Hospital Staff Nurses'readiness To Communicate in English As A Second Language

HOSPITAL STAFF NURSESREADINESS TO COMMUNICATE IN
ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

A Thesis Presented to
the Faculty of the Graduate Program
College of Teacher Education
University of the Cordilleras

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING
MAJOR IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

by
LEAH ANGIWAN-SALAYAO
April 2010

APPROVAL SHEET
This thesis entitled HOSPITAL STAFF NURSES READINESS
TO COMMUNICATE IN English AS A SECOND LANGUAGE prepared and
submitted by LEAH ANGIWAN-SALAYAO in partial fulfillment
for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING MAJOR IN
ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE, has been examined and is
recommended for acceptance and approval for oral
examination.
Ms. Marianita De Guzman, Ph.D.
Adviser

Thesis Committee

Ms. Teresita G. De Guzman Ms. Lani R. Valdez
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING

Ms. Rosemary T. Basbas
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

PANEL OF EXAMINERS
APPROVED by the Committee on Oral Examinations on
_____________________ with a grade of ___________________.

Ms. Rosemary T. Basbas
DOCTOR OF PHILISOPHY
Chairperson
Ms. Teresita G. De Guzman Ms. Lani R. Valdez
DOCTOR OF PHILISOPHY MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING

ACCEPTED AND APPROVED in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING
MAJOR IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE.
Comprehensive Examination passed on ________________.

Ms. Miriam A. Janeo, Ph.D.
Dean, College of Teacher Education

THESIS ABSTRACT

1. Title: HOSPITAL STAFF NURSES READINESS TO COMMUNICATE
IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

a. Total No. of Pages:
b. Text No. of Pages: 105

2. Researcher: SALAYAO, LEAH ANGIWAN

3. Type of Document: Thesis

4. Type of Publication: Unpublished

5. Accrediting Institution: University of the Cordilleras

6. Funding Agency:

7. Keywords: readiness to communicate, motivation,
linguistic self-confidence, attitude,
communicative competence
8. Abstracts:
8.1 Rationale/Background
English as an international language is used by more
than a billion people as a first, second or foreign
language. Consequently, the purpose of teaching English has
shifted from the traditional mastery of structure to the
ability to use the language for communicative purposes.
Thus, the issue of whether learners would communicate in
English when they had the chance and what would affect
their readiness to communicate gains importance. In the
Philippine context, professionals seeking employment
overseas has been a trend for sometime now, particularly
for those in the medical arena, such as nurses. The
objective of this study is to explore whether Filipino
nurses, whose goal is to work and live in an English
speaking country, are ready to communicate in English by
examining the different affective, socio-psychological,
linguistic and communicative variables in the Willingness
to Communicate model proposed by MacIntyre et.al. (1998).
In facing the challenges of the future, it is envisaged
that Filipino nurses need to be competent and ready to use

English so that they would be capable of achieving global
recognition and accreditation for excellence in their field
of profession.

8.2 Summary

This study intends to determine the degree of
readiness to communicate in English of hospital staff
nurses and what affects their readiness.

The research study aims to answer these specific questions:

1. What are the hospital staff nurses perceptions of
their:
a. readiness to communicate
b. level of motivation
c. linguistic self-confidence
d. attitude toward the international community
e. personality

H1: Hospital staff nurses are:
a. always ready to communicate in English
b. highly motivated to learn
c. have a moderate degree of linguistic
self-confidence
d. have a highly positive attitude towards the
international community
e. and are moderately extroverted

2. What is the level of oral communicative competence in
English of the hospital staff nurses?

H2: Hospital staff nurses have good oral
communicative competence in English.

3. What is the relationship between oral communicative
competence of the nurses and the following variables?
a. readiness to communicate in English
d. attitude towards the international community
e. personality

H2: Oral communicative competence is significantly
correlated with:

d. positive attitude towards the international
community
e. extrovert personality

4. What training program(s) may be developed to improve
the nurses English language learning in the areas of
readiness to communicate in English, motivation,
linguistic self-confidence, attitude towards the
international community and personality?

The study employed the descriptive-survey design to
gather data and the correlational approach to determine the
direction and degree of relationship between oral
communicative competence and the variables readiness to
communicate, linguistic self-confidence, motivation,
attitude towards international community and personality.
The group of respondents consisted of 32 hospital staff
nurses employed in the main hospitals in Baguio City. Each
respondent completed a set of questionnaires to determine
their readiness to use English, motivation to learn
English, their confidence in the language, attitude towards
other peoples and cultures, and their degree of
extroversion. The respondents also submitted the results of
their IELTS speaking examinations to determine their
communicative competence in oral English.

8.3 Findings
Based on the data gathered, the following are the
major findings:
1. Hospital staff nurses were sometimes willing to
communicate in English, more so with their patients
in a conversation than with their colleagues and
superiors in a large meeting.
2. Hospital staff nurses are moderately motivated to
learn English. They feel that self-study and
enhancement classes are necessary to improve in the
language.
3. Nurses have a moderate degree of linguistic self-
confidence. They were moderately anxious when
speaking in English and they perceive themselves to
be moderately competent in the language.
4. Nurses have a highly positive attitude towards the
international community.

5. Hospital staff nurses are moderately extroverted.
6. Nurses mean IELTS speaking score was 7. 23, meaning
they had good command of the English language.
7. There were no significant correlations between
communicative competence and readiness to
communicate, motivation, linguistic self-confidence,
attitude towards the international community, and
personality.
8. There were significant correlations between
readiness to communicate and linguistic self-
confidence; language anxiety and perceived
competence; motivation and attitude towards the
international community; and linguistic self-
confidence and personality.

8.4 Conclusions
Based on the results of the study, the following
can be concluded:
1. Hospital staff nurses are ready to communicate in
English, preferably with their patients in an
interpersonal conversation.
2. Hospital staff nurses are motivated to learn English
on their own and through short structured enhancement
programs.
3. Hospital staff nurses are not highly anxious when
using English and they perceive themselves to be
competent in speaking the language. Their anxiety
increases when speaking in a large group, and their
perception of their competence decreases when speaking
to their superiors.
4. Hospital staff nurses have a positive attitude towards
other peoples and cultures.
5. Hospital staff nurses are generally extroverted.
6. Hospital staff nurses have good proficiency in oral
English and meet the requirements in this area for
immigration and employment overseas.
7. The nurses readiness to speak in English, their
motivation to learn, their confidence in the language,
their attitude towards other people and cultures, and
their being extroverted do not directly influence
their competence in spoken English.
8. Hospital staff nurses readiness to communicate in
English is affected by their confidence in the use of
the language. When they have low anxiety and perceive

themselves to be competent in speaking, nurses are
more ready to engage in communication in English.
9. The nurses motivation to learn English is influenced
by their attitude towards other peoples and cultures
in the international realm.
10. The nurses perception of their English
competence influences their levels of anxiety in the
use of the language.
11. The nurses degree of extroversion affects their
confidence in the use of English.
12. The proposed program to develop linguistic self-
confidence in the English learner is appropriate to
decrease the learners language anxiety and to develop
readiness to use the language.

8.5 Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following are
recommended:
1. Hospitals should develop and implement staff training
programs to help their nurses develop the readiness to
use English in presentations and meetings with their
colleagues and superiors. Because these nurses are
motivated to learn, the programs can be given on a
regular basis to ease the nurses anxiety in public
speaking. This will allow the nurses to grow
professionally and to make them locally and globally
more competitive in their field.
2. Universities and non-academic training institutions
should continuously promote the enhancement of English
competence in their students and professionals. This
can be achieved through integrating English in all
aspects of the curriculum, as well as through
workshops and short programs that allow for meaningful
and authentic use of English in real-life contexts.
3. English language education especially for adults,
whether in the academe or otherwise, should focus on
decreasing the learners anxiety in the use of the
language through familiarization and constant use.
This will in turn develop their readiness to speak in
English, allowing them to initiate communication in
actual situations. In addition, encouraging the use of
English will help students form improved judgments of
their language competence and will consequently ease
their language anxiety.

4. As part of English language education, learners should
be made aware of the culture in which the English
language is used. Media can be utilized to bring to
the students English in its actual context. Students
can watch shows and movies, after which discussion and
feedback take place. Learners should also be
encouraged to keep abreast of current events happening
in and outside of their country. A healthy attitude
towards other people and their culture will keep
learners motivated to learn about them and their
language.
5. Language classes should be kept small. While this is
extremely difficult and unrealistic to pursue in many
academic institutions, this is possible in centers
that provide language enhancement workshops and
programs. A smaller learning group allows for even
the most reticent student to speak up. Teachers should
expertly facilitate each students talking time so
that the more talkative student does not take up all
of the time, at the expense of the quieter ones.

Other recommendations in relation to the study are as
follows:
1. Since the study failed to establish connections
between communicative competence and readiness to
communicate, motivation, linguistic confidence,
personality, further research may be conducted to
investigate the more immediate antecedents of language
competence.
2. The study was conducted exclusively among a limited
number of nurses, therefore, it is safe to say that
the results are applicable to this particular group.
Future studies can use a bigger number of participants
coming from a variety of professions to allow for more
generalized findings and conclusions.
3. According to the Willingness to Communicate model
(MacIntyre et.al., 1998) there are both enduring and
situational variables that affect ones readiness to
communicate in a foreign or second language. The
current study, however, examined only the enduring
variables such as confidence and personality. Further
research is needed to examine the effect of situation-
specific variables, such as a persons desire to
communicate with specific people. This will require a
longitudinal qualitative study in various situations
both inside and outside the classroom.

4. The current study focused solely on the speaking mode
of the English language. Future research needs to
consider the readiness to communicate of L2 learners
in the other language modes writing, reading and
listening.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writing of this paper has been a journey in
humility and patience for the researcher. It was not an
easy ride, but it was well worth it. The researcher is
indebted to:
UC-BCF, who has been a home for learning for three
generations, to date, in this researchers family.
The educators who shared their expertise and guided
this research.
A colleague and friend, Ms. Marifel Tipay, who made
the researcher feel that she was not alone in this
experience.
Her sisters, Rachel and Keren, for being her best
friends and editors, and for so lovingly stepping in as
substitute moms to Hali.
Her parents, Engr. David C. Angiwan and Mancy Eming-
Angiwan, for passing on their passion for education and for
preaching and living: Good, better, best, never let it
rest, til your good is better and your better best.
Her grandfather, Mr. Matias Angiwan Sr., for being a
testimony to teaching and learning must never stop.
Her husband, Engr. Honor S. Salayao, for allowing her
to find her career path, and for supporting and encouraging
her to grow in it; for being a faithful prayer partner,
shock-absorber and inspiration.
Her daughter Hali, whose young and generous heart gave
her mom what she needed to keep going unconditional love.
Mostly, to the Shepherd of her Soul, whose grace was
and will always be sufficient.

l.a.s.

DEDICATION

This is for NOAHS ARK.
May it be used to help build lives.

leah

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
TITLE PAGE....................................... 1
APPROVAL SHEET................................... 2
ABSTRACT......................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENT................................... 10
DEDICATION....................................... 11
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................ 12
LIST OF TABLES................................... 15
LIST OF FIGURE................................... 16
CHAPTER
1 THE PROBLEM

Background of the Study................ 17

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework....... 24

Statement of the Problem and Hypotheses. 50

2 DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Research Design and Methodology........ 54

Population and Locale of the Study..... 55

Data Gathering Tools................... 58

Data Gathering Procedure............... 63

Treatment of Data...................... 64

3 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
OF DATA
Readiness to Communicate............... 69
Motivation............................. 72
Linguistic Self-confidence............. 75
Attitude Towards the International
Community.......................... 81
Personality............................ 84
Communicative Competence............... 86
Correlations Between Variables......... 88
Sample Program......................... 104
4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions............................ 118
Recommendation......................... 120
REFERENCES....................................... 124
APPENDICES
A. Letter to Respondents.................. 129
B. Questionnaire on Readiness to
Communicate.......................... 130
C. Questionnaire on Motivation............ 132
D. Questionnaire on Linguistic
Self-confidence...................... 134
E. Questionnaire on Attitude Towards
the International Community.......... 137

F. Questionnaire on Personality........... 139
G. IELTS Band Score Descriptions.......... 141
H. Questionnaire on Language Anxiety
and Perceived Communication
Competence for Proposed Program...... 143
I. Self Introduction Guide................ 146
J. Basics of Effective Communication...... 147
K. Speaking Checklist..................... 148

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
1 Nurses Readiness to Communicate in English.. 70
2 Nurses Motivation to Learn English.......... 74
3 Nurses Communication Anxiety in English..... 77
4 Nurses Perceived Competence in English...... 80
5 Nurses Attitude Towards the International
Community.................................... 83
6 Nurses Degree of Extroversion (Personality). 85
7 Nurses Communicative Competence in English.. 87
8 Correlations Among Variables................. 89

LIST OF FIGURE
Figure Page
1 Paradigm of the Study........................ 53

The Problem
17

Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM
Background of the Study
English is spoken by more people and is recognized by
more countries as a desirable lingua franca than any other
language in the world (Crystal, 2001, as cited in Mair,
2003). Teaching and learning English as a second language
(ESL) or a foreign language (EFL) to non-native speakers
serves the most obvious and important function of enabling
the learner to become competent in global communication.
In fact, Graddol (as cited in Mair, 2003) says, native
speakers may feel the language belongs to them, but it will
be those who speak English as a second or foreign language
who will determine its world future (p. 140).
In a study by Kachru (1991), he divides the use of
English into three concentric circles. The innermost
circle is the native or traditional base of English and
includes countries such as the United States, the United
Kingdom, Ireland, and other countries that historically
became white colonies such as Australia and New Zealand.
The outer circle encompasses those countries where English
has official or historical significance. This includes most
of the former British Empire, populous countries such as
India and Nigeria that became British colonies at one point
The Problem
18

in history, and those who fell under the American
influence, such as the Philippines. The expanding circle
refers to countries, such as China and Korea, where English
has no official role but is nonetheless important for
specific functions such as international trade.
In the Philippines, the English language is not
considered a native language; but interestingly, it is the
language that Filipinos view as their key to economic and
social mobility (McKay, 1992; Gramley & Patzold, 1992).
English is also the countrys medium of educational
instruction; however, it can be argued that in practice,
English is not always the main language inside the
classroom. Nevertheless, the Philippine government
recognizes the importance of the language so that in 2006,
the Department of Education restructured the curriculum to
give special emphasis and increased time for English in
schools (Melencio, 2006).
For professionals seeking employment overseas, there
are available learning and review programs such as those
conducted by the Overseas Workers Welfare Administration
(OWWA) and others by training and review centers for
English enhancement and proficiency tests such as the
International English Language Testing System (IELTS) and
The Problem
19

the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). This
leads one to conclude that Filipinos, whether studying or
working, recognize their need to master the worlds lingua
franca. In other words, learning English is a must.
This study will focus on adult nursing professionals
learning to enhance their skills in the English language
for purposes of meeting requirements set by countries where
English is the main code of communication. The most popular
degree in the Philippines today is Nursing. More than
100,000 Filipino nurses have left the country in recent
years to seek employment abroad (Palatino, 2006). According
to the Department of Health, 85 percent of the countrys
total number of licensed nurses is to be found in the
hospitals of other countries, and one reason why the
Philippines is a top supplier of nurses in the world is
that it produces skilled nursing graduates who can speak
good English (Palatino, 2006).
The National Council of State Boards of Nursing in the
USA has set its English proficiency passing standards at an
Overall Band Score of 6.5 and a Speaking Band Score of 7 in
the IELTS examinations (Hellquist, K. & Wendt, A., 2008).
When translated, on a scale of 1-9, the band score of 6.5
means the English user is a competent user that is, he
The Problem
20

