the r especti v e State Boar ds.
Ther e i s no jur i sdi cti on f or tor tur i ng the y oung chi l dr en
by compel l i ng them to car r y v er y heav y bags of books
ev er y day to school s. Tex tbooks shoul d be tr eated as school
pr oper ty , and thus ther e shoul d be no need f or chi l dr en to
pur chase the books i ndi v i dual l y and car r y them dai l y to
homes.
The ex i sti ng nor m f or teacher pupi l r ati o (i .e., 1:40) shoul d
be enf or ced, and al l attempts shoul d be made to r educe thi s
to 1:30, at l east i n the pr i mar y cl asses, as a basi s f or f utur e
educati onal pl anni ng.
Gr eater use of the el ectr oni c medi a f or the cr eati on of a
chi l d-center ed soci al ethos i n the countr y . A r egul ar
tel ev i si on pr ogr amme Shiksha Darshan be l aunched,
al ong the l i nes of the Krishi Darshan pr ogr amme.
B.Ed. pr ogr amme has to be a r i gor ous, thor ough, and
i ntensi v e. Ther ef or e, B.Ed. degr ee cour ses by
cor r espondence to be der ecogni zed.
9.8.7. Revised National Education Policy, 1992
The i mpl ementati on pr ogr amme of nati onal pol i cy of educati on
(1986) was modi f i ed as per the suggesti on of Janardan Reddy
Committee, and a modi f i ed pl an of acti on was pr epar ed whi ch
hi ghl i ghted the f ol l owi ng poi nts:
Pr ov i si on of mi ni mum thr ee teacher s and thr ee cl assr ooms
i n each school .
Establ i shment of common school s i nstead of l abor hood and
speci al school s.
Conti nuati on of the schemes of oper ati on bl ack boar d and
school compl ex .
Ini ti ati on of v ocati onal educati on i n secondar y school s
al ong wi th hi gher secondar y school s.
Di str i ct l i ter acy mi ssi on to be star ted f or adul t educati on.
9.8.8. Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
Thi s act made pr ov i si on of f r ee and compul sor y educati on f or the
chi l dr en of the age of 6 to 14 y ear s. It r equi r es al l pr i v ate school s to
r eser v e 25%of seats to chi l dr en f r om poor f ami l i es. It al so
pr ohi bi ts al l unr ecogni zed school s f r om pr acti ce and makes
pr ov i si ons f or no donati on or capi tati on f ees and no i nter v i ew of
the chi l d or par ent f or admi ssi on i nto the school .
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
Educati on i s not meant by the sy l l abus bei ng taught i n the
school s. It i s nei ther the f or mul as nor the pr acti cal . Rather ,
educati on i s a way to go ahead and achi ev e y ou.
Ar i stotl e v i ewed educati on as cr eati on of sound mi nd i n
sound body .
Accor di ng to John Dewey, educati on i s the dev el opment of
al l the acti v i ti es i n the i ndi v i dual , enabl i ng hi m/her to
contr ol hi s/her env i r onment.
Ralph Tyler summar i zed the ai ms of educati on as: (a)
dev el opi ng sel f -r eal i zati on, (b) maki ng i ndi v i dual s l i ter ate,
(c) encour agi ng soci al mobi l i ty , (d) pr ov i di ng the ski l l s and
under standi ng necessar y f or pr oducti v e empl oy ment, (e)
f ur ni shi ng tool s r equi si te f or maki ng ef f ecti v e choi ces
r egar di ng mater i al and nonmater i al thi ngs and ser v i ces,
and (f ) f ur ni shi ng the tool s necessar y f or conti nued
l ear ni ng.
A pur pose i s the f undamental goal of the pr ocess that i s an
end to be achi ev ed. Functi ons ar e other outcomes that may
occur as a natur al r esul t of the pr ocess al so known as by -
pr oducts or consequences of school i ng.
For mal educati on, i nf or mal educati on, and nonf or mal
educati on ar e the thr ee ty pes of educati on.
For mal educati on i s concer ned wi th school s, col l eges,
uni v er si ty , and tr ai ni ng i nsti tuti ons.
Inf or mal educati on i s the l i f el ong pr ocess i n whi ch peopl e
l ear n f r om ev er y day ex per i ence.
