TERMS

WORD DEFINITION
Technology Application of science to improve the quality of life
The branch of science that deals with matter, its properties, changes
Chemistry
,composition and laws or principles governing the changes
Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass
Volume Other word for space
Amount of matter present in an object
Mass
(kg, g, mg, lb, oz)
Gravitational pull acting on an object
Weight
(N, dyne)
Properties Characteristics/ qualities
Structure Arrangement of matter
Laws/ Principles Explanation to the changes

IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
• We need to study Chemistry because we and the environment are matter ant to
familiarize the matter around us

BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
BRANCH OF CHEMISTRY DEFINITION
Biochemistry Study of organic compounds where humans are made of
Analytical Chemistry Analysis of the composition of substances/ materials
Organic Chemistry Study of carbon and its compounds
Inorganic Chemistry Study of non carbon containing compounds
Deals with the energy changes happening in chemical
Physical Chemistry
reactions
General Chemistry Basic concepts of chemistry

STATES OF MATTER

Molecules are Definite volume

Solid Has definite shape
compress
Molecules are slightly Fixed volume Only
Liquid Don’t
apart occupies
have
Don’t have fixed the shape
Molecules are far from fixed
Gas volume of the
each other shape
container
Composed of energy
Plasma A form of gas
charged particles
Produced only in a
Bose-Enstein
A form of liquid temperature near
Condensate
absolute zero

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Systematic way of finding answers in a problem
STEPS
1. Know the problem
2. Making observation
3. Making hypothesis
4. Test the hypothesis through experimentation
5. Analyze the data gathered
6. Make a conclusion

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES
 1. Keen observer/ Curiosity
2. Open-mindness/ Objectivity
3. Resourcefulness
4. Intellectual Honesty
5. Patience/ Perseverance
6. Humility
7. Acceptance of failure
8. Healthy skepticism
PROPERTIES OF MATTER

PROPERTY DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Can be observed/ measured only • combustibility
Chemical Properties after a matter underwent a change in • chemical reactivity
composition • rusting formation
Can be observed/ measured even
Physical Properties without the matter undergoing a • 5 senses
change in composition

TYPES OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

• Mass
Properties that depend on the amount • Volume
Extensive/ extrinsic
of matter present • Taste
• Odor
• Density
Properties that depend on the kind of
Intensive/ intrinsic • Boiling point
matter present
• Elasticity

CHANGES IN MATTER

CHANGE DEFINITION EXAMPLE

• Breaking
Changes that do not alter the • Melting
Physical Change
composition of substance • Freezing
• Grinding
• Rusting
Changes in the composition of • Decomposition
Chemical Change
substances to form a new substance • Cooking
• Digestion

PHASE CHANGES
Melting Solid to liquid Melting of snow and ice
Evaporation of water or
Evaporation Liquid to gas Heat is absorbed by the
refrigerant
matter
Sublimation of dry ice,
Sublimation Solid to gas
free-drying of coffee
Liquid to solid Freezing of water or a
Freezing
(solidification) liquid metal
Heat is released by the
Condensation Formation of dew
matter
Gas to solid Formation of frost and
Deposition
snow

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
(Classified according to composition)

• Pure substance
o A matter that is composed of only one kind of particle
KINDS OF PARTICLES
o Atoms
o Molecules
o Ions

KINDS OF PURE SUBSTANCES

o Elements – Periodic Table
 Simplest form of matter
 Made up of only one kind of atom or molecule

KINDS OF ELEMENTS
METALS NONMETALS METALLOIDS
Usually hard and solid except Some are solid, liquid Solids
Hg, which is a liquid. Cs and (bromine), or gas. Usually soft
Ga melt in unprotected hand
Malleable and ductile
Conductor of heat and
electricity
Lustrous and shiny
High density
High melting and boiling
points
High tensile strength
except diamond
Brittle
Basically insulators
Dull except diamond
Low density
Low melting and boiling
points
Low tensile strength
Brittle
Intermediate electrical
conductivity
Intermediate reflectance
Intermediate density
Low melting and boiling
points
Low tensile strength

o Compounds
 Formed when 2 or more elements combined chemically in fixed
proportions

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS
 According to Composition
• Organic – C6H12O6 , CH4
o with carbon
• Inorganic – NaCl , H2O , H2 , SO4
o without carbon
 According to Chemical Bond
• Ionic – M + NM , ENaCI
o Ionic bond is present
• Covalent – NM + NM , H2O
o Covalent bond is present

• Mixture
o Composed of 2 or more substances that combined physically in variable
proportions