has generally effective command of the language despite
some inaccuracies, inappropriacies, and misunderstandings;
can use and understand fairly complex language (Cambridge
ESOL Department, 2007, p.4) He must also be a good
user(Band 7)in oral communication meaning one with
occasional mistakes but handles complex language well and
understands detailed reasoning. Other countries like the
United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand have raised the
bar and expect their foreign nurse practitioners to achieve
at least a band 7 in all of the four macroskills tested-
Listening, Reading, Writing, Speaking (Australian Nursing
and Midwifery Council, 2009).
It is in this context that the focus on communicative
competence in the English language is strongly applied,
more so because in the past two decades, there has been a
shift in emphasis in second language teaching and learning
in the academe from mastery of structures to expression
of meanings (Nunan, 2009). MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei &
Noels (1998) recently developed a Willingness to
Communicate (WTC) model that encompasses affective, socio-
psychological, linguistic, and communicative variables.
McCroskey and Baer (1985 as cited in McIntyre et.al., 1998)
have defined willingness to communicate as the
The Problem
21

probability of engaging in communication when free to do
so.
In the pyramid-shaped model, the top most layer
labeled Communication Behavior, becomes the goal of any
language learning experience. The relationships among the
12 variables in the model have become the foci of recent
research studies (MacIntyre, Baker, Clement, & Conrod,
2001; Cetinkaya, 2005; Dornyei, 2003; Hashimoto, 2002; Kim,
2004). Generally, these studies show direct or indirect
correlations among the variables (Cetinkaya, 2005).
Furthermore, McCroskey and Richmond, (1990 as cited in
Cetinkaya, 2005) who first used the construct of
Willingness to Communicate found in their studies that
WTC and its degree of relations among the variables of
anxiety, competence and personality differed among
countries. They likewise suggested that conclusions drawn
from research have to be done in reference to culture.
The objective of this study is to explore whether
Filipino nurses, whose goal is to work and live in an
English speaking country, are ready to communicate in
English by examining the different affective, socio-
psychological, linguistic and communicative variables in
the Willingness To Communicate model.
The Problem
22

The study poses theoretical and pedagogical
significance. First, the respondents in the study will be
examined along five variables found in the WTC model,
namely willingness to communicate, motivation, linguistic
self-confidence, attitude towards the international
community, and personality. Furthermore, the study will
establish whether these variables show a significant
correlation with communicative competence or not, revealing
whether these variables in the proposed WTC model play a
significant role in second language acquisition (SLA). The
comprehensive model acts as a broad framework which employs
the situational approach (social + classroom) and this
appears to be a particularly fruitful direction for future
L2 research (Dornyei, 2003). The findings in the study
will, thus, contribute to the understanding of second
language acquisition and communication, especially in the
Philippine context.
Results of the study will have implications for
learners, language teachers, trainers and program/material
designers. The needs of English language learners will be
more clearly identified. Since the study will focus on
nurses who are enhancing their English skills in short-term
programs, once the learner knows exactly what he/she needs
The Problem
23

to improve, his/her learning time will be maximized and
improvement in the area of need will take place at a
greater pace. When this happens, nurses can be better
prepared for English proficiency exams that are required of
them for purposes of immigration and employment.
Furthermore, improvement in English skills will make them
ready for communicating in an English speaking country. For
the language teacher, when he/she is aware of learners
needs, instruction in these short-term programs can be more
focused and directed to addressing students needs on an
individual and a class basis. The teacher can work together
with program designers, or can be one him/herself, so that
existing programs can be improved to accommodate students
needs or special programs can be developed for this
purpose. This study will also be beneficial generally for
further research into second language acquisition,
specifically for English. The results can be used as a
spring board for conducting further, more widespread
surveys of the needs of students particularly along the
five main variables used in the study. This can be fruitful
both here in the Philippine setting, as well as in other
countries such as India, that also send off many of their
professionals to work in English speaking countries.
The Problem
24

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The purpose of this study is to examine whether
Filipino nurses are ready to communicate in English as a
second language and the affective, socio-psychological,
linguistic and communicative variables that are related to
these nurses readiness. Relevant studies will be reviewed
in this section under these subheadings: willingness to
communicate, linguistic self-confidence, motivation and
attitudes, personality, and oral communicative competence.
Willingness to communicate. McCroskey and Baer (1985,
as cited in MacIntyre, MacMaster, Baker, 2001) employed the
term willingness to communicate to describe a personality
trait reflecting an individuals inclination to communicate
when given a choice. Willingness to communicate was first
used to refer to first language communication. This concept
was founded upon the works of Burgoon (1976, as cited in
McIntyre, et.al., 2001) on unwillingness to communicate and
on McCroskey and Richmonds study (1982, as cited in
MacIntyre, et.al., 2001) on shyness. These studies, along
with others (McCroskey & McCroskey, 1988; MacIntyre, 1994,
as cited in MacIntyre et.al., 1998) reveal that the most
immediate influences on willingness to communicate are
communicative competence and communicative apprehension.
The 1988 study by McCroskey showed that self-perceived
The Problem
25

communicative competence tends to be more highly correlated
with WTC compared to actual communicative competence.
Studies on communication apprehension (Gardner, Day,
MacIntyre, 1992; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; Rubin, 1990;
Ayres, 1992; Kuhl, 1994, as cited in MacIntyre et. al.,
2001) showed this antecedent to be consistently one of the
best predictors of WTC, playing a role also in motivation
to use a language. Apprehension to speak has a negative
impact on communicative competence because speakers recall
less information and have more task irrelevant thoughts.
MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei and Noels (1998) later
expanded the construct of willingness to communicate in the
second language. They suggest that while many factors, such
as the situation and the characteristics of the listeners,
have the potential to change an individuals WTC, perhaps
the most dramatic variable one can change in the
communication setting is the language of discourse
(p. 546). Prior to this, MacIntyre and Charos, (1996, as
cited in Cetinkaya, 2005) conducted a study and found that
personality, attitudes, and perceived competence were
correlated with WTC, but they were surprised to find a
missing connection between WTC and motivation.
The Willingness to Communicate model (MacIntyre, 1998)
is shaped in a pyramid to show more basic, enduring
The Problem
26

influences on L2 communication (intergroup variables,
personality, etc.) at the bottom moving towards the tip of
the model where one can find more proximal, situational
variables, such as desire to communicate with a specific
person. It is hypothesized that while the top layers of the
pyramid have more critical influence the bottom layers have
more distant influence on WTC. For instance, communicative
competence, a construct three layers away from WTC, has
been proven in several studies (Lui, 2001; Khanna, Verma,
Sinha, Agnihotri, 1998) to show no direct relationship with
WTC.
The model, although fairly recent, has caught the
attention of various researchers, especially in the fields
of applied linguistics and second language acquisition.
Most of the earlier studies on WTC in the L2 were conducted
in the Canadian setting. In 2000, Baker and MacIntyre (as
cited in Cetinkaya, 2005) conducted a study among Canadian
high school immersion and non-immersion students whose
first language is English and who learn French as a second
language. The students completed a questionnaire expressing
positive and negative experiences while learning and
communicating in French. The results showed that between
non-immersion and immersion students, the former were more
willing to communicate, had lower communication anxiety,
The Problem
27

had greater competence in and communicated more frequently
in French. For both groups, WTC showed significant
correlation with communication anxiety, frequency of
communication and WTC in the first language (English).
Perceived competence in French showed significant
correlation only for the non-immersion group. Gender did
not play a role in the motivation of immersion students,
however, for those in the non-immersion program, females
showed higher motivation compared to males.
MacIntyre, Baker, Clement, & Conrod (2001)
investigated relationships among WTC, social support and
language learning orientations of French immersion
students. The 9
th
grade participants were asked to complete
a four-part questionnaire divided into the following
sections: (1) WTC in the classroom, (2) WTC outside the
classroom, (3) orientations/reasons toward/for language
learning, (4) who offered them support in their French
learning. The researchers found that learners who showed
orientations toward learning French for the purposes of
academic achievement, job considerations, friendship,
knowledge, and travel also were inclined to demonstrate a
WTC both inside and outside the language classroom. The
support of friends was also associated with learners WTC
outside the classroom.
The Problem
28

The following year, MacIntyre, Baker, Clement and
Donovan (2002) examined the role of gender and age on WTC
and L2 communication. The participants were 7
th
, 8
th
and 9
th

grade junior high school students in a French immersion
course. Results showed that the older students (8
th
and 9
th

graders) and the females were more willing to communicate;
and that overall, students showed higher WTC in their first
language (English) than in French. Moreover, students in
grades 8 and 9 communicate more frequently in French than
those in grade 7; however, motivation to learn declined
from grade 7 to 8 and 9. The authors of the study concluded
that the constructs willingness to communicate and
frequency of communication correlate with each other.
The challenge of further exploring WTC was also taken
up by researchers outside of the Canadian setting.
Hashimoto (2002) studied the effect of WTC and motivation
on actual L2 use of Japanese ESL students. His structural
equation model showed that WTC and motivation directly
affect L2 communication. Furthermore, perceived
communicative competence and language anxiety proved to be
strong antecedents of WTC, L2 anxiety having a negative
influence on perceived competence. Unlike the original
study of MacIntyre and Charos (1996, as cted in Cetinkaya,
2005), Hashimoto found a strong relationship between
The Problem
29

motivation and WTC. Similar to the Canadian studies,
perceived communicative competence and L2 anxiety showed
strong associations with WTC.
Another study using Japanese participants in the
English as a foreign language (EFL) context was conducted
by Yashima (2002, as cited in Centinkaya, 2005). Instead of
assessing students attitude towards the native speaker
group, the author tested their attitude towards the
international community. She tested her proposed structural
equation model and found a relation between WTC and L2
self-confidence and international posture; motivation as an
antecedent to self-confidence and proficiency in English;
and a relationship between international posture and
motivation.
In the Korean setting, Kim (2004) replicated Yashimas
(2002, as cited in Cetinkaya, 2005) study and using
structural equation modeling found WTC to be more trait-
like than situational. Attitude towards the international
community did not show a direct relationship with WTC;
however, this variable did show a direct relation with
English learning motivation. Motivation also showed an
indirect relation with WTC through L2 confidence.
Cetinkaya (2005) undertook a study of WTC in the
Turkish context. A novel aspect of this study was in its
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methodology-a hybrid design that used both quantitative and
qualitative data collection and analysis. In the former
method, questionnaires were completed by 365 randomly
selected Turkish university students, after which
interviews were conducted with 15 of these participants
under the latter method. The results of the study revealed
that WTC was directly correlated with the students
attitude towards the international community and their
perceived linguistic self-confidence. Personality and
motivation were found to be indirectly related to WTC
through self-confidence. Lastly, personality showed a
relation with attitude towards the international community.
A purely qualitative study was conducted by Nagy and
Nikolov (2007) among English majors studying at the
University of Pecs in Hungary. The study explored WTC on
the situational level by examining students personal notes
on the variables that played a role in their willingness to
communicate in English as a foreign language. The study
showed that 85% of students felt most willing to
communicate in English outside the classroom, in an
informal context. Only 9% felt willing to communicate
inside the classroom and the remaining 6% said they were
comfortable in both settings. The study showed students
were least willing to speak in a formal classroom setting
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(31 out of 61) and the other 29 students described events
in an informal, non-classroom setting that were unpleasant
which made them unwilling to use English in those specific
situations. Students explained that they were inhibited to
speak because of their perception that other students in
the class were more proficient and linguistically more
experienced than themselves. When it came to the topic of
conversation, the students felt that if they could not
relate to the topic that they were asked to talk about, or
if they did not know much about it, then they felt less
willing to communicate.
Willingness to communicate is a powerful mediating
factor between having the competence to communicate and
actually putting this competence into practice (Dornyei,
2005). Conversely, while it is true that broadly speaking
the goal of communicative language teaching is to promote
the learners language competence in the target language,
it is not uncommon to find people who tend to avoid L2
communication even if they possess a high level of L2
competence. Willingness to communicate, as the immediate
antecedent of actual initiation of L2 communication, is
defined in this context by MacIntyre et.al. (1998) as a
readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with
a specific person or persons, using a L2 (p. 547). In this
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study, therefore, the term willingness to communicate is
interchangeable with readiness to communicate.
Attitudes and Motivation. Studies on motivation in the
area of second language learning and use were pioneered by
the work of Gardner and Lambert in the 1960s. Based on
these studies, Gardner later developed his socio-
educational model of motivation to explain second language
acquisition and its relation to motivation from a social-
psychological perspective. Succeeding research on
motivation has been greatly influenced by this framework.
According to Gardner (1985, as cited in Cetinkaya,
2005) the model focuses on motivation composed of two
constructs - integrativeness and attitude towards the
language community. These constructs are founded on the
attitudes of the learner toward other ethnic groups and the
language learning context. Gardner and MacIntyre (1992, as
cited in MacIntyre, 2002) later refined this model
identifying four major components: the social-cultural
milieu, individual differences, language acquisition
contexts, and language learning outcomes. According to the
models authors, the socio-cultural milieu plays a role in
influencing both cognitive and affective differences among
language learners. Attitudes and motivation, language
anxiety, and self-confidence are variables under the
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affective domain. In the context of communicative
competence, Clement (1998) found that attitudes and
motivation are not directly related to proficiency.
Moreover, he found attitudes to be influenced more strongly
by other factors such as ethnocentrism, rather than by the
L2.
The integrative motive is the central component of the
social dimension of language learning motivation (Dornyei,
1996). It is comprised of three major variables: attitudes
toward the learning situation, integrativeness, and
motivation. Integrativeness begins with beliefs present in
the socio-cultural milieu and reflects the learners
interest in social interactions with the L2 community and
attitudes toward the learning situation. The motivation
component is defined by Gardner (1985, as cited in
MacIntyre, 2002) as the interaction of the learners
motivational intensity, desire to learn the language, and
attitudes toward the target language. This satisfies his
general definition of motivation-having a goal, desire to
achieve that goal, positive attitudes, and exerting effort.
While Gardners model became the theoretical basis for many
studies in motivation after its conception, it was met with
some criticism. As Dornyei (2003) puts it:
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By emphasizing the sociocultural dimension of L2
motivation, Gardners (1985) approach offered a
macroperspective that allowed researchers to
characterize and compare the motivational pattern of
whole learning communities and then to draw inferences
about intercultural communication and affiliation
However, the macroperspective is less adequate for
providing a fine-tuned analysis of instructed SLA,
which takes place primarily in language classrooms
Researchers started to examine the motivational impact
of the various aspects of the learning context, for
example, course specific motivational components,
teacher specific motivational components and group
specific components (p.11).
Dornyei (1990, as cited in Cetinkaya, 2005) conducted a
study among Hungarian students in the English-as-a-foreign
language setting. He argued that in this setting
instrumental orientation (motivation to learn a language as
a means of attaining goals such as furthering a career,
ones studies, or for business) would be more strongly
associated with language achievement than would integrative
orientation (motivation to integrate within the culture of
the second language group). In addition, Gardner and
Lambert (1972, as cited in Khanna, et.al., 1998) themselves
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found in a study among Filipinos that instrumental
motivation in learning English exerted as much influence on
learning than did integrative motivation. However, after a
large-scale study a decade later, Dornyei (2001, as cited
in Cetinkaya) changed his previous position and found the
integrative motive to still be more influential in
learners affective dispositions, the choice of language,
and in the general effort they put into their language
studies.
In contrast, a study by Al-Ansari (1993) found no
direct relationship between integrative or instrumental
motivation and English language competence among
participants in the study. However, students who fell under
the low achievers category showed their instrumental
motivation to relate with their English competence.
Clement, Dornyei and Noels (1994, as cited in Dornyei,
1996) did not question the social psychological approach to
understanding language learning motivation, but they
incorporate in their schematic tripartite representation of
motivation what Dornyei (2003) discussed earlier the
language classroom. They site the three main factors that
affect foreign language behavior and competence as (1)
integrative motive, (2) linguistic self-confidence and (3)
appraisal of classroom environment. A study by Gardner,
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Tremblay, and Masgoret (2005) shows that attitudes and
motivation share a direct relation and that they have a
moderately strong correlation with second language
achievement. Self-confidence showed an even stronger
correlation with L2 achievement. Upon testing five
independent factors self-confidence in French, language
learning strategies, motivation, language aptitude and
orientation to learn they discovered that different
processes present themselves depending on how one assesses
language achievement. When achievement is assessed by
relatively objective measures, language anxiety and self-
confidence can show higher correlations with language
achievement than do language aptitude, motivation, and
attitudes.
Linguistic Self-confidence. Clement, Gardner and
Smythe (1977, as cited in Dornyei, 2005) first introduced
the construct of self-confidence in second language
acquisition and defined it as a persons belief that he has
the ability to produce results, accomplish goals, or
perform tasks competently (Dornyei, 2005, p. 73). From a
motivational perspective, linguistic self-confidence
describes a powerful mediating factor in multi-ethnic
settings that is an antecedent to the learners motivation
to learn and use the language of the target group. In
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Clements view, linguistic self-confidence is primarily a
socially defined construct. Dornyei (1996) underscores the
social dimension of language learning motivation and in an
earlier work with Clement and Noels (1994, as cited in
Dornyei, 1996) they presented a tripartite construct of
second language motivation consisting of integrative
motive, linguistic self-confidence, and appraisal of
classroom environment as antecedents of foreign language
behavior and competence. Dornyei (1996) explains that:
Linguistic self-confidence, including language
anxiety, is a central component in the personal
dimension of motivation. Learners who are less
anxious, have better previous experiences with using
the L2, who evaluate their proficiency more highly,
and who consider the learning tasks less difficult-in
short, who are more self-confident about their L2
language learning and use-are more motivated to learn
the L2 than those whose motivation is hindered by a
lack of self-confidence. (p. 75)
MacIntyre, MacMaster and Bakers (2001) study examined
the degree of convergence of the different models of
motivation in L2 learning. They compiled 23 different
scales that represented a variety of variables emerging
from different theoretical models on motivation that can be
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applied to language learning research. Results showed that
the 23 scales could be summarized into three main factors:
attitudinal motivation, self-confidence, and action
motivation. The second factor, self-confidence, was defined
by measures of anxiety, particularly lack of anxiety, and
perceived communication competence. Dornyei (1996) says
that it should be noted that the emergence of self-
confidence as a distinct factor was not unexpected (P.
75). Such a factor has often emerged in studies by Gardner
and associates leading Clement (1980, as cited in
MacIntyre, 2002) to propose self-confidence as a secondary
motivational process. Clement and his associates (Clement
& Kruideneir, 1985; Labrie & Clement, 1986, as cited in
Dornyei, 1996) have also provided sufficient evidence that
self-confidence is also a major motivational antecedent in
foreign language learning (i.e. setting where there is no
direct contact with members of the L2 group).
On the other hand, a study conducted in the
Philippines by Rojo-Laurilla (2007) and later replicated by
Feroz (2008) were inconsistent with the findings above.
These studies showed that confidence in English,
specifically its component, anxiety, was not related to
actual competence in the language.

