Human Resource Management for Organisational Development:

A Case Study of the University of Dar Es Salaam !an"ania#

$y:
Horace E %&a'un&ene
A'stract
This report addresses the dilemmas which local universities in post-colonial African
countries face, in managing organizational cultural change, and finally recommends solutions
based on different cultural change models. The paper uses the University of Dar Es alaam in
Tanzania, as its case study. The framewor! of the issues pertaining to the report is outlined in the
below figure, where the titles in bo"es are the parameters and the ones in circles are the
variables, which were considered in this report.
Source: Author (2011)
#
(#) *ntroduction
The University of Dar Es alaam, Tanzania, has been faced with the growing rumours
and belief by its sta!eholders, that management was not lac!ing in its academic functions. These
rumours were far revealed through the performance of graduates$ competition in the labour
mar!et %U&T, '(()*, and in the University Tracer tudy %UD+, '((,*. The University was
also faced with the increasing bureaucracies in its administrative functions revealed in the
continuous stri!es by both students demanding for positive learning environment, and employees
demanding for favourable wor!ing conditions %T-./, '((0*.
As such, without proper consultation or involvement of employees in decision ma!ing
authority, UD+ has, through the +inistry of Education, employed a radical culture as an
attempt to ma!e the organization less bureaucratic and more of entrepreneurial culture %1ryman,
#0203 4ilson and Doing #0053 6olville and /ac!man, #005* . Thus, following the above, a range
of initiatives and structural changes have been embraced by the UD+ +anagement with
varying degrees of practices aimed at achieving employee$s accountability, commitment, and
efficiency. The prominence of management$s initiatives along this line, is evident in the
following7
#. 8n improving efficiency and accountability, the +anagement has introduced minimum
and ma"imum wor!ing hours for academic members of staff.
'. To improve efficiency, the UD+ 9uality Assurance 1ureau, was created and
commissioned to review academician$s publications status, as those with poor records in
publication were to have their employment contracts, terminated %in '((2 si" contractual
employees had their employment contracts, terminated*.
'
). To improve commitment :pen /erformance Appraisal %:/&A* was also introduced
which went hand-in-hand with reducing of institutional cost, including cutting of medical
insurance and the scrapping of housing benefits allowance.
;. 8n attaining of the above three, management too! further initiatives by sending thirty
senior managers to a <eadership 6ourse. Despite the above efforts by the organization in
introducing and implementing new culture practices, employees resisted the changes.
+#) !he Organi"ation,s $ac-ground and its Cultural Dimensions
The University of Dar es salaam %UD+* is the oldest and biggest public university in
Dar es alaam, Tanzania. 8t was established on #st =uly #0>(. The University 6ollege of Dar es
alaam had started on #st =uly #05# as an affiliate college of the University of <ondon. 8t had
only one faculty- the faculty of <aw, with #; students. 8n #05) it became a constituent college of
the university of East Africa together with +a!erere University 6ollege in Uganda and .airobi
University 6ollege in ?enya. ince #05#, the University of Dar es alaam has grown in terms of
student, academic units and academic programmes in '((0 the UD+ had a total #0,5,(
students with #,0 academic programmes. 6urrently the University of Dar es alaam as a whole
has a total of ',0) staff members. 8n Administrative structure the UD+ has @ice 6hancellor at
the top, followed by Deputy @ice 6hancellor- Academic, Deputy @ice 6hancellor-/lanning,
Ainance and Administration. %UD+, '(#(*
6ulturally, the UD+ is viewed as a traditional hierarchical and bureaucratic
management organization that best fits Bandy$s %#02,* typology analysis with a mi"ture of both
power and role culture system. :n the power structure, the @ice-6hancellor has the highest
powers within the organization as he is the only one to ma!e final decisions on behalf of the
)
enate, and controls the rewards, which, according to 1rown %#002*, are the maCor sources of
power within any organization. 4ithin the role structure, the :rganization has a highly
formalized culture where employees$ tas!s functions are tied with rules, regulations and
procedures. +anagement style is usually a top down one, and the organization has poor
communication with poor feedbac!. This, according to chein$s +odel %#00,*, can also be
referred to as Type D1$. According to UD+ practices, the cultural value of the organization
includes, Value for quality outputs in teaching, research and public service. 6oncerning the
UD+ employees$ values, such aspects li!e respect, employees recognition, involvement in
decision making and reward were rarely mentioned. The implication of this was that employees
were less empowered by the organization.