Nonf or mal educati on r ef er s to or gani zed educati onal
acti v i ty outsi de the f or mal sy stems of educati on.
Di stance educati on has been descr i bed as a pr ocess to
cr eate and pr ov i de access to l ear ni ng when the sour ce of
i nf or mati on and the l ear ner s ar e separ ated by ti me and
di stance, or both.
Phi l osophy i s def i ned as l ov e of wi sdom. It i s of ten
concer ned wi th such thi ngs as power , pr ov ocati on, and
per sonal i ty .
Phi l osophy of educati on i s the phi l osophi cal study of
educati on and i ts pr obl ems.
Ideal i st bel i ev es that i deas ar e the onl y tr ue r eal i ty .
Real i sm phi l osophy mai ntai ns that mater i al and phy si cal
wor l d ex i sts i ndependent of i deas and thoughts.
Real i sm mai ntai ns that the tr uth of an i dea i s i ts
wor kabi l i ty . Tr uth i s not absol ute and i mmutabl e; r ather
i t i s made i n actual , r eal l i f e.
Natur al i sm i s the doctr i ne that separ ates natur e f r om God.
Accor di ng to thi s phi l osophi cal school of thought, natur e i s
supr eme, al l answer s shoul d be sought i n natur e, and i t
al one can sol v e al l the phi l osophi cal pr obl ems.
Ex i stenti al i sm r ejects the ex i stence of any sour ce of
objecti v e, author i tati v e tr uth about metaphy si cs,
epi stemol ogy , and ethi cs.
Uni v er si ty Educati on Commi ssi on, 19481949,
r ecommended two ty pes of nur si ng cour ses: one i s di pl oma
gr ade cour se of 2 y ear s dur ati on af ter 10 y ear s of school i ng
to pr oduce pr acti cal nur se, other i s B.Sc. degr ee cour se
af ter hi gh school to pr oduce pr of essi onal nur ses.
The Secondar y Educati on Commi ssi on (Mudal i ar
Commi ssi on), 1952, Nati onal Educati on Commi ssi on (Kothar i
Commi ssi on), 19641966, and Yashpal Commi ttee, 1992, ar e
i mpor tant commi ssi ons i n the hi stor y of educati on i n Indi a
whi ch r ef or med the Indi an sy stem of educati on.
Ri ght of Chi l dr en to Fr ee and Compul sor y Educati on Act,
2009, made pr ov i si on of f r ee and compul sor y educati on f or
the chi l dr en of the age of 6 to 14 y ear s.
EVALUATE YOURSELF

Q 1: Ex pl ai n br i ef l y the phi l osophy and ai ms of nur si ng educati on
(RGUHS, 2009).
Q 2: Ex pl ai n the cur r ent tr ends i n nur si ng educati on (MGU, 2008).
Q 3: Ex pl ai n the di f f er ence between pr agmati sm and natur al i sm
(MGU, 2007 ).
Q 4: Ex pl ai n the di f f er ence between pr agmati sm and i deal i sm
(MGU, 2008).
Q 5: Ex pl ai n the r el ati onshi p between phi l osophy and educati on
(RGUHS, 2006).
Q 6: Wr i te a shor t note on i deal i sm (MGU, 2009).
Q 7 : Ex pl ai n the tr ends and i ssues i n nur si ng educati on (MGU,
2009).
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

1. Wi l ki nson A. (1965). Hi stor y of nur si ng i n Indi a and Paki stan,
New Del hi : TNAI.
2. TNAI (2000). Hi stor y and tr ends i n nur si ng i n Indi a, New Del hi .
3. Hur ndr R., Leti man B. (183). Nur si ng educati on i n Indi a, New
Del hi : TNAI (1995).
4. Indi an Nur si ng Year Book, 19931995, New Del hi : TNAI.
5. TNAI (2002). Indi an Nur si ng Year Book, 2000, New Del hi : TNAI.
6. Cal l away R. (197 9). Teacher s bel i ef s concer ni ng v al ues and the
f uncti ons and pur poses of school i ng, Er i c Document
Repr oducti on Ser v i ce No. ED 17 7 110.
7 . Aggar wal J.C. Theor y and pr i nci pl es of educati on; phi l osophi cal
and soci ol ogi cal bases of educati on.