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Language Anxiety. The main pedagogical purpose for
interest in affective variables in language learning is
aimed at reducing anxiety and inhibitions and enhancing the
learners motivation and self-esteem towards the target
language (de Andres, 2002). Brown (1994) distinguishes
between state anxiety-a feeling experienced only in some
particular situation-and trait anxiety-a more permanent
predisposition to be anxious. Many studies have generated
evidence to indicate that foreign language anxiety can have
a negative effect on the language learning process (e.g.
Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986, as cited in Cetinkaya, 2005;
MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991, as cited in Gardner, Tremblay, &
Masgoret, 1997). In connection, Scovel (1978, as cited in
Garner et.al., 1997), upon reviewing studies on the
relation of L2 anxiety and achievement, concludes that
there might be two types of anxiety-one that is positive,
or as facilitating; the other, negative, or debilitating.
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986, as cited in Cetinkaya,
2005) define language anxiety as distinct from general
anxiety as a distinct set of beliefs, perceptions, and
feelings in response to foreign language learning in the
classroom (p. 130). These authors also developed the
Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) to measure
three components of anxiety-communication apprehension,
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test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation (Gardner,
Tremblay, Masgoret, 1997). Shumann (1986, as cited in
Dornyei, 2003) proposed the theory of stimulus appraisal
which occurs along five dimensions: novelty, pleasantness,
goal/need significance, coping potential and self-social
image. When the learner sees the communication task as
familiar, attractive, satisfying, achievable and fitting
norms and his/her self-image, then the learner feels very
little anxiety engaging in the communication task. In
contrast, when the learner sees the task as unexpected and
is very concerned about his/her image to his/her listeners,
then anxiety can increase. In a qualitative study by Nagy
& Nikolov (2007), they found some of their respondents to
have a very high level of L2 anxiety. They said they were
very careful to appear and sound perfect in front of
teachers and classmates. A few expressed their worries
about making mistakes, and that they feared being laughed
at by their peers. A very recent study by Toth (2008) among
117 1
st
year English majors in Hungary revealed interesting
results. The data from questionnaires showed that
generally, the students were only slightly anxious, but
that the range of responses was very wide, suggesting a
very heterogeneous group. Part of the research focused on
the responses from students who rated their anxiety as
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relatively high. These respondents identified that this
variable to be directly related to inadequate classroom
performance. When asked about their self-perceived anxiety
in using the foreign language (FL) that is English, 61%
said they understood why people can get upset over English
classes and 37% reported that they felt anxious in these
classes even if they were well-prepared for them. The
students were also asked to identify what they perceive as
causes for L2 anxiety. The 216 responses could be
summarized into 7 categories:
1. The nature of FL communication students compared
the naturalness of the L1 versus the strange-ness
of the L2.
2. Personality of the learner students were of the
opinion that a learner feels anxious in the language
classroom if he is shy, lacking self-confidence,
and generally nervous not only in English.
3. Majoring in a foreign language respondents
expressed that the very fact of being a foreign
language (FL) major may be enough cause for anxiety.
4. Interpersonal factors students pointed out that
the general characteristics of the classroom
environment, some personal attribute/behavior of the
teacher, and the characteristics of their peers,
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played an important role for accounting for anxiety in
the FL.
5. Foreign language competence students believe that
there is a strong link between language anxiety and
ones proficiency in the FL. Anxiety experienced in L2
learning and communication is very much dependent on
how well the learner knows the language. Lack of
vocabulary and poor grammar were identified as primary
reasons for feeling anxious.
6. Instructional practices students felt anxious in
their L2 classes because they believe Hungarian
language teaching practices are rule-ridden, place
too much emphasis on accuracy and approach the
language only from a grammatical point of view.
7. Lack of practice in authentic target language
communication respondents said students who spent no
significant time in a target language country, and
whose experience with the FL is mainly inside the
classroom, experience more L2 anxiety.
On the other hand, several studies (Feroz, 2008; Rojo-
Laurilla, 2007) have failed to find an association between
language anxiety and language competence. The findings
showed participants with high language competence in
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English who also reported high anxiety in the use of the
language.

Perceived Communication Competence
Studies have revealed that perceived communication
competence has a stronger link with the initiation of
communication (WTC), and can often override ones actual
communication competence.
MacIntyre and Charos (1996, as cited in MacIntyre,
Baker, Clement, & Donovan, 2002) found that among beginning
adult learners, perceived communication competence in the
L2 was more strongly related to WTC than was language
anxiety. This was supported by MacIntyre and Bakers study
(2000, as cited in MacIntyre et.al., 2002) where they found
that perceived competence and L2 WTC were strongly
correlated among less advanced high school learners, but
among those of the same age group with more experience in
the L2, WTC was better predicted by language anxiety.
MacIntyre et.al. (2002) found perceived competence in the
second language to increase from grades 7-9.
Feroz (2008) found a direct relationship between
perceived competence with actual competence in English
among the participants in her study. These participants
were tested along different oral tasks such as debating,
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44

persuading, and arguing. In all these tasks, perceived
competence correlated with actual competence.
Among children, Nussbaum, Pecchioni, Baringer and
Kundrat (2002) found in a research study involving children
attending a day care center for an average of 52 months,
that children with more communicative activities and
special outings are perceived by their teachers to be more
communicatively competent. This reinforces the childs
competencies and will therefore create a more positive
self-perceived perception of competence as he grows older.
In other words, children in richer linguistic environments
have a better chance of developing and believing they have
superior language abilities. Another factor that may
influence a learners perceived competence is culture.
Lailawati (2006) conducted a study in the Asian context and
found that the participants perception of their oral
competence was dependent on the relationship they shared
with their listeners. The higher the status of the
listener, the less competent the participants felt.

Personality. Goldbergs (1993, as cited in MacIntyre
et.al., 1998) Big Five independent personality traits
have been used as basis for recent developments in research
on personality and its link with language learning. His
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45

traits include Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to New
Experiences. Several studies (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996;
Lalonde & Gardner, 1984, as cited in Macintyre et.al.,
1998) show that each of the Big Five personality traits
contributes to motivation for language learning and for
WTC, and that the effect of personality is channeled
through more specific variables such as intergroup
attitudes and self-confidence. MacIntyre et.al. (1998)
cautions that personality should not be understood as a
direct influence on language learning because it is
influenced by so many other factors in a broad social
context, such as those found in the WTC model. MacIntyre
et.al. (1998) explains:
The model proposed here shows that personality helps
to set the context in which language learning occurs.
The disposition to react positively or negatively to
foreign people, in combination with the formation of
positive or negative attitudes, in a context with or
without group conflict, is expected to underpin the
social distance or harmony between groups. For this
reason, we regard the intergroup context and the
personality of the learner as variables that set the
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46

stage for L2 communication, but are less directly
involved in determining WTC at a given time (P. 558).
This is supported by Gardner (1985, as cited in Cetinkaya)
who proposes that personality and language achievement do
not share a direct relationship, but that attitudes and
motivation mediate between these variables. This is why
Pimsleur (1964, as cited in Khanna, et.al., 1998) and Bartz
(1974, as cited in Khanna, et.al., 1998) failed to find a
direct relationship between extroversion and L2
proficiency.
Among the Big Five personality traits, studies
(MacIntyre, 1994; Kaya, 1995, as cited in Cetinkaya, 2005)
show that it is the extroversion/introversion dimension
that has the strongest influence on WTC and language
achievement compared to the other four traits. Extroverted
students are more willing to communicate, as evidenced by
their participation in class. Goldberg (1992, as cited in
MacIntyre, 1998) used a bipolar inventory to measure each
of the five traits. Introversion/extroversion is measured
along a continuum from silent, timid and inactive to
energetic, talkative and bold.

Communicative Competence. The term communicative
competence was coined by Dell Hymes (1967; 1972, as cited
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47

in Brown, 1994 & MacIntyre et.al., 1998) as a reaction to
Chomskys (1965, as cited in MacIntyre, 1998) definition of
language from a purely grammatical point-of-view.
Communicative competence then is that aspect of our
competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages
and negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific
contexts (Brown, 1994, p. 227). This means that a person
with this kind of competence not only knows vocabulary,
phonology, and grammar (or other parts of linguistic
structure) but also knows when to speak, what to say and to
whom, in an appropriate situation (Saville-Troike, 2006).
Hymes (1967, as cited in Brown, 1994) also distinguished
between linguistic competence and communicative
competence. The former is described as knowledge about
language forms (Brown, 1994, p. 227) and the latter as
knowledge that enables a person to communicate
functionally and interactively (Brown, 1994, p. 227).
Canale and Swain (1980, as cited in Brown, 1994) began
work on giving a comprehensive definition of communicative
competence, which up until today is the reference point for
discussions on the topic. They posited four categories that
will encompass the concept of communicative competence. The
first, they labeled Grammatical Competence (knowledge of
the rules of the language). The second construct was named
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48

Discourse Competence (ability to meaningfully connect
utterances/sentences in simple conversations to lengthy
written texts. Sociolinguistic Competence was the term used
for the third category and means knowing the social and
cultural rules where the language operates. The fourth
category they called Strategic Competence the verbal and
nonverbal communication strategies that may be called into
action to compensate for breakdown in communication due to
performance variables or due to insufficient competence
(Canale & Swain, 1980, as cited in Brown, 1994, p. 228).
Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell (1995, as cited in
MacIntyre, 1998) expanded this definition and presented
five main constituents of communicative competence.
Linguistic Competence is similar to grammatical
competence and includes rules on syntax, morphology,
vocabulary, phonology, and even orthography.
Discourse Competence adopts the same meaning as was
presented by Canale and Swain (1980, as cited in Brown,
1994); knowledge in selecting, arranging, and organizing
utterances in what is said, and sentences in what is
written.
Actional Competence is simply the ability to use
speech acts appropriately to achieve ones goal in
communication.
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49

Sociocultural Competence adopts as well the meaning
presented in Canale and Swains work; knowledge of the
rules of how the language is used in the social and
cultural contexts.
Strategic Competence is described by MacIntyre (1998)
as a first-aid kit in communication because it is the
competence to fix gaps and deficiencies in communication.
According to Saville-Troike (2006), the communicative
competence of non-native speakers may differ significantly
with that of native speakers. Differences may lie in
structure or in rules for usage in writing and
conversations. Monolinguals and bilinguals also do not
share the same competence for a language. Bilinguals are at
an advantage in their knowledge of switching between
languages, given a particular context. This difference is
due partly because of the different social functions of the
L1 and L2, as they operate in a given culture.
It is important to note that studies such as those
conducted by McCroskey and Richmond (1991, as cited in
MacIntyre, 1998) show that it is perceived communicative
competence, rather than actual communicative competence,
that has a much greater influence on WTC and other
affective variables that have been discussed earlier.

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50

Statement of the Problem and Hypotheses
This study intends to determine the degree of
readiness to communicate in English of hospital staff
nurses and what affects their readiness.
The research study aims to answer these specific questions:
their:
e. personality

H1: Hospital staff nurses are:
a. always ready to communicate in English
b. highly motivated to learn
c. have a moderate degree of linguistic
self-confidence
d. have a highly positive attitude towards the
e. and are moderately extroverted

The Problem
51


H2: Hospital staff nurses have good oral
communicative competence in English.