.#) Reasons for Employees Resistance to Change#
3.1 The Nature of the Change
The central argument for the reason why employees resisted changes stem from the fact
that the organization had employed intermittent radical change. The views of the middle cadre
employees were not sought, but they were reEuired to accept and implement the changes in
positive ways. 8n this perspective, some authors including 6ollins %#002* and Batch %#00>*, have
argued that change cannot be driven from the top but must emerge in an organic, bottom-up
fashion within the organization. Therefore, it suggests that for change management to occur at
the UD+, a platform for shared vision should be created and employees should be well
informed on the need, meaning and importance of such change, thereby minimizing the forces of
resistance. This, also, is inconsistent with -argiliad$s %#025* Model of Culture Change, which
suggests the importance of incremental rather than radical change. 8n his model, -argiliad
;
defines radical change as destruction of the old culture and replacing it with a new one which in
essence is not a change but a creation. ince the plan of UD+ was to build a new culture, an
incremental, rather than a radical change with an element of a shared vision was of paramount
importance for successful culture change. 8n this conte"t, -argiliad addressed the need for a
leader to employ shared vision and finally introduce the organization$s cultures.
3.2 Lack of Trust
The university$s arms are run by senior members of staff, who lac! leadership
capabilities or Eualities, for e"ample, Engineers managing Buman &esources. 8n improving
efficiency, for instance, Open erformance !ppraisal "O#!$%, has been put in place with no
agreeable performance indicators. Thus, employees are ran!ed depending on what was observed
by their representatives and the head of the department. The senior managers$ incompetence in
handling :/&A, meant that employees developed a negative attitude and belief towards the
scheme. <ines et al %'((,*3 ?otter %'((,*3 ?otter and chlesinger %'((2*, also suggest that
employees resist change if there is no trust between them and the person initiating change.
+ullins %'(#(*, eEually states that in times of frustration or difficulty or in times when
employees are faced with unfamiliar procedures, they may reflect on the past, wishing to retain
the old, comfortable ways.
3.3 Selective erce!tion
The introduction of change concerning minimum and ma"imum wor!ing hours has
created tension and some form of resistance between the academic staff and management. The
retired academicians who were contract staff, perceived the introduction of organizational
changes as an indirect tool created purposely to eliminate them from the system. As such they
,
resisted such changes %1rown, #0023 +ullins, '(#(*. This category perceived to be the heroes of
the organization whom according to Deal and ?ennedy %#02'* you cannot mention the
successfully history of the UD+ without ac!nowledging them.
The senior lecturers also maintained that the minimum and ma"imum hours introduced are li!e a
Dhand cuffs$ created to chain their hands from engaging into various consultancy activities. 8n
fact they perceive that the new wor!ing practices would reEuire them to give more time in
teaching and improving the UD+ publications. This e"perience has been well captured in the
wor! by e"perience %Dublin and 8reland #00)3 1rown, #0023 ?otter and chlesinger, '((2*,
suggesting that, people do not resist change on its own sa!e but may resist loss of status, power,
sources of economic income, and comfort. Therefore, from this perspective, it should be noted
that, despite the myth by many organizations that people do not resist changes, UD+
employees$ resistance were much related to loss of money, values, and status from within and
outside the UD+ community.
