Chapter37PlantNutrition

1. Nutritionalrequirementsforplants
a. Earlyideasofplantnutrition
i. Aristotlethoughtthatsoilprovidedallsubstancesforplantgrowht
ii. Vanhelmontsconclusionfromhsiexperimentwasthatplatnsmainly
grewfromwater
iii. Halethoughtplantsnourishedmostlybyair
b. Soil
i. mineralnutrients
1. NO3
c. Mineralnutrientsfromsoilonlymakeasmallconductiontooverallmassofaplant
i. watermakesupabout8085%ofplantsmass
ii. waterconsideredanutrientbecauseitsupplieshydrogenionsandoxygen
d. Mostofthewaterdoesnotcontributetoorganicmolecules
i. over90%islostbytranspiration
ii. mostofthewaterfunctionasasolvent
iii. providesmostofthemassforcellelongation
iv. maintaincellshape[turgidity]
e. byweight,mostoftheplantmasscomesfromCO2incorporatedfrom
atmosphere
f. uptakeofnutrientsisinbothrootsandleaves
i. roots
ii. usemycorrhizaeandroothairstoabsorbwaterandmineralsfromsil
iii. leavesCo2diffusesintoleavesthroughstomata
g. ofthe15%thatisnotwater
i. 95%isorganicsubstances
ii. 5%isinorganic
h. mostoforganicmaterialiscarbohydrateincludingcellulose
i. C,H,Oaremostabudantelementsindryweightofplant
ii. Nitrogen,Sulfer,andphosphorousandalsorelativelyabudant
i. K>50chemicalelementshavebeenidentifiedamongtheinorganicsubstances
i. unlikelythatallareessential
j. Mineralsinplantgeneticallyreflectthemineralscompositionofthesoil
2. Requirednutrientsandmicronutrients
a. requirenonemacronutrients
b. requireatleast8micronutrients
c. consideredessentialifrequiredforplanttogrowandcompletelifecycle
d. Hydroponiccultureshaveidentified17elementsthatareessentialnutrientsinalll
plants
i. partsaregrowninsolutionsofvariousmineralsdissolvedinknown
concentrations
e. Macronutrients:elementsrequiredinrelativelylargequantities
i. 9total
ii. includes6majoringredientsoforganiccompounds
1. carbon
2. oxygen
3. hydrogen
4. nitrogen
5. sulfur
6. phosphorous
iii. otherthree:
1. potassium
2. calcium
3. magnesium
f. Micronutrients
i. Iron
ii. Chlorine
iii. copper
iv. zinc
v. manganese
vi. molybdenum
vii. boron
viii. nickel
g. micronutrientsusedascofactorsinenzymereactions
i. ironinCytochromes
ii. eventhoughmicrnutrientsrequiredinextremelysmallamountsa
deficiencycanweakenorkillaplant
3. Symptomsofmineraldeficiencies
a. Magnesiumdefiency
i. ingredientofchlorophyllsocausesyellowingofleaves[chlorosis]
b. chlorosiscanalsobecausedbyirondeficiencybecauseirionisacofactorin
chlorophyllsynthesis
c. Symptomsalsodependonmobilityofnutrientwithinplant
i. ifmovesfreelysymptomswillappearinolderpartsofplantfirst
ii. ifnutrientsrelativelyimmobilethendeficiencywillaffectyoungofplantfirst
d. Mostcommondeficiencies
i. nitrogen
ii. potassium
iii. phosphorous
4. Hydroponics
a. ensuresthatplantgetsoptimalmineralnutrition
5. otherMineraldeficienciesoccurinaquaticplants
a. PlanktoninSourthernoceansarerestrainedingrowthbyirondeficienciesin
seawater
b. ResearchersdespersedsmallamountsofironbetweenTasmaniaandAntarctica
andthiscausedlargealgalbloomsthatpulledCO21outoftheair
c. MaybeawaytodecreasesCO2levelsinairbutalsomayhaveunanticipated
environmentalconsequences
6. Soilcharacteristics
a. thetextureandchemicalcompositionofsildetermineswhatplantswillgrowthere
b. Soilorigin
i. weatheringofsolidrock
ii. waterfreezesandbreaksrockandacidsinwaterhelpbreakdownrock
iii. Organismalsoinvolved:
1. lichens
2. fungi
3. bacteria
4. mosses
5. rootsofvascularplants
c. resultsinformationoftopsoil
i. mixtureofrock,livingorganismsandhumus
1. humusisresidueofpartiallydecayedorganicmaterial
ii. topsoilandotherdistinctsoillayersarecalledhorizons
1. oftenvisibleinaverticalprofile
d. textureoftopsoildependsonSizeofparticles
i. coarsesandtomicroscopicclayparticlesmostfertilesoilsareloams
ii. mostfertilesoilsareloams
iii. loamsmadeupofroughlyequalamountsofsand,silt,andclay
iv. mineralsandwateradheretofineparticles
v. coarseparticlesprovideairspace
e. inadequateoxygen
i. frominadequatedrainage
ii. plantssuffocatewhenairspacesreplacedbywater
iii. rootscanbeattackedbymoldsfavoredbysoakedsoil
f. someplantsadoptedtowaterloggedsoil
i. mangrovesinhabitswampsandmarshes
1. haverootsmodifiedashollowtubesthatgrowupandfunctionsas
snorkels
g. Topsoilhaslotsoflivingorganisms
i. 1teaspoonofsoilhasabout5billionbacteria
ii. alsovariousfungi,otherprotists,insects,earthworms,nematodes
iii. activitiesoftheseorganismsaffectpropertiesofsoil
iv. earthworms:aeratesoil
v. bacterialmetabolismaltersthemineralcomposition
h. humus
i. decomposingorganicmaterialformedbybacteriaandfungiondead