3. What is the relationship between oral communicative
competence of the nurses and the following variables?
d. attitude towards the international community
e. personality
H2: Oral communicative competence is significantly
correlated with:
community

The Problem
52

4. What training program(s) may be developed to improve
the nurses English language learning in the areas of
readiness to communicate in English, motivation,
linguistic self-confidence, attitude towards the
international community and personality?

The Problem
53

Figure 2

Paradigm of the Study

Independent Variables Dependent Variable Output Expected Outcome

a. Willingness to
communicate

b. Linguistic self-
confidence

c. Motivation

d. Attitude towards
international
community

e. Personality

Oral
Communicative
Competence
Relationship
between oral
communicative
competence and:
a. Willingness to
communicate
b. Linguistic self-
confidence
c. Motivation
d. Attitude towards
international
community
e. Personality

Training
program(s) to
address nurses
needs in the areas
of:
a. Willingness to
communicate
b. Linguistic self-
confidence
c. Motivation
d. Attitude towards
international
community
e. Personality

Design and Methodology
54

CHAPTER 2
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This study examined hospital staff nurses perceptions
of their readiness to communicate in English as a second
language, their motivation, communication anxiety,
perceived communication competence, attitude towards the
international community, personality, and how these
variables correlate to the nurses oral communicative
competence.

Research Design and Methodology
The study employed the descriptive-survey design to
gather data and the correlational approach to determine the
direction and degree of relationship between oral
communicative competence and the variables readiness to
communicate, linguistic self-confidence, motivation,
attitude towards international community and personality.
Correlational analysis was applied to identify and clarify
relationships of these variables with the independent
variable (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006)- oral communicative
competence. This study can be described as explanatory
because it investigated a number of variables that are
believed to be related to a more complex variable. Further
55

research may drop variables that are found not to be
related or only slightly related from further
consideration, while those that are highly related may be
studied using for instance the experimental design, to see
whether causal relationships occur (Fraenkel & Wallen,
2006).

Population and Locale of the Study
There were 32 respondents in the study, eight staff nurses
from each of the four main hospitals in the city of Baguio,
namely Saint Louis Hospital of the Sacred Heart, Baguio
General Hospital and Medical Center, Notre Dame de Chartres
Hospital, and Pines City Doctors Hospital. These four main
hospitals were chosen because they employ more nurses
compared to the other, smaller hospitals, therefore, there
is a better chance of finding nurses who have already
completed their IELTS examinations in these bigger
hospitals. Baguio is considered a melting pot, and as such,
the residents of the city hail from different parts of the
country, mostly from the different ethnic groups who live
closest to Baguio. The distribution of the 32 participants
is as follows:

56

Kankana-ey 46.15%
Ilocano 30.80%
Tagalog 15.40%
Ibaloi 3.40%
Kalinga 3.40%
The respondents were composed of 12 males and 20 females
ranging in age from 21 years to 38 years old with an
average age of 25.5 years. Since all of the respondents are
nurses, all of them completed basic and secondary education
and went on to study in a university or college. Each
respondent studied for a total of no less than 14 years.
The average number of years the respondents have been
studying English came out to 13 years.
Gay and Diehl (1992) suggest as a rule of thumb a
sample size of 30 to 500; correlational research using non-
parametric sampling techniques requiring a minimum of 30
respondents to establish a relationship. The study,
therefore, will use a sample size of 32, for equal
distribution of participants among the four hospitals.
Convenience sampling will be the technique employed because
it is not feasible to know the total population of nurses
who have already completed their IELTS examinations due to
the privacy clause enforced by IELTS regarding exam
results. These nurses should have completed their exams
57

within the past two years, from January 2008 to January
2010. This particular criterion will be added in the
choosing of participants to ensure that their IELTS results
are acceptable under international immigration and work
requirements. According to the IELTS handbook, results are
only valid for two years. In addition, nurses who have
already completed their IELTS examinations will make the
findings more relevant because they are more likely to go
on to work and live in an English speaking country in the
next few years. The researcher will choose respondents
according to their availability from a list of IELTS
candidates who booked their exams with Noahs Ark Training
and Review Center, an official booking agent for IELTS
examinations. An underlying objective of this study is to
see whether these Filipino nurses are ready to communicate
in English not only while they are here in the Philippines,
but more importantly once they reach their country of
choice. The results will clarify areas where these nurses
need additional attention, as they are addressed more
specifically in short-term enhancement and review programs
that they take advantage of before leaving the country as
overseas workers.

58

Data Gathering Tools
Quantitative data was collected using questionnaires.
These instruments are in English, and were adapted from
several studies that have already been conducted. The
questionnaires measured nurses readiness to communicate,
their linguistic self-confidence, motivation, attitude
towards the international community, personality, and their
brief background.
a. Readiness to Communicate
A questionnaire prepared by McCroskey (1992, as cited
in Cetinkaya) was adapted composed of twelve questions
to assess this variable in terms of communication
context (public speaking, talking in large meetings,
group discussions, and interpersonal conversations)
and types of receivers (Cetinkaya, 2005, p. 47). The
questionnaire was adapted to the hospital work setting
of the nurse respondents, and receivers used were
patients, other clients, colleagues and supervisors.
The adapted questionnaire was pretested on 10
respondents, prior to the survey, and the result was a
Cronbachs Alpha of .87, which shows a high
reliability.
b. Motivation
This variable is defined by three indicator variables:
59

b.1 Desire to Learn English
Six items were used from Gardner (1985, as
adapted by Cetinkaya, 2005). The original format
used multiple-choice questions, however
Cetinkayas utilized a 7-point scale, where the
respondents rated the degree with which they
agreed with each statement from (1) strongly
disagree to (7) strongly agree.
The questionnaire was adapted in this research and
the 7-point scale was revised to a 4-point scale
with the choices (1) strongly disagree,
(2) disagree, (3) agree, (4) strongly agree.
b.2 Motivational Intensity
This variable was measured using a 4-point
scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree as
adapted from Cetinkaya (2005) and from Gardner
(1985). Again, the respondents rated the
degree to which they agreed with six statements.
b.3 Attitudes Toward Learning English
Five items from Gardner (1985, as adapted by
Cetinkaya, 2005) was used to measure this
component. The same 4-point adapted scale was
used; the respondents choosing from a range of
(1) strongly disagree to (4) strongly agree.
60

The results of these three markers were collated
to show the respondents overall perceptions of
their motivation to learn English.
c. Linguistic Self-confidence
This variable is defined in terms of:
c.1 (Lack of) Communication Anxiety
This component was measured by twelve items
used by Yashima (2002, as cited in Cetinkaya,
2005). The respondents assessed their
anxiety when communicating in English by
indicating on a 4-point scale whether they (1)
never feel anxious, (2) sometimes feel anxious,
(3) often feel anxious, and (4) always feel
anxious. The items covered the same communication
contexts and types of receivers as the WTC and
Perceived Communication Competence scales.
c.2 Perceived Communication Competence
Twelve items used by Yashima (2002, as adapted by
Cetinkaya, 2005) and MacIntyre and Charos (1996,
as adapted by Cetinkaya, 2005) were utilized to
examine the extent to which the respondents feel
confident communicating in English. They self-
evaluated their English competence on a scale from
1 (not competent) to 4 (very competent).
61

The questionnaire for Linguistic Self-confidence
was revised and pretested with 10 respondents,
prior to the survey, with a Cronbachs Alpha of
.97, which shows a very high degree of
reliability. The results for the two components
for this variable will be collated to come up
with the nurses perceptions of their linguistic
self-confidence in English.
d. Attitude toward the international community
Four indicators were used to define this variable-
(1)integrative orientation, (2)approach-avoidance
tendency, (3)interest in international activities,
(4)interest in foreign affairs.
d.1 Integrative Orientation
Cetinkaya (2005) adapted four items from Yashima
(2002) and Gardner (1985) in her study to assess
the respondents in terms of whether they agree
with each of the four statements in relation to
their reasons for studying English. A 4-point
scale was used (1) meaning strongly disagree to
(4) meaning strongly agree.
d.2 Approach-Avoidance Tendency
Seven items form Yashima (2002, as adapted by
Cetinkaya, 2005) were used to measure the
62

respondents tendency to approach or avoid
speaking to foreigners they meet. The 4-point
scale was again used to rate how strongly they
agree or disagree with the statements given.
d.3 Interest in International Activities
Five items from Yashima (2002, as adapted by
Cetinkaya, 2005) were used to assess the degree
of interest that respondents show in having an
international career or living abroad. The 4-point
scale was again employed-(1) strongly disagree to
(4) strongly agree).
d.4 Interest in Foreign Affairs
Two items prepared by Yashima were used (2002,
as adapted by Cetinkaya, 2005), which measure
the respondents interest in international
matters.
e. Personality
Goldbergs (1992, as cited in Cetinkaya, 2005) ten
item test of extraversion-introversion was used to
measure this variable. An 8-point scale was utilized.
An example of an item is silent__________talkative.
The respondents selected a number from 1 (silent) to 8
(talkative) to indicate the degree to which they are
silent or talkative.
63

f. The participants level of oral English proficiency
was measured using the IELTS Speaking examinations, a
standardized test administered by either the British
Council or IDP Education Australia. After the test,
each candidate received a Band Score from 0-9 with a
corresponding description of proficiency.
g. Brief Background
Respondents indicated their age, gender, ethnic
affiliation, and the number of years they have been
studying English.

Data Gathering Procedure
The data was gathered from January 21 to February 26
of 2010 from the 32 nurse participants from Saint Louis
Hospital of the Sacred Heart, Baguio General Hospital and
Medical Center, Notre Dame de Chartres Hospital, and Pines
City Doctors Hospital, in the city of Baguio. The
researcher first obtained a list of possible respondents
affiliated with the above mentioned hospitals from the
roster of IELTS test takers of Noahs Ark Training and
Review Center, of which the researcher is the
Administrator.
Then the researcher contacted each possible
respondent, and when the respondent answered favorably,
64

he/she was invited to Noahs Ark Review Center and was
asked to answer the questionnaires with the researcher
present, to clarify or explain questions. The respondents
were not approached in their work settings to avoid
disturbing them which may cause haphazard or rush answering
of the questionnaires; therefore, there was no need to
obtain permission from the hospitals.
The researcher also obtained from these respondents
their IELTS Band Scores on the Speaking portion of the
test. These data were used to determine each respondents
oral communicative competence to arrive at the average
communicative competence of the group.

Treatment of Data
The quantitative analysis of the data was conducted
using both the statistical equation for the mean and the
Pearson product-moment coefficient.
Mean. This was utilized to determine the degree of the
respondents perception of their readiness to communicate,
motivation, linguistic self-confidence, attitude towards
the international community, extraversion/introversion, and
their actual communicative competence.
For the questionnaire on readiness to communicate, a mean
score ranging from 1.01.75 is interpreted as never ready
65

to communicate; a mean from 1.76-2.50 is interpreted as
sometimes ready to communicate; 2.51-3.25 means often ready
to communicate; and 3.26-4 means always ready to
communicate.
The scale for the questionnaire on motivation follows
this interpretation: 1-1.75 (poorly motivated); 1.76-2.5
(somewhat motivated); 2.51-3.25 (moderately motivated); and
3.26-4 (highly motivated). Negative items 14 and 15 follow
the reverse of this scale.
The scale to interpret the questionnaire on linguistic
self-confidence is as follows: 1.0-1.75 (low linguistic
confidence); 1.76-2.5 (fair linguistic confidence); 2.51-
3.25 (moderate linguistic confidence); 3.26-4.0 (high
linguistic confidence). Specifically, the scale for the
questionnaire on the component anxiety is interpreted as
follows: 1-1.75 (highly anxious); 1.76-2.5 (moderately
anxious); 2.51-3.25 (fairly anxious); and 3.26-4 (not
anxious at all). The questionnaire on the component
perceived communication competence is interpreted as: a
mean score from 1.0-1.75 (not competent); 1.76-2.5 (fairly
competent); 2.51-3.25 (moderately competent); and 3.26-
4(very competent).
For the questionnaire on attitude towards the
international community, a mean score ranging from 1.01.75
66

is interpreted as a negative attitude towards the
international community; a mean from 1.76-2.50 is
interpreted as a somewhat positive attitude towards the
international community; 2.51-3.25 means a moderately
positive attitude towards the international community; and
3.26-4 means a highly positive attitude towards the
international community. Negative items 19, 23, 25, 28, and
29 will follow the reverse of this scale.
The questionnaire on personality is interpreted
according to an 8-point scale. A mean score from 1-4.50 for
each item is interpreted as introverted, unenergetic,
silent, unenthusiastic, timid, inactive, inhibited,
unassertive, unadventurous, and unsociable. A mean from
4.51-8.0 is interpreted for each item as extroverted,
energetic, talkative, enthusiastic, bold, active,
spontaneous, assertive, adventurous, and sociable. In
general, a mean score of 1-2.75 is interpreted as highly
introverted, 2.76-4.50 as moderately introverted; 4.51-6.25
is interpreted as moderately extroverted, 6.26-8.0 as
highly extroverted.
The results answered the first problem:
their:
67

e. personality
On the basis of these results, the null hypothesis was
accepted or rejected:
1. Hospital staff nurses:
a. are never ready to communicate
b. are poorly motivated
c. have low linguistic self-confidence
d. have a negative attitude towards the international
community
e. and are introverted
The mean of the respondents communicative competence was
interpreted according to the IELTS Band Scale (Appendix E)
and answered the second problem:
And either rejected or accepted the null hypothesis:
2. Hospital staff nurses have limited oral
communicative competence.
Pearson-r. This is a correlation coefficient that was
used to determine the degree and direction of relationship
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006) of the independent variables-
68

readiness to communicate, motivation, linguistic self-
confidence, and personality, with the dependent variable-
communicative competence. The data from these were used to
either accept or reject the null hypotheses:
3. There is no significant relationship between oral
communicative competence and:
community

Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
69

CHAPTER 3

This chapter presents, analyzes and interprets the
findings of the study based on statistical analysis of the
data collected from the questionnaires of the nurse
participants. These were used to answer the primary
question on whether or not hospital staff nurses are ready
to communicate in English as a second language.

Readiness to Communicate in English
The quantitative data gathered from the nurse
participants was used to establish their readiness to
communicate. The mean, minimum and maximum scores and
standard deviation were observed for each item in the
Readiness to Communicate questionnaire. The scale used to
interpret the mean scores is as follows:
1.0 - 1.75--------never ready to communicate
1.76 2.50-------sometimes ready to communicate
2.51 3.25-------often ready to communicate
3.26 4.0--------always ready to communicate
As can be seen in Table 1, overall, hospital staff nurses

were sometimes willing to communicate in English

70

Table 1
Nurses Readiness to Communicate in English

Situations N Min Max Mean SD
1. Presents a talk to a group 32 1 4 2.22 .55
of coworkers in English.