CLASSIFICATION OF MIXTURE
(According to number of phases)
o Homogenous/ Solutions – sea water, air
 Single-phased mixtures
 All the parts are identical
o Heterogeneous – Salad, soup, garbage
 Mixtures consisting of 2 or more phases
 With parts that are dissimilar

KINDS OF HETEROGENEOUS
 Suspension
• The suspended particles can be seen and are large to be
trapped in a filter
 Colloid
• Mixture with particles bigger than the particles of a solution but
smaller than those of a suspension
 Coarse Mixture
• The particles can be separated mechanically
• Brownian Movement
o Rapid, haphazard motion of colloidal particles
o Caused by the collision of the colloidal particles with
the molecules of the dispersion medium
o Colloidal particles do not settle because of the
Brownian Movement
• Tyndall Effect
o The reflection of light by colloidal particles

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPOUND AND MIXTURE

COMPOUND
• Fixed proportion
• Cant be separated by ordinary
physical means
• Chemically combined
• Can be expressed in formulas
MIXTURE
• Variable proportion
• Cant be separated by ordinary
physical means
• Physically combined
• Cant be express in formulas
 METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES

• Filtration
o The pouring of the mixture through a piece of paper (filter paper) which lets
the liquid (filtrate) pass through but catches the solid (residue)
• Flotation
o The removal of suspended particles either by sedimentation or coagulation
o Used in mining to separate precious metals/ minerals from impurities
• Distillation
o Makes use of the differences in boiling points (evaporation and condensation).
The gas is then condensed back to a liquid (distillate)
• Decantation
o The pouring of the liquid from a mixture to separate the liquid (decante) from
the solid particles
• Crystallization
o Occurs when simple sea water is allowed to evaporate
• Centrifugation
o The settling of tiny suspended particles using a centrifuge. Tis hastens the
settling of the precipitate in a suspension.
 Centrifugate
• The liquid that comes from centrifugation
• Chromatography
o A solution ca nbe separated by allowing it to flow along a stationary substance
o Uses the different degrees of adsorption of the components to a stationary
substance
KINDS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
 Paper Chromatography
 Column Chromatography
• Magnetism
o Used to separate a metal from a non metal
• Mechanical Spearation
o Use machines to separate mixtures

EVIDENCE OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

1. Change in color, taste, odor
2. formation of a new substance
3. evolution of gas
4. production of heat and light
5. formation of precipitate
6. production of sound and mechanical energy

ENERGY
• capacity to do work or to transfer heat

POTENTIAL ENERGY
• the energy stored in an object because of its position or composition
KINETIC ENERGY
• energy in motion

LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794)

“Father of Modern Chemistry”
• chemist, politician, lawyer, farmer, banker
• born in Paris, France on August 26, 1743, son of a wealthy lawyer
• suited law, also attended lectures on scientific studies
• in 1771, married Marie Paulze (acted as secretary and made many drawings for his
book)
• they had no children
• member of “farm General” (collect taxes for the king)
• during French Revolution; members were arrested tried and sentenced to death
• on May 8, 1794, Lavoisier was beheaded (guillotine)

IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS
• Oxygen Theory of Burning (Phlogiston Theory of Burning)
o Accepted explanation of burning
• Found out that water is composed of 2 gases (O2,H2)
• Explained the respiration process ( the body uses breathened oxygen to burn food,
which gives the body its heat)
• Worked with other chemists to set up a system of naming chemicals

IMPORTANT QUALITIES
• Lavoisier didn’t make any discoveries of his own but he gave correct explanations to
the discoveries of others
• He insisted on exact measurements in all his experiments
• He helped introduce methods of exactness in chemistry
• He would accept no idea unless it could be proved

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

• Law of Conservation of Mass
o The total mass in any chemical or physical change does not change.
o The number of substances may change, the properties may change, but the
total amount of matter remains constant.
Fe S FeS
+ =
(10g) (5g) (15g)

• Law of Definite Composition

o Formulated by Joseph Proust (1754 – 1826), a French chemist
o Elements combine to form compounds in definite proportions by mass
H2 O
+ = 2H:1O
11.11% 88.89%

• Law of Multiple Proportions

o When 2 elements combined to form 2 or more compounds, the masses of one
element that combined with a fixed mass of the elements are in a ratio of
small whole numbers
C O
1st compound 3.00g 5.00g
2nd compound 6.00g 10.00g