organismsfeces,fallenleaves,andotherorganicrefuse
ii. preventsclayfrompackingtogether
iii. buildscrumblysoilthatretainswaterbutstillpousenoughforaerationof
roots
iv. returnsmineralstosoil
i. mineralswithapositivechargeadheretoNegativelychargedclayparticles
i. thesemineralsarepreventedfromleachingoutinheavyrainsand
irrigation
j. Negativelychargedmineralstendtoleachoutmorequickly
k. positivelychargedmineralsaremadeavailabletoplantwhenhydrogenionsin
Soildisplacethemineralsfromtheclayparticles
i. processcalledcationexchange
ii. stimulatedbyrootswhichsecretehydrogenionsandcompoundsthat
formacidsinthesoilsolution
7. Soilconservation
a. DustBowl
i. 1930sinSWUnitedStates
ii. beforefarming,theregionwascoveredbygrassesthatheldsoilinplace
iii. inthe30yearsbeforeWW1homesteadersplantedwheatandraised
cattlewhichexposedthesoiltowinderosion
iv. severalyearsofdroughtresultedinlossofcentimeteroftopsoilthatwere
blownawaybywind
v. millionsofacresoffarmlandbecameuselessandpeopleabandonedtheir
homesandland
b. Agricultureisunnatural
i. naturalecosystemsrecyclemineralsbydecompositionoforganic
material
ii. inharvestingacropalltheorganicmaterialistakenaway
iii. agriculturedepletesminerals
iv. grow1toneofwheat:
1. soilgivesup18.2kgofnitrogen
2. 3.6kgofphospherous
3. 4.1kgofpatassium
v. fertilityofsoildiminishunlessreplacedbyfertilizers
c. Fertilizers
i. historicallyincludedanimalmanureandfishcarcasses
ii. modernfamringusescommercialfertilizers
1. enrichedinnitrogen,phosphorousandpotassium
iii. iffertilizerismarked10128
1. 10%nitrogen
2. 12%phosphorous
3. 8%potassium
4. Nitrogen:asammoniumornitrate
5. Phosphorous:phosphoricacid
6. Potassium:mineralpotash
d. Organicfertilizers
i. manure,fishmeal,andcompost
ii. biologicalorigin
iii. organicmaterialmustbedecomposedtotheinorganicnutrientsthatthe
rootscanabsorb
iv. releasenutrientsgradully
1. commercialfertilizersreleaseitimmediately
v. excessfertilziersleechedfromsoilbyrainandirrigationandmaypollute
Groundwater,streams,andlakes
e. soilpH
i. sulfatelowerspH
ii. limeraisespH
iii. moreacidicspoilswilldissolvealuminumandbecomestaxictoroots
f. wateristhemostimportantgrowthlimitingfactor
i. farminginaridregionsisahugedrainonwaterresources
ii. irrigationmakessoilSaltybecausethesaltsaccumulateinthesoilasthe
waterevaporates
1. makessoilinfertile
g. Topsoilsislosttowindandwatereveryyear
h. soilsisarenewableresource
i. goalissustainableagriculture
i. sometimessoilbecomescontaminated
i. removalandstorage
ii. phytoremediation
1. certainspeciesofplantscanextractheavymetersandpollutants
fromsoil
2. alpinepennycress[thlaspicaerulescens]canaccumulatezincin
itsshootsatconcentrationsthatare300xmorethanmostplants
cantolerate
8. Nitrogen
a. plantscantusenitrogeninformofN2
b. hastobeconvertedtoammonium[NH+4]ornitrate[No3]
c. mainsourceofnitrogenisdecompositionofhumusbymicrobes
d. denitrigyingbacteriaconnectN03backtoN2wichdiffusestoatmosphere
e. NitrogenfixingbacteriaconvertN2fromairtoammonium
i. callednitrogenfixation
ii. reductionofN2toNH3isacomplicatedmultistepprocessandis
catalyzedbyanenzymecomplxcallednitrogenase
iii. Insoil,theammoniapickupanotherhydrogentoformammonium[NH4+]
whichtherootscanabsorb
iv. Nitrifyingbacteriaoxidizeammoniumtonitratewhichplantscanalso
absorb
1. nitrateabsorbedbyroots,plantenzymesreducebackto
ammoniumwhichcanbe
9. Proteinyieldofcrops
a. proteindeficiencyisthemostcommoncauseofmalnutrition
b. moreproteininplantmeansmorenitrogenhastobeabsorbed
c. strategiesforincreasednitrogenrequirementsofhighproteinplants
i. useofNewcatalystsbasedonnitrogenous
ii. improvementsofproductivivtyofsymbioticnitrogenfixation
10. Symbioticnitrogenfixation
a. muchoftheresearchonthissymbiosishasfocusedonthelegumefamilyof
peas,beans,soybeans,peanuts,alfalfa,cover
b. Legumesrootshaveswellingallednodulesthatarecomposedofplantcellsthat
ontainthenitrogenfixingbacteriaRhizobium
c. theRhizobiumarecontainedwithinvesiclesformedbyrootcellandwecalled
bacterioids
d. rootnodulesbeginafterbacteriaenternotthroughaninfectionthread
i. chemicalsignalsfromrootattractthebacteriaandchemicalsignalsfrom
bacteriacuasetheproductionofaninfectionthread
ii. bacteriapenetratesrootcortex
iii. growthincortexandpericycliccellswhichareinfectedwithbacteriain
vessiclescontinuesuntilthemassesofdividingcellsfuseintoanodule
iv. asnodulecontinuestogorw.vasculartissueconnectsthenoduletothe
xylemandPhloemfothestelewhichprovidesnutrientstothenoduleand
carriesnitrogencompoundstorestofplant
v.