2. Talk to an English speaking 32 1 4 2.72 .92
patient while doing a general
survey of him/her.

3. Talk in a large meeting of 32 1 4 2.06 .88
patients in English.

4. Talk to a small group of 32 1 4 2.28 .73
superiors in English.

5. Talk with a colleague in 32 1 4 2.19 .74
English while at work.

6. Talk in a large meeting 32 1 4 2 .67
of colleagues in English.

7. Talk to a patients 32 1 4 2.13 .66
English-speaking relative
while explaining the patients
status.

8. Present a talk to a group 32 1 4 2.31 .97
of English-speaking patients.

9. Talk in a small group of 32 1 4 1.97 .74
hospital personnel in English.


English-speaking patients.

12. Present a talk to a small 32 1 4 2.28 .85
group of English-speaking
patients relatives.

_
X: 2.21
71

(Mean=2.21). The null hypothesis, hospital staff nurses are
never ready to communicate, is rejected.
The nurses preferred to communicate the most with
their patients in the context of a conversation (item
#2=often ready to communicate in English). They were least
ready to communicate to hospital personnel in a large
group. These results are consistent with Centinkayas
(2005) findings in her study on willingness to communicate
conducted among Turkish university students. She found the
respondents to express more willingness to communicate with
friends in a conversation or small group rather than in a
large meeting. Similarly, nurses felt readier to speak with
their patients rather than with their co-workers, in a
conversation rather than in a large meeting. This can be
explained by the concept of control as proposed by McIntyre
et. al. (1998). People often communicate with those around
them for a specific purpose. Control is thus often achieved
via powerful speech. Nurses prefer communicating in English
with their patients because in this situation they are in
control, supposedly being the more knowledgeable speaker. A
conversation as a context, compared to a large meeting, is
also less threatening for the speaker and is therefore the
preferred context. In addition, research in social
psychology reveals that people are more open to communicate
72

with others they encounter frequently-a concept called
affiliation. While these nurses encounter co-workers
daily, the better part of their work is spent with their
patients, and therefore, they feel a stronger affiliation
towards patients as receivers.
In summary, nurses preferred speaking in English with
their patients and relatives of these patients compared to
speaking with colleagues, other hospital personnel and
superiors. In terms of context, overall, nurses would
rather speak in English in a conversation and in a group
discussion, rather than in a large meeting or in a
presentation.

Motivation to Learn English
This variable was measured using three components:
motivational intensity to learn English, desire to learn
English, and attitude towards learning English. The mean
scores for these three components were collated to come up
with the overall mean establishing the participants degree
of motivation when it comes to studying English. The scale
used to interpret the scores is as follows:
1.0 1.75---------------poorly motivated
1.76 2.50---------------somewhat motivated
2.51 3.25---------------moderately motivated
73

3.26 4.00---------------highly motivated
In total, Table 2 shows that hospital staff nurses are
moderately motivated to learn English (Mean=3.13). The null
hypothesis, hospital staff nurses are poorly motivated is
therefore, rejected.
Items 1 to 6 show their motivational intensity. The
results suggest that nurses intend to study on their own,
aside from structured English training courses. They feel,
however, that they are only somewhat motivated when it
comes to the length of time they spend studying. These
findings were not surprising considering that the nurse
participants are working people. Self-study of English
becomes necessary because of lack of time for longer, more
structured courses. Likewise, they feel only somewhat
motivated to learn for longer periods of time.
Even stronger than the participants intensity to
learn, is their desire to learn English (Items 7-12). They
show a strong belief that English should be taught in
schools, and they also believe that English training
courses should be increased outside of formal education.
Since the participants all went through the Philippine
educational system, using English as its medium of
instruction, it was expected that these nurses value
English being taught in schools. Furthermore, their desire
74

Table 2
Nurses Degree of Motivation in Learning English

1. Compared to my colleagues, 32 1 4 2.53 .67
I think I study English relatively
hard.

2. I often think about the words and 32 2 4 3.09 .47
ideas which I learn about in my
English enhancement classes.

3. If English were not taught in 32 2 4 3.31 .54
training centers, I would study on
my own.

4. I think I spend fairly long 32 1 4 2.38 .66
hours studying English.

5. I really try to learn English. 32 2 4 3.19 .64

6. After my English training courses, 32 2 4 3.28 .46
I will continue to study English and
try to improve.

7. When I have assignments to do in 32 2 4 2.91 .53
English, I try to do them immediately.

8. I would read English newspapers 32 2 4 3.47 .57
and/or magazines.

9. During English training classes, 32 2 4 3.09 .47
Im absorbed in what is taught and
concentrate on studying.

10. I would like the number of 32 2 4 3.41 .67
English classes in training centers
increased.

11. I believe absolutely that 32 2 4 3.78 .49
English should be taught in school.

12. I find learning English more 32 2 4 2.88 .71
interesting than other subjects.

13. Learning English is really 32 2 4 3.31 .54
great.

14. I would rather spend my time 32 1 4 2.75 .62
on other subjects other than English.

15. Learning English is a waste 32 2 4 3.53 .67
of time.

16. I plan to learn as much English 32 2 4 3.28 .46
as possible.

17. I love learning English. 32 2 4 3.09 .64
_
X: 3.13

75

to see additional training courses in English outside of
schools shows that they feel the need to improve in the
use of the language, especially as they look forward to
living and working in English speaking countries.
When it comes to nurses attitude towards learning
English (Items 13-17), they express a positive outlook
towards this. They feel learning English is great and that
it is not a waste of time. These results are consistent
with McKay (1992) and Gramley and Patzolds (1992) research
findings that Filipinos consider English to be their key to
success in their professions and in society, and therefore
feel the need to learn it.

Linguistic Self-confidence in English
This variable was measured using two components:
communication anxiety and perceived communication
competence. The mean scores for both variables were
collated (Mean
1
=2.34 + Mean
2
= 2.76/2=2.55) showing that
the nurse participants, overall, have moderate self-
confidence when using English as a language. The null
hypothesis, hospital staff nurses have low linguistic self-
confidence in English, is therefore rejected. This
interpretation is based on the following scale:

76

1.00 1.75-----low linguistic confidence
1.76 2.50-----fair linguistic confidence
2.51 3.25-----moderate linguistic confidence
3.26 4.00-----high linguistic confidence
For the component on anxiety, the scores were interpreted
as follows:
1.00 1.75-----highly anxious
1.76 2.50-----moderately anxious
2.51 3.25-----fairly anxious
3.26 4.00-----not anxious at all
Table 3 suggests that in general, the nurse participants
were moderately anxious when speaking in English
(Mean=2.34). Brown (1994) distinguished between trait
anxiety and state anxiety, the former defined as a
permanent predisposition to be anxious, while the latter,
anxiety experienced in relation to a particular situation.
The questionnaire in this study aimed to determine the
participants state anxiety. Many studies, including that
of MacIntyre and Gardner (1991, as cited in de Andres,
2003) include state anxiety as an influential factor
affecting the foreign language learner/user.
The nurse participants can be considered advanced
learners considering they have been studying English for an
average of 13 years and they were found to exhibit moderate
77

Table 3
Nurses Communication Anxiety in English


survey of him/her.




6. Talk in a large meeting 32 1 4 2.06 .84

status.





patients relatives.
_
X 2.34
78

anxiety in their use of English. This can be explained by
MacIntyre and Gardner who proposed that foreign language
anxiety develops due to negative experiences of the foreign
language learner/user. Beginning learners, like those in
Cetinkayas (2005) study, have not had as much chance to
experience the foreign language learning process and
therefore, showed lower levels of anxiety, compared to the
more experienced nurse participants.
Communicating in a large meeting (items 3, 6, and 10)
was the most anxiety-provoking context for the participants
followed by speaking in a group. They felt the least
anxious in an interpersonal conversation. The only
situation when none of the nurses responded they were
highly anxious was when speaking to a patient in a
conversation. There did not seem to be pronounced
differences in the anxiety levels of nurses in terms of
receivers compared to that of context. John Shumann (1986,
as cited in Dornyei, 2003) explored the concept of the
foreign language learners/users self-social image. L2
learners fear looking comical or appearing like a fool when
attempting to use the target language. His findings suggest
that the learner/user avoids narcissistic injury, fears
criticism and activates his/her social inhibitions to
protect him/herself. The possibility of criticism is so
79

much higher when communicating in the context of a large
meeting or in a group considering the number of receivers,
therefore, anxiety on the part of the speaker in these
situations is increased. In total, the participants did not
seem to experience high anxiety in any of the situations.
The table on perceived communication competence
(Table 4) shows that hospital staff nurses, overall, see
themselves as moderately competent when communicating in
English (Mean=2.76). The interpretation of scores is based
on the following scale:
1.00 1.75-----not competent
1.76 2.50-----fairly competent
2.51 3.25-----moderately competent
3.26 4.00-----very competent
The nurses felt the most competent when speaking to a
patient, patients relatives, and to colleagues in a
conversation or a group discussion. They felt the least
competent speaking in English with their superiors. In
total, it was only with their superiors when they felt
fairly competent, while, in all other situations, they
seemed to feel moderately competent communicating in
English.
These findings may be explained by a study authored by

Lailawati (2006) among Malaysians showing that culture
80

Table 4
Nurses Perceived Communication Competence in English


survey of him/her.




6. Talk in a large meeting 32 2 4 2.94 .82

status.





patients relatives.
_
X: 2.76

81

plays a role in a persons perceived communication
competence. A common denominator among Asians is their
deep-seated values. A speaker who is a subordinate may feel
less competent when communicating in a relationship that is
highly affected by respect, such as subordinate-superior
relations, but on the other hand, feel more competent when
he is in the superior position.

Attitude Towards the International Community
Four components were used to measure this variable:
integrative orientation, approach-avoidance tendency,
interest in international activities, and interest in
foreign affairs. The mean scores for these four were
collated to come up with the nurse participants attitude
towards the international community. The scale used to
interpret the scores is as follows:
1.00 1.75----negative attitude towards the
1.76 2.50----somewhat positive attitude towards
the international community
3.51 3.25----moderately positive attitude towards
the international community
3.26 4.00----highly positive attitude towards the
82

Based on the four markers, in total, the results

showed (Table 5) that hospital staff nurses have a highly
positive attitude towards the international community
(Mean=3.30). The null hypothesis, hospital staff nurses
have a negative attitude towards the international
community, is rejected.
More specifically, hospital staff nurses have a highly
positive attitude towards the English-speaking community
(Table 5: Items 15-18). They strongly believe English will
allow them to meet more people and get to know different
kinds of cultures. They also are open to making friends
with foreigners.
In terms of nurses approach-avoidance tendency
towards foreigners (Items 1-7), they are the most willing
to make friends with international nurses and to speak to
one if they ever meet. They are only moderately positive in
attitude when it comes to sharing an apartment with a
foreigner and volunteering to be involved with them in the
community. Overall, nurses show that they are willing to
approach foreigners, particularly nurses from other
countries, and communicate with them.
Nurses likewise show an interest in international
affairs and activities (Items 8-14). While they have a
highly positive attitude towards working with an
83

Table 5
Nurses Attitude Towards the International Community
1. I want to make friends with 32 1 4 3.38 .66
international nurses.

2. I try to avoid talking with 32 1 4 3.19 .74
foreigners if I can.

3. I would talk to an international 32 1 4 3.25 .51
nurse if I ever meet one.

4. I wouldnt mind sharing an 32 1 4 2.78 .71
apartment or room with a foreigner.

5. I want to participate in a 32 2 4 3.06 .56
volunteer activity to help foreigners
living in the neighboring community.

6. I would feel somewhat uncomfortable 32 2 4 3.03 .65
if a foreigner moved next door.

7. I would help a foreigner who 32 2 4 3.16 .57
is in trouble.

8. I would rather stay in my 32 2 4 2.88 .71
hometown.

9. I want to live in a foreign 32 2 4 3.22 .61
country.

10. I want to work in an 32 2 4 3.28 .63
international organization like
the United Nations.

11. I dont think whats happening 32 2 4 3.03 .82
overseas has anything to do with
my daily life.

12. Id rather avoid the kind of 32 1 4 3.00 .84
work that sends me overseas frequently.

13. I often read and watch news 32 2 4 2.94 .50
about foreign countries.

14. I often talk about events 32 1 4 2.75 .62
and situations in foreign countries
with my friends and family.

15. I study English because it 32 2 4 3.53 .51
will allow me to meet and converse
more with varied people.

16. I study English because it 32 2 4 3.44 .50
will allow me to get to know
various cultures and people.

17. I study English because I 32 2 4 3.34 .55
will be able to participate more
freely in the activities of other
cultural groups.

18. I study English because Id 32 2 4 3.13 .49
like to make friends with foreigners.
_
X: 3.30
84

international body like the United Nations, they showed a
moderately positive interest in leaving ones hometown and
working overseas. This is the same when it comes to nurses
attitudes towards what is happening currently in the
international community and their interest in discussing
these with friends and family.
These results are not surprising considering the fact
that the nurse participants intend to immigrate to an
English-speaking country where they know they will need to
make friends and adapt to a whole new culture. For many of
these nurses, the vast opportunities for employment abroad
are what led them to pursue nursing in the first place. The
85 percent of the total nursing workforce employed in
hospitals and institutions overseas is proof enough that
Filipino nurses desire to leave their home country in
search of work. This desire is consistent with their
attitude of openness towards the international community.

Personality
Results for this variable (Table 6) suggest that
hospital staff nurses are moderately extroverted
(Mean=6.19). The scale used to interpret this score is as
follows:
1.00 2.75-----highly introverted
85

2.76 4.50-----moderately introverted
4.51 6.25-----moderately extroverted
6.26 8.00-----highly extroverted
They perceive themselves to be extroverted, energetic,
talkative, enthusiastic, bold, active, spontaneous,
assertive, adventurous, and sociable. There was no item
where they perceived themselves to lean towards the pole
for introversion. The null hypothesis, hospital staff
nurses are introverted is therefore, rejected.
Table 6
Nurses Degree of Extroversion

Personality Poles N Min Max Mean SD
1. Introverted-Extroverted 32 2 8 5.41 1.36

2. Unenergetic-Energetic 32 4 8 6.44 1.16

3. Silent-Talkative 32 2 8 5.34 1.72

4. Unenthusiastic-Enthusiastic 32 2 8 6.59 1.39
5. Timid-Bold 32 1 8 5.53 1.48
6. Inactive-Active 32 1 8 6.41 1.56
7. Inhibited-Spontaneous 32 1 8 6.06 1.52
8. Unassertive-Assertive 32 1 8 6.47 1.46
9. Unadventurous-Adventurous 32 5 8 6.91 1.12
10. Unsociable-Sociable 32 5 8 6.75 1.02
_
X: 6.19

A possible explanation for this could be that these nurses
are in a line of work that requires them to be highly
86

sociable. Before these participants entered university
studies, most of them underwent the general career guidance
services offered in secondary institutions. It is generally
suggested that students who intend to pursue nursing
exhibit traits of being sociable and enthusiastic because a
major part of their job will be dealing with patients and
their relatives, and working within an organization
composed of superiors, colleagues and subordinates. The
implication is that before these nurses entered their
profession, they perceived themselves to possess the
general qualities of extroversion, hence the results of the
study.