8. Lethbr i dge D.J. (1998) Independent study : A str ategy f or
pr ov i di ng baccal aur eate educati on f or RNs i n a r ur al setti ng.
Journal of Nursing Education, 27 , 183185.
9. Ruf o K.L. Ef f ecti v eness of sel f -i nstr ucti onal packages i n staf f
dev el opment acti v i ti es. Journal of Continuing Education in
Nursing, 1985, 16, 8083.
10. Bi l l i ngs D., Mar r i ner A., Smi th L. (1986). Cor r espondence cour ses:
An al ter nati v e i nstr ucti onal method. Nurse Education, 14, 1216.
11. Henr y P. (1993). Di stance l ear ni ng thr ough audi oconf er enci ng.
Nurse Education, 18, 2326.
12. Har dy D.W., Ol cott Jr . D. (1995). Audi oconf er enci ng and the adul t
l ear ner : Str ategi es f or ef f ecti v e pr acti ce. American Journal of
Distance Education, 9, 4460.
13. Cl ar k C.E. (1989). Tel ecour ses f or nur si ng staf f dev el opment.
Journal of Nursing Staff Development, 5(3), 107 110.
14. Boy d S., Baker C.M. (1987 ). Usi ng tel ev i si on to teach. Nursing and
Health Care, 8, 523527 .
15. Hei denr ei ter T.J. (1995). Usi ng v i deotel econf er enci ng f or
conti nui ng educati on and staf f dev el opment pr ogr ams. Journal of
Continuing Education in Nursing 26, 135138.
16. Mal tby D., Dr ew L., Andr usy szy n M.A. (1991). Di stance educati on:
Joi ni ng f or ces to meet the chal l enge. Journal of Continuing
Education inNursing, 22, 119122.
17 . Bi l l i ngs D., Bachmei er B. (1994). Teachi ng and l ear ni ng at a
di stance: A r ev i ew of the nur si ng l i ter atur e. In: Al l en L.R. (Ed.).
Review of research in nursing education, New Yor k, NY:
Nati onal League f or Nur si ng. pp. 132.
18. Par ki nson C.F., Par ki nson S.B. (1989). A compar ati v e study
between i nter acti v e tel ev i si on and tr adi ti onal l ectur e cour se
of f er i ngs f or nur si ng students. Nursing and Health Care, 10, 499
502.
19. Keck J.F. (1992). Compar i son of l ear ni ng outcomes between
gr aduate students i n tel ecour ses and those i n tr adi ti onal
cl assr ooms. Journal of Nursing Education, 31, 229234.
20. McCl el l and E., Dal y J. (1991). A compar i son of sel ected
demogr aphi c char acter i sti cs and academi c per f or mance of on-
campus and satel l i te-center RNs: Impl i cati ons f or the
cur r i cul um. Journal of Nursing Education, 30, 261266.
21. Shar on W. Tabor . (Spr i ng 2007 ). Nar r owi ng the di stance:
i mpl ementi ng a hy br i d l ear ni ng model . Quarterly Review of
Distance Education (I AP), 8(1), 4849. ISSN 1528-3518.
http://books.googl e.com/books?
i d=b46TLTr x 0kUC(http://books.google.com/books?id=b46TLTrx0kUC).
Retr i ev ed 23 Januar y 2011.
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22. Dr Nor man D. Vaughan. (2010). Bl ended l ear ni ng. In: Cl ev el and-
Innes M.F., Gar r i son D.R. An i ntr oducti on to di stance educati on:
Under standi ng teachi ng and l ear ni ng i n a new er a, Tay l or &
Fr anci s. p. 165. ISBN 0415995981. http://books.googl e.com/books?
i d=AI5as0y ooGoC(http://books.google.com/books?id=AI5as0yooGoC).
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23. Mi chael G. Moor e, Gr eg Kear sl ey . (2005). Di stance educati on: A
sy stems v i ew, 2nd edi ti on, Bel mont, CA: Wadswor th.
24. Coombs P. H., Ahmed M. (197 4). Attacking rural poverty. How
non-formal education can help, Bal ti mor e: John Hopki ns
Uni v er si ty Pr ess.
25. Jef f s T., Smi th M.K. (1996, 2005). I nformal education.
Conversation, democracy and learning, Ti cknal l : Educati on
Now.

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