Ratio Mass of O (1st compound) 5.00g

= = = ½ or 1:2
(mass of O) Mass of O (2nd compound) 10.00g

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANATOMIC THEORY

• Leucippus (teacher) and Democritus (student)

o Believed that the atoms were invisible, indestructible, and the smallest particle
of matter called “atomos”.
o He believed that these atoms differ in shape, size, weight, sequence, and
position
• Aristotle
o Rejected the idea of the atomism of matter
o Believed that there’s no limit in subdividing matter

4 ELEMENT THEORY OF EMPEDOCLES

 All the matter were made of water, air, fire, and earth

• John Dalton (1766-1844)

o An English chemist and physicist
o Stated that his atomic theory based on approximately 150 years of
investigation by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, and Antoine
Lavoisier

IDEAS OF JOHN DALTON

 Matter is composed of tiny indivisible spheres called atoms
 Atoms of the same element are identical, but atoms of one element
are different from those of all other elements
 Atoms cannot be created or destroyed during a chemical change
 Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to
form compounds

• William Crookes (1832- 1919)

o Studied matter using a powerful vacuum pump called the “Crookes’ Tube”
o Discovered the “cathode rays” by connecting the tube to an external source of
electricity and noticing that a flash of light or ray coming from the negative
electrode (cathode) and moving to the positive electrode (anode)

• Joseph John Thomson

o Gave the name of “electron” to the cathode rays
o Discoverer of the electrons
o Used magnetic and electric fields to measure the value of the ratio of the
electron charge to its mass
 E
= 1.759 x 108 coulomb/ gram
M

o Found out that hydrogen is the lightest atom with its mass of 1/1840
o Proposed a model of an atom as a positively charged sphere where the
electrons are embedded. This model is called the “raisin cake model” or
“watermelon model” where the raisins or seeds are the electrons

• Robert Millikan (1868- 1953)

o Measured the charge of the electron with the use of his oil-drop experiment
E = -1.602 x 10-19 coulomb

o And later the results of Thomson and Millikan, the calculation of the mass of an
electron

(E) -1.602 x 10-19 c

(M) -1.759 x 108c/g

M = 9.11 x 10-28g = mass of a negative electron

• Eugen Goldstein
o Discovered the canal rays
 Particle that were left out of the atoms or molecules after electrons
had been pulled out

• Wilhel Prentgen (145- 1923)

o Discovered that highly energetic rays could penetrate matter and later called
these “X-rays”

• Henri Becquerel (1852- 1908)

o Associated X-rays with fluorescent materials by using a used uranium ore
o Discovered radioactivity (uranium)
 Any material such as uranium that spontaneously emits radiation said
to radioactive

• Ernest Rutherford
o Discovered the 2 types of radiation from radio active materials –alpha and beta

TYPE OF PENETRATIN
SYMBOL NATURE CHARGE
RADIATION G POWER
Alpha a Helium nuclei +2 1
Beta β Electron -1 100
Gamma δ Radiant energy 0 10,000

o Performed the alpha-scattering except to test the raisin bread

RESULTS OF THE ALPHA-SCATTERING EXPERIMENT
 Most of the gamma particles passed through undeflected
• The atom is mostly an empty space
 A few passed through with large angles of deflection
• Gamma particles hit the side of the tiny solid part in the atom
 A few gamma particles bounced back
• They had a “head on” collision with the tiny solid part of the
atom

o proposed that most of the mass and positively charged parts of the atom, the
protons, must be concentrated in a small region called the nucleus
o Thought that the electrons are distributed in the space outside the nucleus of
the atom

• James Chadwick (1871- 1974)

o Atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but with
different atomic mass

• Isaac Newton
o A scientist that works on light
o Believed that the light was made of “corpuscles” or particles, although a later
theory held that light was made of waves

ISOTOPES
• atoms that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
• gives the number of protons or electrons in an atom
• It is shown by the subscript

ATOMIC MASS (A)

• gives the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom
• it is shown by the superscript

EXAMPLES

A. NEUTRAL ATOMS

Al
17 Protons : 13
Electrons : 13
13 Neutrons : 14

As
75 Protons : 33
Electrons : 33
33 Neutrons : 42

B. MONOANATOMIC IONS

Mg
24 +2 Protons : 12
Electrons : 10
12 Neutrons : 12

Br
80 -1 Protons : 35
Electrons : 36
35 Neutrons : 45

EARLY MODELS OF AN ATOM

DALTON MODEL Atoms are solid indestructible spheres
THOMSON MODEL Raisin bread model
Rutherford discovered that the atom possessed a small dense
NUCLEAR MODEL
core(nucleus)
First quantum model of the atom w/ the electrons following circular
BOHR MODEL
orbits around the nucleus
BOHR-
SUMMERFELD Electrons in elliptical orbit
MODEL
Schrodinger proposed a wave equation from which atomic orbitals are
derived. It is concerned w/ the probability of finding a given electron in
QUANTUM the space outside the nucleus
MECHANICAL  Excited state-transfer to higher energy level
MODEL  Ground state-lowest possible state
 Energy absorbed
 Energy released-light