Oral Communication Competence in English
All of the nurse participants already completed their
IELTS examination within the past two years. They awarded
band scores that describe their proficiency in the four
language macroskills Listening, Reading, Writing and
Speaking. For this study, each of the nurses presented
their band score for speaking, and these scores became the
basis for the computations for the groups oral
communicative competence. Table 7 shows that the
participants are good in their oral use of the English
language. According to the descriptions for band scores
87

provided by the International English Language Testing
System (Appendix E), hospital staff nurses have
operational command of the language, though with
occasional inaccuracies, inappropriacies and
misunderstandings in some situations. Generally handles
complex language well and understands detailed reasoning.
The null hypothesis, hospital staff nurses have limited
oral communicative competence, is rejected.
Table 7
Nurses Oral Communicative Competence

Participant IELTS Speaking Band Score
1 7
2 7
3 7
4 7
5 7
6 7
7 8
8 8
9 8
10 8
11 7
12 7
13 7.5
14 7.5
15 7
16 8
17 7.5
18 7
19 7
20 7
21 7
22 7
23 6.5
24 7
25 6
26 8
27 6.5
28 7
29 8
30 7
31 7
32 7
_
X: 7.23
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These results suggest that in general, the nurse
participants meet the minimum requirements of most English
speaking countries for immigration purposes and of
institutions for employment purposes. While there is much
discussion in academic and professional circles regarding
the decline of English proficiency among Filipinos, the
results of the study are hopeful, revealing that future
OFWs, nurses in particular, are good in oral English
communication.

Correlations Between Oral Communicative Competence and the
Variables Readiness to Communicate, Motivation, Linguistic
Self-confidence, Attitude Towards the International
Community, and Personality
Table 8 shows the summary of the computed correlation
coefficients among the different variables. The statistical
formula used was the Pearson r which shows a linear
relationship between two sets of scores. The coefficients
may fall anywhere between +1 to a -1 and the associations
may vary in strength from strong to weak.

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Table 8
Correlations Among Variables

Attitude
Towards
Variables Communicative Readiness to Motivation Linguistic International Personality
Competence Communicate Self-confidence Community

Comm. Perceived
Anxiety Comm. Comp.

Communication - 0.22 NS 0.01 NS 0.24 NS 0.18 NS 0.03 NS
Competence -0.13 NS 0.27 NS

Readiness to 0.22 NS - 0.09 NS 0.65 Sig 0.03 NS 0.03 NS
Communicate -0.55 Sig 0.60 Sig

Motivation 0.01 NS - - 0.13 NS 0.51 Sig -0.19 NS
-0.16 NS 0.08 NS

Linguistic 0.24 NS - - - 0.11 NS 0.46 Sig
Self-confidence

Comm. Anxiety 0.16 NS - - - -0.55 Sig 0.20 NS -0.42 Sig

Perceived 0.27 NS - - - - -0.01 NS 0.44 Sig
Comm. Competence

Attitude Towards - - - - - - -0.06 NS
International
Community

Formula: Pearsons r; degrees of freedom (N-2:32-2=30) NS = Not significant
at .05=0.35 (tabular value) Sig = Significant
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Oral Communicative Competence and Readiness to
Communicate. The correlation coefficient for oral
communicative competence (OCC) and readiness to communicate
(RTC) came out to be +0.22. This is smaller than the
tabular value of 0.35, therefore, the coefficient does not
show a significant association between the two variables.
This means that a linear relationship does not exist
between OCC and RTC. The null hypothesis, there is no
significant relationship between oral communicative
competence and readiness to communicate, is therefore,
accepted.
These results can be explained by the phenomenon: a
speaker with excellent communicative competence who avoids
second language (L2) communication or the opposite, a
speaker with poor competence in the L2 who seeks out
opportunities for communication. It was this observation
that spurred researchers such as MacIntyre et. al. (1998)
to examine other more influential antecedents that affect a
L2 learners readiness to communicate aside from his
competence in the target language, hence the Willingness to
Communicate (WTC) model. In the WTC model, the construct
communication competence falls under Layer V (Affective-
Cognitive context), closer to the base of the pyramid and
several layers away from RTC. MacIntyre et. al. have
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proposed that constructs closer towards the tip of the
pyramid and therefore closer to RTC, such as those under
the layer Situated Antecedents, will show more direct
relationships with RTC compared to those that are farther
away. It cannot be denied that communicative competence
affects RTC and eventually L2 communication behavior, but
the relationship may be indirect.
This can be supported by studies (Lui, 2001; Khanna,
Verma, Sinha, Agnihotri, 1998) among Asians showing L2
learners with a high level of oral proficiency, as
evidenced by their grades, who are unwilling to participate
in class, while there were those students who had average
or even poor oral proficiency who were enthusiastic in
participating in recitations and group discussions. These
studies concluded that OCC and RTC do not share a
significant association.
The implications of this mean that for nurses,
competence in spoken English is not an assurance that they
feel ready to use the language. More generally, in L2
education, this means that while it is necessary to improve
the competence if the learners in the L2, there are other
factors that need to be addressed so that in line with the
development of the learners competence is the progress in
their openness to take initiative to use the language.
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Oral Communicative Competence and Motivation. Tested
at .05, the correlation coefficient for OCC and motivation
(+0.01) turned out to be not significant. This means that
there is no association between OCC and motivation. The
null hypothesis, there is no significant relationship
between oral communicative competence and motivation, is
therefore, accepted.
In a 1972 study by Gardner and Lambert (as cited in
Khanna et. al., 1998), they found Filipinos to exhibit both
integrative and instrumental motivation towards learning
English. The findings of their earlier studies suggested
integrative motivation exerted a stronger influence on L2
acquisition, however, they were proven wrong in the
Philippine context. Filipinos showed they were driven to
learn English, mainly to gain professional advancement
while at the same time recognizing the languages
significance in the countries they intend to immigrate to.
This made it hard for the researchers to isolate which type
of motivation was more influential when it came to language
learning. Al-Ansari (1993) who conducted a study among 155
students in their 1
st
year level of an English language
course concluded that there did not seem to be a
significant relationship between integrative motivation and
English proficiency. The same held true for instrumental
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motivation, however, there was an exception with low
achievers. This group of students proficiency showed a
correlation with their instrumental motivation, possibly
because they had more pressure to get better grades in
English compared to their classmates.
For the nurse participants, it is true that they may
have their motivational reasons to learn English but as
long as their motivation is not yet fulfilled, such as
immigration or employment in an English-speaking country,
its influence on proficiency is weak. The desire to use
English for integrating into a group becomes less intense
because opportunities to become communicatively engaged are
hard to come by, especially in the participants work
settings, where communication can be achieved via the
vernacular language and this obviously inhibits nurses from
manipulating English in its contextual functions.
Oral Communicative Competence and Linguistic Self-
confidence. The two components of linguistic self-
confidence (LCC), language anxiety (LA) and perceived
communication competence (PCC), showed no significant
relationship with oral communicative competence (OCC). The
null hypothesis, there is no significant relationship
between oral communicative competence and linguistic self-
confidence, is therefore, accepted.
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The correlation coefficient for OCC and LA was +0.13,
lower than the tabular value (0.35). This means that the
nurse participants speaking competence is not related to
the anxiety they feel when using English. This is
consistent with a study conducted by Rojo-Laurilla (2007)
among 24 maritime students enrolled with the Maritime
Academy of Asia and the Pacific (MAAP) here in the
Philippines. One important finding of the study shows that
language anxiety has no significant relationship with
communicative competence. The study was replicated by Feroz
(2008) among 32 electrical engineering undergraduates in
Malaysia and her findings are consistent with those of
Rojo-Laurilla. These results imply that foreign language
anxiety does not predict how high or low a second language
learners proficiency will be. Particularly for the nurse
participants, there are those who exhibit high oral
communicative competence who may still feel very anxious
when speaking in English. According to MacIntyre and
Gardner as cited previously, this may be due to unpleasant
experiences they encountered during the language learning
process that are independent of their competence in spoken
English. For those nurses who are less competent, some may
feel very little anxiety owing to positive experiences
while learning English.
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Actual competence and perceived competence showed no
significant relationship with each other (+0.27). Nurses
spoken competence in English is not associated with their
cognitive judgment of their degree of mastery achieved in
the same language. Likewise, Rojo-Laurilla found her
respondents PCC and OCC not to share any significant
relationship, particularly in debate and persuasive tasks
given during the study. On the other hand, for
argumentation tasks, PCC of the respondents significantly
correlated with their OCC. In the replicated study by
Feroz, PCC significantly correlated with OCC under all of
the oral tasks. This is inconsistent with the findings for
nurses whose perception of their competence in English is
not based on their actual competence in the language. In
addition, these nurses generally have a lower perception of
their competence than their actual competence in English.
The explanation may be that these nurse participants were
generally unaware of their actual communicative competence,
prior to their IELTS exams, because it has been some time
since they were assessed through a standardized test or
through a teacher. After graduating from academic studies
and several years into work, they only receive limited
feedback with regards to their oral competence.
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Oral Communicative Competence and Attitude Towards the
International Community. Correlation analyses showed that
OCC and attitude towards the international community (ATIC)
do not share a significant relationship (+0.18). The null
hypothesis, there is no significant relationship between
oral communicative competence and attitude towards the
international community, is therefore, accepted. The nurse
participants showed a highly positive attitude and desire
to affiliate with other peoples and cultures. Their
integrativeness, however, had no influence on their
competence in spoken English. This means that the way an L2
learner fells towards foreigners and their culture, whether
positively or negatively, has no bearing on his/her mastery
of the target language. A related study by Clement (1986)
found both attitudes and motivation to not have an
important influence on language proficiency. The study also
showed that integrativeness is more highly related to
increased frequency and quality of contact with the L2
community. In other words, the formation of an L2 learners
ATIC may very well be influenced by stronger factors such
as exposure and his/her level of ethnocentrism rather than
by the target language itself. Furthermore, Gardner and
Lambert as cited previously found that instrumental
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motivation could be enough to spur a learner to master the
target language, even if his/her integrativeness is weak.
Oral Communicative Competence and Personality. Tested
at .05 (tabular value - 0.35), the correlation coefficient
+0.03 was not significant for OCC and personality. The null
hypothesis, there is no significant correlation between
oral communicative competence and extroversion, is
accepted. This means that the nurses level of extroversion
did not influence their competence in spoken English. This
is consistent with a study by Pimsleur (1964, as cited in
Khanna, et.al., 1998) who failed to find a significant
association between extroversion and L2 proficiency. Bartz
(1974, as cited in Khanna, et.al., 1998) confirmed these
findings but showed that unlike extroversion, introversion
significantly, albeit negatively, correlated with L2
proficiency. The nurse participants leaned heavily towards
the extroversion pole on all of the characteristics
presented in the questionnaire. This may be one implication
for the failed association between OCC and personality.
These findings dispel the common notion that an outgoing,
sociable person has better language skills compared to one
who is reticent. On the other hand, it is still an open
question whether introversion negatively associates with L2
competence. Additionally, MacIntyre et. al. propose that
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personality is not conceptualized as a direct influence on
L2 proficiency and learning because the role of individual
differences in personality is affected by a broader social
climate.

Significant Correlations Between the Independent Variables
Although none of the variables readiness to
communicate, motivation, linguistic self-confidence,
personality significantly correlated with communicative
competence, significant relationships were established
between some of these independent variables.
Readiness to Communicate and Linguistic Self-
confidence. Although RTC did not show a significant
relationship with OCC, this was not the case with
linguistic self-confidence (LSC), specifically with this
variables components of language anxiety (LA) and
perceived communication competence (PCC). RTC and LA showed
a moderate negative correlation (Table 8). The computed
value -0.55 is greater than the tabular value of + 0.35.
This means that as the nurse participants anxiety
increased, their readiness to speak in English decreased,
however, as anxiety is eased, they feel more ready to
engage in communication. Numerous studies (Yashima, 2002,
99

as cited in Cetinkaya, 2005; Cetinkaya, 2005; Kim, 2004;
MacIntyre, Baker, Clement, Donovan, 2002) show L2 learners
communication anxiety to correlate with their RTC.
Furthermore, MacIntyre et. al. propose that state anxiety
(a transient emotional reaction towards specific
situations, as was the case in this study) increases, self-
confidence decreases along with RTC. L2 anxiety may also be
increased due to different factors, mainly negative
experiences and unpleasant feedback. Saito and Samimy
(1996, as cited in Cetinkaya, 2005) showed that language
anxiety affects language performance of intermediate and
advanced level learners but it does not predict the
language performance of beginners. The nurse participants
may be considered as intermediate or advanced learners who
have had enough time to gather experiences in the language
learning process, therefore, they have already formed
attitudes which consequently contribute to their RTC.
Readiness to communicate likewise showed a significant
relationship with perceived communication competence.
Tested at .05, the computed correlation coefficient of
+0.60 was greater than the tabular value of 0.35. This
shows a moderate positive correlation and suggests that
nurses who have higher PCC are more ready to communicate in
English, compared to nurses whose perception of their
100