vi. useinagriculture
1. croprotatorexploitssymbioticniutrogenfixation
a. oneyearanonlegumecrop[corn]isplantedandthe
followingyearalegumesuchasalfalfaisplantedtorestore
nitrogentosoil
b. oftenthelegumecropisnotharvestedbutplowedunderto
decomposeasgreenmanure
c. ricebenefitsindirectlywhenplantedinthepaddywitha
waterferncalledAzolla
i. theAzollahasnitrogenfixingcyanobacteria
11. Recognitionbetweenlegumeandspecificbactera
a. plantrootssecreteflavanoidswhichentertheRhizobiumcelllivinginvicinity
b. eachparticularlegumesecretesatypeofflavanoidthatonlycertainRhizobium
specieswilldetectandabsorb
c. flavanoidactivatesageneregularNodD
d. NodDatranscriptionfactor,bindstotheNodbox,activatingtranscriptionofthe
nodgenes
e. productsofnodgenesaremetablocienzymes
f. enzymesproduceachitinlikesubstancecalledNodfactor
g. Nodfactortravelstorootandtriggersdevelopmentofinfectionthreadandnodule
12. Mycorrihizae
a. fungusroots
b. modifiedrootsconsistingofsymbioticassociationsoffungiandroots
c. fungusgetsgodogrowthenvironmentandsugarfromplant
d. fungusincreasessurfaceareaforwaterintakeandselectivelyabserbs
phosphateandothermineralstosupplytoplant
e. fungisecretesgrowthfactorsthatstimulaterootstogrowandbranch
f. fungiproduceantibioticsthatmayhelpporotectplantfrompathogenicbacteria
andfungi
g. almostallplantspeciesproducemycorrhizae
i. earlyadaptationfossilizedrootsfromearlylandplantshavemycorrhizae
h. Mycoorrhizaetaketwoforms:
i. Ectomycorrhizae
1. myceliumformsadensesheathoverthesurfaceattherootand
somehyphaegrowintothecortexinextracellularspacesbetween
rootcells
2. Endomycorrhizae
a. hyphae[arbuscles]penetratehostcellwhichincreases
surfaceareaforexchangeofnutrients
i. Ecto:doesnotpenetrate
1. hyphaedonotpenetratehostcellbutform
networkinextracellularspaces
2. generallythicker,shorter,morebranched
andlackroothairs
3. esp.commoninwoodyplantssuchas
Pines,Spruces,oaks,walnut,birch,willow,
andeucalyptusfamilies
ii. Endo:doespenetrate
1. fungalhyphaeextendfromrootintosoil
calledarbuscular
2. hyphaedigestsmallpatchesofrootcell
wallsandformtubesbyinvaginationsofroot
cellmembrane
3. arbuscles:denseKnotlikestructuresfor
nutrienttransfer
4. looklikenormalrootswithroothairs
5. foundinover905ofplantspeciesincluding
mostimportantcropplants
i. Parasiticplants
i. exampleismistletoe
1. usesprojectionscalledhaustoriatosiphonxylemsapfrom
vasculartissueofhosttree
ii. DodderandIndianpipeareparasiticplantsthatdonotperform
photosynthesisatall
iii. haustoria[modifiedroots)ofdoddertopintohostsvascualrtissuefor
waterandnutrients
iv. Indianpipeassociateswiththefungalhyphaeofhosttreesmycorrhizae
13. Carniverousplants
a. foundinacidbogsandotherhabitatswheresoilispoorandsupplementtheir
nutritionbyfeedingonanimals
b. makeowncarbohydratesbyphotosynthesis
c. obtainnitrogenbyingestinginsectsandothersmallanimasls
d. varioustypesofinsecttrapshaveevolvedbymodificationoftheirleaves
e. trapshaveglandsthatsecretedigestivejuices