QUANTUM NUMBERS
• numbers used to describe the probable locations of the electron

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBERS

• Tells the number of main energy level where e- can be found
o n = 1,2,3,4…
o if n = 1 -1st energy level
o n=2 -2nd energy level
o n=3 – 3rd energy level…..

AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBERS

• defines the shape of the orbital
• tells the kind of sublevel occupied by the e-
o l=0–s
o l=1–p
o l=2–d
o l =3 - f

MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBERS

• Describes the orientation of orbitals in space
• Tells the number of orbitals occupied by the e-
o ml = -1 → 0 → +l
o l = 0 → ml =0 →1 orbital → 2e- → s
 o l = 1 → ml = -1 0 +1 →3 orbital → 6e- → p
o l = 2 → ml = -2 -1 0 +1 +2 →5 orbital → 10e- → d
o l = 3 → ml = -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 →7 orbital → 14e- → f

SPIN QUANTUM NUMBERS

• tells how the e- spin in their axes as they revolve around the nucleus
o clockwise- Ms= -1/2
o counterclockwise – Ms = +1/2

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
• arrangement of electrons in an atom

RULES TO BE FOLLOWED
1. Aufbau Principle
 e- occupy the orbitals in order of increasing energy level
2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
 2 e- occupying the same orbital should have opposite spins ↑↓
3. Hund’s Rule
 when e- enter a sublevel w/ more than 1 orbital (p,d,f), e- will occupy
first all the available orbitals w/ their spins in the same direction before
they can pair up w/ another e- of opposite spin

8e- → ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ = d sublevel

THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

• periods/series
o horizontal rows
o 7 periods/series
• groups/families
o vertical columns
o 18 groups/families
 A-8 groups/families (representative elements)
• IA – Alkali metals
• IIA – Alkaline Earth Metals
• IIIA – Boron group
• IVA – Carbon group
• VA – Nitrogen group
• VIA – Oxygen group
• VIIA – Halogen group
• VIIIA – Noble gases/ Inert gases
 B- 10 groups/families (transition metals/elements)

VALENCE ELECTRON
• electron in the outer most main energy level

DETERMINING THE PERIOD AND FAMILY ON AN ELEMENT

• 11 Na – 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s1
o n=3
o val e- = 1
o period=3
o family=IA

• 22 Ti – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2

o n=4
o val e- = 2
o period = 4
o family = IVB

DETERMINING ATOMIC NUMBER

1A ns1
2A ns2
ns2np
3A 1

ns2np
4A 2
 ns2np
5A 3

2
ns np
6A 4

ns2np
7A 5

2
ns np
8A 6

ns1md
1B 10

2
ns md
2B 10

ns2md
3B 1

2
ns md
4B 2

2
ns md
5B 3

ns2md
6B 4

2
ns md
7B 5

ns2md
6

2
ns md
8B 7

2
ns md
8

• period-3
• Family-3A
o 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
o Z = 13

• period-4
• Family-4A
o 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2
o Z = 32

PERIODIC PROPERTIES
• Properties of an element seem to be determined largely by the
electron configuration of the outermost electrons and by how far away those electrons
are from the nucleus

IONIZATION ENERGY
• Amount of energy needed to remove an e- from atom to form (+) ions
• Ionization
o when an atom loses or gains electrons to form ions

ELECTRON AFFINITY
• Amount of energy released when an atom or molecule gains e- forming a
(-)ion

IONIC RADIUS
• Isoelectric
o equal numbers of electrons in identical configurations

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• General tendency of an atom to attract e- toward itself

METALLIC PROPERTY
• w/ few valence e-
• tend to give up or donate e-

→ E, IE, EA
↓AS, MP, IS

• Octet rule
o an atom should have 8 valence e- to become stable
• Duet rule
o needs 2 valence e- to be stable
WAYS OF REPRESENTING AN ATOM
• Electron Configuration
• Use of Orbitals
• Use of Main energy level
• Lewis electron dot formula
o consists of a chemical symbol surrounded by dots(Gilbert Newton Lewis)
• Chemical symbol
o represents the nucleus and inner e-
• Dots
o represents the valence e- of the atom