competence is low. Studies conducted by MacIntyre and
associates, as previously cited, have found PCC to
correlated strongly with RTC. These researchers also
concluded that PCC was more influential in less advanced
learners RTC and anxiety a stronger influence among
advanced learners. Among nurses, who are advanced learners,
the results are partly inconsistent with the above studies,
while PCC correlated with RTC, PCC showed a stronger
correlation (0.60) compared to anxiety (-0.55). Since the
nurses did not show high anxiety in any of the situations
in the questionnaire, this may be one explanation why their
perceived competence correlated more highly than their
level of anxiety with RTC. Additionally, MacIntyre et. al.
claim that it is perceived communication competence that
influences readiness to communicate and not necessarily
actual competence. This supports the findings of this study
where a significant relationship was established between
PCC and RTC while none was found for RTC and oral
communicative competence.
In general, self-confidence in English significantly
relates with a learners readiness to communicate in the
language. MacIntyre et.al. predict that a learners desire
to communicate with a specific person and his/her
linguistic self-confidence will be the most immediate
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determinants of RTC. These two constructs will show high
correlation with RTC because both represent the cumulative
influence of the layers in the Willingness to Communicate
model.
Language Anxiety and Perceived Communication
Competence. As components of linguistic confidence, it was
expected that language anxiety and perceived competence
were to share a significant correlation. The computed value
of -0.55 is bigger than the tabular value of 0.35 showing a
significant relationship. The relationship is negative,
meaning, the higher the anxiety of the nurse participants,
the lower the perception of their competence. This is
supported by Feroz, as cited previously, whose study among
engineering students revealed that PCC and language anxiety
share a negative correlation. These findings are consistent
with other studies by MacInyre cited previously showing a
direct relationship between anxiety and perceived
competence. Furthermore, MacIntyre et.al. suggest that
anxiety may be increased as a learner encounters more and
more negative experiences. These unpleasant experiences
also become the basis for the learners perception of his
competence. For instance, constant low grades in language
classes lead the learner to perceive his language
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competence as low which in turn increases his anxiety in
the target language.
Motivation and Attitude Towards the International
Community. These two variables show a moderate correlation
with a coefficient of 0.51. This is higher than the tabular
value of 0.35 and is therefore considered significant.
Studies in this field were pioneered by Gardner, as cited
previously, and his findings suggest that learning a second
language is unlike learning other subjects because this
requires the learner to familiarize himself with the
characteristics of the L2 culture and eventually, the
learners success, to some extent, depends on his attitude
towards the L2 culture. Gardner maintains that attitudes
towards ethnic groups and the language learning context are
the foundations of motivation. According to Gardner, the
learners motivation initially originates from his general
attitudes from home and society; then the language learning
experience further develops his attitudes. The attitudinal
constructs of integrativeness and attitude towards the
learning situation have the most direct influence on
motivation to learn a second language. These propositions
suggest that for nurses, their positive attitude towards
other people and cultures is what motivates them to learn
English.
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Linguistic Self-confidence and Personality. The
correlation coefficient of 0.46 shows a moderate
correlation between these two variables. Specifically,
personality and language anxiety share a low negative
correlation (-0.42), but still significant, while
personality shares a stronger correlation with perceived
communication competence (0.44). This means that the nurse
participants personality had a direct influence on their
confidence in the use of spoken English. MacIntyre et. al.
suggest that personality is indirectly related to readiness
to communicate but is more directly channeled through
linguistic self-confidence and intergroup attitudes. A
study by Schaefer, Williams, Goodie and Campbell (2004) in
the Journal of Research in Personality found their
participants extraversion to significantly predict
overconfidence in cognitive linguistic tasks. Additional
support for the significant relationship between
personality and linguistic confidence can be found in
examples from peoples daily lives. Extroverts are usually
bold and will take the chance to speak up in classes or
meetings. They do not experience much anxiety in these
situations and may very well perceive themselves to be
competent, allowing them to be more open to speaking up,
compared to introverts who would rather keep silent.
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Sample Program to Develop Linguistic Self-confidence and
Readiness to Communicate
Background: Based on the findings of this study, nurses
show that they are sometimes ready to communicate and that
they have moderate self-confidence in their use of English.
Also, these two constructs proved to be significantly
correlated. Readiness to communicate in English is the most
crucial antecedent to actual communication behavior in this
language. More than improving communicative competence, the
goal of second language learning must be seeing the L2
learner actually using the language for meaningful
communication, for instance, in everyday activities and at
work. In order to develop a learners readiness to use the
L2, his confidence in the target language must first be
developed by reducing his language anxiety and establishing
a healthy perception of his communicative competence.
Aims:
1. To increase awareness of spoken English used in a
variety of contexts.
2. To decrease anxiety in spoken English through
familiarization of a variety of contexts.
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3. To develop a realistic perception of ones spoken
proficiency in English through constructive
feedback.
4. To extend knowledge of current English vocabulary
and idioms.
Conceptual Framework: Jim Cummins (1986) developed the
reciprocal interaction model of education primarily to
address the needs of minority students in the US to help
them succeed educationally. The main tenets of the model,
however, can be very aptly applied in the Philippine
setting, among adult L2 learners who desire to improve in
their English skills mainly because the model turns the
control in the learning experience over from the teacher to
the learner. The reciprocal interaction model uses
meaningful oral (and written) communication among students
and teachers as the matrix of language learning. Language
tasks, presentations, projects and classroom discussions
are student-directed and the majority of the course is
task-based learning, supplemented by brief lectures based
on the needs of the class. A novel component of this model
that cannot be easily found in others, even in contemporary
frameworks, is its validation of the learners L1 language
and culture. Classroom activities value and promote the
development of the students first language and culture
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parallel to the development of English. The teachers role
is to guide and facilitate discussions, and to encourage
collaborative student-to-student talk in the learning
context. While the learning environment in this model seems
more relaxed and less intense than the traditional models,
it is the teachers main responsibility to prepare and put
forward tasks that develop students higher level cognitive
skills. Language inside the classroom must be meaningful
and relevant, for both the learner and the teacher.
The way the learning environment is structured using
the reciprocal interaction model is intended to address
anxiety the learner might feel in the areas identified in
Toths (2008) study. The 117 students in the study
identified the following as major areas that may be
possible causes for L2 anxiety:
1. The nature of L2 communication L2 learners
reported that the strangeness of the L2 may cause
anxiety. Making the speaking tasks meaningful and
useful in simulated daily activities will help make
the L2 more familiar and with constant practice, the
learner compiles an array of speech acts he can
appropriately use in different contexts.
2. Personality of the learner While personality is an
enduring characteristic, and therefore, cannot be
107

changed overnight, the class size can help prevent
situations where the reticent learners are not given
enough attention and time to speak. Since the
maximum number of participants in the workshop will
total six (6), each student will be allowed more or
less the same amount of time for speaking and
listening.
3. Interpersonal factors Students reported that the
overall atmosphere inside the classroom, the teacher
and their classmates may be causes for anxiety.
Because the workshop will allow for collaborative
learning among students and teacher, it is hoped
that the learning atmosphere will be cooperative
rather than competitive.
4. L2 competence L2 learners identified lack of
vocabulary and poor grammar as primary linguistic
reasons for anxiety. Meeting one of the workshops
aims of extending the students knowledge of current
words and idioms will allow them to improve in this
area. Constructive feedback from the teacher will
also help students become aware of systematic errors
they make so that they can be more focused on
improving in grammar.
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5. Instructional practices Students said they felt
uncomfortable with teachers who were rule-focused
and whose goals were mainly grammatical accuracy.
Grammar will comprise only a small part of the
workshops program. As explained earlier, the
teacher will act as facilitator instead of
transmitter of knowledge.
6. Lack of practice in authentic target language
communication Respondents felt they lacked
practice in the L2 outside of the classroom and so
experienced anxiety when confronted with actual
social communication. In the foreign language
setting, students may not always find opportunities
to exercise their skills in the target language. The
workshop will attempt to bring the outside world
inside the classroom by using role play and
simulations where students will practice their oral
English skills.
Program:
Maximum number of participants: 6
Program length: 9 hours (1 days)
Schedule of activities:

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Each of the activities can be treated as tasks or workshops
in themselves. The main topics and activities can be
expanded and lengthened, thus making it into a workshop,
until the group is satisfied that they have accomplished
the task in full. The activities can also be treated as
tasks if the group aims to complete the entire program in a
specified time-frame. This program, which specifically
focuses on making English familiar to the learner in real-
life contexts to ease language anxiety, is meant to be part
of a larger language enhancement program which is intended
to be a preparatory course for the IELTS examinations, or
for English enhancement in general.

I. Preparatory activities
The six participants are each scheduled for a 10
minute one-on-one interview and orientation with
the teacher. This will allow the teacher to get
to know the students background and will make
the student more familiar with the teacher and
the program.
After the interview, students will be asked to
answer the original questionnaires (adapted from
Cetinkaya (2005)) on language anxiety and
perceived communication competence (see Appendix
110

H). The data from these will form the base for
the teachers needs analysis survey for
preparation of materials and brief lectures.

II. Program Proper
The teacher welcomes the students to the workshop
and gives them a brief overview of the schedule
of activities as well as the aims of the program.
The classroom set-up will be chairs in a circle
to allow for eye contact among all of the
participants as well as with the teacher.

III. Individual Speaking Workshop
Students are then given about ten minutes to
prepare for their self-introductions following a
guide prepared by the teacher (see Appendix I).
Students can present themselves to the group in
any language they feel the most comfortable
using. Students then introduce themselves to the
class.

IV. Listening Workshop
After the introductions, the teacher shares the
basics of effective communication (see Appendix
J). This will lay the foundation for
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communication the students will engage in
throughout the course of the workshop. This will
help them to focus on the more important
components of communication such as diction and
body language, rather than worrying about
grammar.

V. Visual and Listening Workshop
Students watch a 20 minute clip of a famous
American sit-com. After, they identify and
discuss among themselves models of good
communication and bad communication as observed
from the clip.

Students then identify contexts as observed from
the clip in which they will most likely engage in
communication if they were to live in a native
English setting, example, speaking to a fellow
customer at the laundromat. The group then
brainstorms vocabulary connected to these
contexts.

VI. Paired Speaking Workshop
Students are then asked to pair up and face each
other, the three pairs forming two parallel
112

lines. The teacher explains that the activity
will require them to role play and imagine
themselves in the situations they will be given.
The first line of students will each be given a
card with a situation written on it and with a
communication task they need to accomplish.
Example:
You have lived with your roommates
For six months now but youve decided
to move out because they havent taken
care of the placepizza boxes everywhere,
dirty socks on the couch, etc. Tell your
partner about your current situation, and
then explain what kind of place you are
looking for.

The students sit apart far enough to avoid
distracting each other. In each pair, the person
who holds the card executes the communication
task assigned. Students are allowed several tries
at accomplishing the task. The partner who was
not assigned the task listens and gives feedback
after each attempt. The pairs raise their cards
once they feel they have exhausted possible
communication dialogues. This is a signal for the
teacher to assign the pair a new card with a new
communication context and task. This time, the
students reverse roles. The same procedures will
113

be followed for every task. Each student will be
given at least three tasks to accomplish.

VII. Feedback and Evaluation
After the activity, the students and the teacher
resume their circle formation and discuss and
evaluate the difficulties they encountered during
the activity. The teacher allows for flexibility
of time, depending on the questions and issues
raised. Some groups may feel no need to dissect
the situations given, while other groups may want
to pursue more in-depth discussions on the
contexts presented.
N.B. During this point, the group may want to
take a break. Pauses and breaks in the program
will be at the discretion of the group.

VIII. Visual and Listening Workshop
The students watch two 20-minute video clips of
an American sit-com. After each clip, they
identify as a group current vocabulary and idioms
they hear that they may or may not know the
meaning of. The teacher should be prepared to
supplement meanings for the latter.

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IX. Individual Speaking Workshop
Each student makes a list of the words and idioms
the group collected. They pair up, this time with
a different partner. They keep their list of
words and idioms in front of them and their task
is to execute the role play activity they did
earlier, but this time, students are required to
incorporate words and idioms from their list in
their communication. It is not expected that they
use the words and idioms in the exact order as
they appear on their list, but they use these
when they feel it is appropriate, and put a check
mark after each word or idiom after they have
used each correctly.
N.B. The succeeding activities may be done the
following day to allow time for students to
prepare for their presentations.

X. Preparation and Speaking Workshop
Students go back and recall the video clips of
the sit-coms they previously watched. They
identify differences and similarities they
observed between the American culture, as
portrayed in the sit-coms, and their own culture.
115

The teacher may give one or two examples to help
the students be more specific in their
identification of cultural differences.

Each student is then tasked to make an outline in
the form of a web or map of his presentation of
the cultural differences he observed.
N.B. This part may be given as homework.

XI. Public Speaking Workshop
Each student presents to the class specifics of
his culture that are different or similar with
the American culture, as they observed from the
sit-coms. Students may have similarities in their
reports and these can be used as points for
discussion. After the individual presentations,
the group discusses possible ways they can deal
with these cultural differences, especially once
they migrate to the English-speaking country of
their choice. The teacher aids the students
during the discussion and offers ways of dealing
with cultural differences.

116

XII. Speaking and Evaluation Workshop
Each student will be interviewed by the teacher
for about 15 minutes. The questions in the
interview will be thematically related to the
previous activities of the students, such as role
playing possible situations to be encountered in
an English-speaking country and dealing with
cultural differences.

The teacher assesses the student on the basis of
eight main criteria: Fluency, Coherence, Lexical
Resource, Grammatical Range, Grammatical
Accuracy, Pronunciation, Non-verbal Communication
Skills, Comprehension (see Appendix K for the
complete Speaking Checklist). After the
interview, the teacher explains the assessment to
the student, reviews the Language Anxiety and
Perceived Communication Competence Questionnaires
the student completed earlier, and gives the
student constructive feedback.

XIII. Follow-up
The students will be encouraged to take the
workshop as just a first step in developing
confidence in the authentic use of the English
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language. Students will be advised to take time
to go through the entire preparatory course for
IELTS, basically, to arm them for the
examinations they will need to take, but more
generally to help them continue to use English so
that the language and culture become more and
more familiar. With this, it is hoped that the
students anxiety in the use of English will
decrease, that they form a healthy perception of
their competence in the language, and that they
develop the readiness to use English in any
situation and context.

Conclusions and Recommendation
118

CHAPTER 4

This chapter presents the conclusions and
recommendation based on the findings of the study.

Conclusions
Based on the results of the study, the following
can be concluded:
1. Hospital staff nurses are ready to communicate in
English, preferably with their patients in an
interpersonal conversation.
2. Hospital staff nurses are motivated to learn English
on their own and through short structured
enhancement programs.
3. Hospital staff nurses are not highly anxious when
using English and they perceive themselves to be
competent in speaking the language. Their anxiety
increases when speaking in a large group, and their
perception of their competence decreases when
speaking to their superiors.
4. Hospital staff nurses have a positive attitude
towards other peoples and cultures.
5. Hospital staff nurses are generally extroverted.
119

6. Hospital staff nurses have good proficiency in
oral English and meet the requirements in this area
for immigration and employment overseas.
7. The nurses readiness to speak in English, their
motivation to learn, their confidence in the
language, their attitude towards other people and
cultures, and their being extroverted do not
directly influence their competence in spoken
English.
8. Hospital staff nurses readiness to communicate in
English is affected by their confidence in the use
of the language. When they have low anxiety and
perceive themselves to be competent in speaking,
nurses are more ready to engage in communication in
English.
9. The nurses motivation to learn English is
influenced by their attitude towards other peoples
and cultures in the international realm.
10. The nurses perception of their English
competence influences their levels of anxiety in the
use of the language.
11. The nurses degree of extroversion affects their
confidence in the use of English.
120

12. The proposed program to develop linguistic self-
confidence in the English learner is appropriate to
decrease the learners language anxiety and to
develop readiness to use the language.

Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following are
recommended:
1. Hospitals should develop and implement staff
training programs to help their nurses develop the
readiness to use English in presentations and
meetings with their colleagues and superiors.
Because these nurses are motivated to learn, the
programs can be given on a regular basis to ease the
nurses anxiety in public speaking. This will allow
the nurses to grow professionally and to make them
locally and globally more competitive in their
field.
2. Universities and non-academic training institutions
should continuously promote the enhancement of
English competence in their students and
professionals. This can be achieved through
integrating English in all aspects of the
curriculum, as well as through workshops and short
121

programs that allow for meaningful and authentic use
of English in real-life contexts.
3. English language education especially for adults,
whether in the academe or otherwise, should focus on
decreasing the learners anxiety in the use of the
language though familiarization and constant use.
This will in turn develop their readiness to speak
in English, allowing them to initiate communication
in actual situations. In addition, encouraging the
use of English will help students form improved
judgments of their language competence and will in
turn ease their language anxiety.
4. As part of English language education, learners
should be made aware of the culture in which the
English language is used. Media can be utilized to
bring to the students English in its actual context.
Students can watch shows and movies, after which
discussion and feedback takes place. Learners should
also be encouraged to keep abreast of current events
happening in and outside of their country. A healthy
attitude towards other people and their culture will
keep learners motivated to learn about them and
their language.
122

5. Language classes should be kept small. While this
is extremely difficult and unrealistic to pursue in
many academic institutions, this is possible in
centers that provide language enhancement workshops
and programs. A smaller learning group allows for
even the most reticent student to speak up. Teachers
should expertly facilitate each students talking
time so that the more talkative student does not
take up all of the time, at the expense of the
quieter ones.
Other recommendations in relation to the study are as
follows:
1. Since the study failed to establish connections
between communicative competence and readiness to
communicate, motivation, linguistic confidence,
personality, further research may be conducted to
investigate the more immediate antecedents of language
competence.
2. The study was conducted exclusively among a limited
number of nurses, therefore, it is safe to say that
the results are applicable to this particular group.
Future studies can use a bigger number of participants
123

coming from a variety of professions to allow for more
generalized findings and conclusions.
3. According to the Willingness to Communicate model
(MacIntyre et.al., 1998) there are both enduring and
situational variables that affect ones readiness to
communicate in a foreign or second language. The
current study, however, examined only the enduring
variables such as confidence and personality. Further
research is needed to examine the effect of situation-
specific variables, such as a persons desire to
communicate with specific people. This will require a
longitudinal qualitative study in various situations
both inside and outside the classroom.
4. The current study focused solely on the speaking mode
of the English language. Future research needs to
consider the readiness to communicate of L2 learners
in the other language modes writing, reading and
listening.

References
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Appendices
129

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
LETTER TO RESPONDENTS

January 06, 2010

Dear Respondent,
I am a graduate student at the University of the
Cordilleras and as part of the requirements for graduation,
I am completing my thesis entitled Hospital Staff Nurses
Readiness to Communicate in English as a Second Language.
As part of my research, I would very much appreciate it if
you could take the time to visit Noahs Ark Training &
Review Center located in Benitez Compound, Magsaysay Ave.
You will be answering a simple questionnaire regarding your
use of English in your workplace.
If you have any questions or clarifications, please do not
hesitate to contact me at (074) 442-6856 or 09277975175.
Thank you so much for your help!
Yours Faithfully,

Leah Angiwan-Salayao
Researcher

Appendices
130

APPENDIX B

Questionnaire on READINESS TO COMMUNICATE

DIRECTIONS: Below are 12 situations in which a person might
choose to communicate OR not to communicate in English.

Presume you have completely free choice. Indicate the
percentage of frequency you would choose to communicate in
each type of situation.

NEVER I never communicate
SOMETIMES I sometimes communicate
OFTEN I often communicate
ALWAYS I always communicate

SITUATION NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN ALWAYS
1. Present a talk to a group

2. Talk to an English
speaking patient while
doing a general survey of
him/her.

3. Talk in a large meeting
of patients in English.

4. Talk to a small group of

5. Talk with a colleague in

6. Talk in a large meeting

7. Talk to a patients
relative in English while
explaining the patients
status.

8. Present a talk to a group
of English-speaking
patients.

9. Talk in a small group of
hospital personnel in
English.

10. Talk in a large
meeting of hospital
personnel in English.

11. Talk in a small group
of English-speaking
patients.

Appendices
131

SITUATION NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN ALWAYS
12. Present a talk to a
small group of English-
speaking patients
relatives.

Appendices
132

APPENDIX C
Questionnaire on MOTIVATION
DIRECTIONS: Please indicate how much you agree or disagree
with the following statements by putting an X in the box
that best describes the extent to which you agree or
disagree with the statement.
STRONGLY
DISAGREE
DISAGREE AGREE

STRONGLY
AGREE
1-Compared to my
colleagues, I think I
study English relatively
hard

2-I often think about
the words and ideas
which I learn about in
my English enhancement
classes

3-If English were not
taught in training
centers, I would study
on my own

4-I think I spend fairly
long hours studying
English

5-I really try to learn
English

6-After my English
training courses, I will
continue to study
English and try to
improve

7-When I have
assignments to do in
English, I try to do
them immediately

8-I would read English
newspapers and/or
magazines

9-During English
training classes, Im
absorbed in what is
taught and concentrate
on studying

10-I would like the
Appendices
133

STRONGLY
DISAGREE
DISAGREE AGREE

STRONGLY
AGREE
number of English
classes in training
centers increased
11-I believe absolutely
that English should be
taught in school

12-I find learning
English more interesting
than other subjects

13-Learning English is
really great

14-I would rather spend
my time on other
subjects other than
English

15-Learning English is a
waste of time

16-I plan to learn as
much English as possible

17-I love learning
English

Appendices
134

APPENDIX D
Questionnaire on LINGUISTIC SELF-CONFIDENCE
A. DIRECTIONS: Below are 12 situations in which a person may
feel different degrees of ANXIETY. Please indicate in the
space below what degree of anxiety you might feel in the
following situations.

The following situations may occur in your country or
abroad. If you have not had the experience, try to imagine
how you might feel.

SITUATION NOT
ANXIOUS
AT ALL
FAIRLY
ANXIOUS

MODERATELY
ANXIOUS
VERY
ANXIOUS
group of coworkers
in English.

speaking patient
while doing a
general survey of
him/her.

3. Talk in a large
meeting of patients
in English.

4. Talk to a small
group of superiors
in English.

5. Talk with a
colleague in
English while at
work.

6. Talk in a large
meeting of
colleagues in
English.

relative in English
while explaining
the patients
status.

group of English-
speaking patients.

9. Talk in a small
Appendices
135

SITUATION NOT
ANXIOUS
AT ALL
FAIRLY
ANXIOUS

MODERATELY
ANXIOUS
VERY
ANXIOUS
group of hospital
personnel in
English.
10. Talk in a large
meeting of hospital
personnel in
English.

11. Talk in a small
group of English-
speaking patients.

12. Present a talk to
a small group of
English-speaking
patients
relatives.

B. DIRECTIONS: Below are 12 situations in which a person may
feel different degrees of COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE.
Please indicate in the space below what degree of
competence you might feel in the following situations.

how you might feel.

SITUATION
NOT
COMPETENT
FAIRLY
COMPETENT
MODERATELY
COMPETENT
VERY
COMPETENT
group of coworkers
in English.

speaking patient
while doing a
general survey of
him/her.

3. Talk in a large
meeting of patients
in English.

4. Talk to a small
group of superiors
in English.

5. Talk with a
colleague in English

Appendices
136

SITUATION
NOT
COMPETENT
FAIRLY
COMPETENT
MODERATELY
COMPETENT
VERY
COMPETENT
while at work.
6. Talk in a large
meeting of
colleagues in
English.

relative in English
while explaining the
patients status.

group of English-
speaking patients.

9. Talk in a small
group of hospital
personnel in
English.

10. Talk in a large
meeting of hospital
personnel in
English.

11. Talk in a small
group of English-
speaking patients.

12. Present a talk to
a small group of
English-speaking
patients relatives.

Appendices
137

APPENDIX E
Questionnaire on ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE INTERNATIONAL
COMMUNITY
DIRECTIONS: Please indicate how much you agree or disagree
with the following statements by putting an X in the box
that best describes the extent to which you agree or
disagree with the statement.
STRONGLY
DISAGREE
DISAGREE AGREE

STRONGLY
AGREE
1-I want to make friends
with international
nurses

2-I try to avoid talking
with foreigners if I can

3-I would talk to an
international nurse if I
ever meet one

4-I wouldnt mind
sharing an apartment or
room with

5-I want to participate
in a volunteer activity
to help foreigners
living in the
neighboring community

6-I would feel somewhat
uncomfortable is a
foreigner moved in next
door

7-I would help a
foreigner who is in
trouble

8-I would rather stay in
my hometown

9-I want to live in a
foreign country

10-I want to work in an
international
organization like the
United Nations

11-I dont think whats
happening overseas has
anything to do with my

Appendices
138

daily life
12-Id rather avoid the
kind of work that sends
me overseas frequently

13-I often read and
watch news about foreign
countries

14-I often talk about
events and situations in
foreign countries with
my family and/or friends

I study English because
STRONGLY
DISAGREE
DISAGREE AGREE

STRONGLY
AGREE
15-It will allow me to
meet and converse more
with varied people

16-It will allow me to
get to know various
cultures and people

17-I will be able to
participate more
freely in the
activities of other
cultural groups

18-Id like to make
friends with
foreigners

Appendices
139

APPENDIX F

Questionnaire on PERSONALITY

DIRECTIONS: Please use this list of common human traits to
describe yourself as accurately as possible. Describe
yourself as you see yourself at the present time, not as
you wish to be in the future. Describe yourself as you are
generally or typically, as compared to other persons you
know of the same sex and roughly the same age.

Please CIRCLE ONE number that applies to you.

1. Intraverted 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Extraverted
2. Unenergetic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Energetic
3. Silent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Talkative
4. Unenthusiastic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Enthusiastic
5. Timid 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Bold
6. Inactive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Active
7. Inhibited 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Spontaneous
8. Unassertive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Assertive
9. Unadventurous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Adventurous
10. Unsociable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sociable

Personal Information

Gender: ____________

Age:________________

Ethnic Affiliation: _____________________________

Hospital Affiliation: ___________________________

How long have you been studying English:
_______________________

Appendices
140

Please provide the results of your latest IELTS
examination. This information will be kept strictly
confidential. Thank you very much for your cooperation.

DATE OF EXAM: ____________________________________________

RESULTS

LISTENING BAND SCORE: _____

READING BAND SCORE: _____

WRITING BAND SCORE: _____

SPEAKING BAND SCORE: _____

OVERALL BAND SCORE: _____

Appendices
141

APPENDIX G
IELTS BAND SCORE INTERPRETATIONS
9 Expert User Has fully operational command of the
language: appropriate, accurate and
fluent with complete understanding.

8 Very Good User Has fully operational command of the
Language with only occasional
unsystematic inaccuracies and
inappropriacies. Misunderstandings may
occur in unfamiliar situations. Handles
complex detailed argumentation well.

7 Good User Has operational command of the
language, though with occasional
inaccuracies, inappropriacies and
misunderstandings in some situations.
Generally handles complex language well
and understands detailed reasoning.

6 Competent User Has generally effective command of the
language despite some inaccuracies,
inappropriacies and misunderstandings.
Can use and understand fairly complex
language, particularly in familiar
situations.

5 Modest User Has partial command of the language,
Coping with overall meaning in most
Situations, though is likely to make
many mistakes. Should be able to handle
basic communication in own field.

4 Limited User Basic competence is limited to familiar
situations. Has frequent problems in
understanding and expression, is not
able to use complex language.

3 Extremely
Limited User Conveys and understands only general
meaning in very familiar situations.
Frequent breakdowns in communication
occur.

Appendices
142

IELTS BAND SCORE INTERPRETATIONS continued
2 Intermittent
User No real communication is possible
except for the most basic information
using isolated words or short formulae
in familiar situations and to meet
immediate needs. Has great difficulty
understanding spoken and written
English.

1 Non User Essentially has no ability to use the
language beyond possibly a few isolated
words.

0 Did Not Attempt the Test

Source: Cambridge ESOL Department. (2007). IELTS Handbook.
Cambridge: Author.

Appendices
143

APPENDIX H
Questionnaire on LANGUAGE ANXIETY

DIRECTIONS: Below are 12 situations in which a person may
feel different degrees of ANXIETY. Please indicate in the
space below what degree of anxiety you might feel in the
following sitations.
Examples:
__0%_ 1. Talk to a stranger.- 0% means in this situation
you dont feel any anxiety at all.
_75%_ 2. Talk to a stranger.-75% means in this situation
you often feel anxiety.

0%-----------25%-----------50%-----------75%-----------100%
I dont I rarely I sometimes I often I always
feel anxiety feel anxiety feel anxiety feel anxiety feel anxiety
at all

how you might feel.

_____ 1. Have a small-group conversation in English with
acquaintances.

_____ 2. Give a presentation in English to a group of
strangers.

friends.

_____ 4. Talk in English in a large meeting among
strangers.

strangers.

Appendices
144

friends.

_____ 7. Talk in English to friends.

_____ 8. Talk in English in a large meeting with
acquaintances.

_____ 9. Talk in English to acquaintances.

acquaintances.

_____ 11. Talk in English to a stranger.

_____ 12. Talk in English to a small group of friends.

Questionnaire on PERCEIVED COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

DIRECTIONS: Below are 12 situations in which a person may
feel different degrees of COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE. Please
indicate in the space below what degree of competence you
might feel in the following situations.

0%-------------------------50%-------------------------100%
Entirely Somewhat Entirely
incompetent competent competent
(I cant (I could do it) (I could do it well)
do it at all)

how you might feel.

acquaintances.

strangers.
Appendices
145

friends.

strangers.

strangers.

friends.

_____ 7. Talk in English to friends.

_____ 8. Talk in English in a large meeting with
acquaintances.

_____ 9. Talk in English to acquaintances.

acquaintances.

_____ 11. Talk in English to a stranger.

_____ 12. Talk in English to a small group of friends.

Appendices
146

APPENDIX I
12 Sample Self Introduction Topics
Look at the sample self introduction speech topics and pick
out the aspects of your personal life you want to share
with the audience. Approach the list below with the who,
what, where, why, how and when questions. That's an
effective way to outline your first thoughts.
1. What activity has played or plays an important part in
your life? Tell the story and distract the message.
2. What is your main personal goal?
3. What do you like very much?
4. What do you hate or dislike?
5. Have you developed a very special skill?
6. What is your lifestyle?
7. Can you come up with a turning point or milestone in
you life?
8. What is your hobby or interest in your spare time?
9. What is a pet peeve or another very familiar topic you
like to talk about, to do or to discuss?
10. Where are you from? Do your roots reveal
something about yourself that's new for the audience?
11. Is there an object or prop that means a lot to
you?
12. What distinguishes you from other individuals in
class?

Appendices
147

APPENDIX J
BASICS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

SHARE your ideas
S tate the main point of your message
H ighlight other important points
A ssure the receivers understanding
R eact to hoe the receiver responds
E mphasize/summarize your main ideas

LISTEN Actively
1. Prepare to listen by focusing on the speaker.
2. Control and eliminate distractions.
3. Establish appropriate eye contact.
4. See listening as an opportunity.

Appendices
148

APPENDIX K
IELTS SPEAKING CHECKLIST

E-Excellent 4
Students NAME: ______________ VS-Very Satisfactory 3
S-Satisfactory 2
NI-Needs Improvement 1

MARKERS E VS S NI
FLUENCY
Has the ability to talk
with normal levels of
continuity

Normal speech rate (not too
fast, not too slow)

Does not appear to exert
too much effort in
producing spoken output

COHERENCE
Has the ability to link
ideas together in a logical
manner

Language is understandable
and speech connected

LEXICAL RESOURCE
Uses a wide range of
vocabulary

Vocabulary clearly shows
meanings and attitudes that
are expressed

Has the ability to get
around a vocabulary gap by
expressing the idea in
a different way (ability to
circumlocute)

GRAMMATICAL RANGE
Uses a wide range of
grammatical structures

Gives lengthy and complex
utterances

GRAMMATICAL ACCURACY
Makes minimal grammatical
errors

Errors do not greatly
negatively affect

Appendices
149

communication
PRONUNCIATION
Produces comprehensible
utterances and uses a wide
range of phonological
features to convey meaning

Causes minimal, if none at
all, strain to the listener

Minimal, if none at all,
noticeability of L1 or
mother language

Optimal voice volume
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
SKILLS

Uses appropriate body
language to express ideas
and attitudes

Uses appropriate facial
expressions to express
ideas and attitudes

COMPREHENSION
Understands tasks and
questions and responds to
them appropriately

Uses relevant related ideas
and examples to expound on
topics

Summary: ____ ____ ____ ____
Overall Score: ____
Ave: ____
Band Score: ____________________

Comments:
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___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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Hospital Staff Nurses'readiness To Communicate in English As A Second Language

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HOSPITAL STAFF NURSESREADINESS TO COMMUNICATE IN

ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

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