3." #n!lanne$ an$ oor Strateg%
As a part of unfreezing processes %<ewin, #0,'3 chein, #05;*, a special leadership
training course was introduced by the organization as a primary agent for effective change of
bureaucratic forms of traditional administrative functions. The programme employed proved to
be inefficient and hence created barriers in bringing about organizational culture change. The
learning programme %formal class learning programmes* were not technically-structured to bring
a positive organizational culture change. According to &evans %#002*, lasting behavioural
change is more li!ely to follow the re-interpretation of past e"periences than the acEuisition of
!nowledge, through traditional classroom techniEues. This, for him, is referred to as, Action
<earning. +organ %#022*, suggest that the special character of action learning is that it generates
5
!nowledge through the design of a learning process that itself proves to be a means for
approaching and solving problems. 8n line with this, &evan$s theory of :rganization <earning
defines the UD+ learning programme as $ingle &oop &earning, as it provides no incentive in
transforming employee$s behavioural patterns %+c-ill and 1eaty, '((#*. According to +umford
and Allan %#00#*, the importance of Double <oop <earning, which encompasses learning from
e"perience through interactive sessions, is of prime importance as a behavioural change agent.
Through reflection and e"periential learning, managers can learn through their fellow managers
on how to deliver new and desirable organizational culture with minimal forms of employees$
resistance %+umford and Allan, #00)3 1rown, #00>3 /eddler, '((2*. This method of learning is
the best for understanding organizational culture, since it encourage trial and error through
search of behaviors associated with the organization %1rown, #002*.
?/+-, /lc$s case, according to /eddler %'((2*, is a good e"ample of how learning programme
introduced by the company helps to build a culture of entrepreneurship within the organization.
The 6ompany attempts implementing culture change by sending #,( senior managers on Action
<earning /rogrammes, which were structured for understanding the technical aspect in
:rganization 6hange +anagement. &evans %#002* termed this as double loop learning. After the
course the enior +anagers had to teach the rest of the wor!force the meaning, importance and
desirable behaviours during the change processes. According to /eddler %'((2*, the process has
improved organizational development, through the adoption of the Entrepreneurial 6ultural
6hanges introduced. The maCor wea!ness of the programme adopted by the UD+ is on the fact
that the programme was not technically-structured to deal with modern organizational changes.
Also, the learning acEuired by the managers was not transferred to the shop floor employees and
as such, proved to be inefficient and ineffective.
>
The &ureaucratic Nature of the 'rgani(ation
The UD+ administrative structure and function was also proved to be a barrier for
positive :rganizational 6hange +anagement strategies. The availability of the hierarchical and
bureaucratic administrative functions means communication channels will definitely fail to
deliver positive end results. chein %#00,*3 :gbonna F Barris %#002*3 1eerel %'((0*, all believe
that organizations with broadly, hierarchical and functional structures, can easily create barriers
on its own in the overall processes of managing the :rganization 6ulture 6hange. Their idea has
also been further e"plored by 4i!lins %#00)*, who argues that the main issue that contributes to
the difficulty in the culture change management process, includes the different level at which
organizational culture is manifested and also the implicit, ta!en-for-granted nature of
organizational culture that ma!es it more difficult to access. Therefore, according to +ullin
%'(#(*, to achieve successfully culture change at the UD+, there should be a need for the
organization to ta!e deliberately efforts in studying and synchronizing the organization culture
blueprint as attached to formal rules and procedures, as well as the methods of wor!ing. Aor
instance, in the O#!$ scheme, employees should be given a chance to conduct some !ind of
self appraisal, sometimes by using the normal forms and filling in the details for subseEuent
comparison with the +anager$s views. 4hile there may be problems about the degree of
fran!ness and openness particularly in the organization where these are not otherwise
encouraged, self appraisal, according to +umford %#00)*, can be much more productive than in a
purely top-down appraisal.
2
Ho& to Manage Resistance in Culture Change Management Strategies
## Adopting /e&in,s !hree0Step Model
?urt <ewin$s three-step model suggests that old behaviours must be dropped before any
new ones can be effectively adopted %Bayes, '((>*. <ewin suggests that for change to be
successful, there should be a modification of the forces operating within a group. Aor him,
change is rather a group-level phenomenon, which would be achieved under the three
stepsGphases. This include7 unfreezing the present, moving to a new level and finally refreezing
the new level %1urnes, '((;*.
a# Unfree"ing the present
1ased on the large size of the institutional wor!force and the nature of the change
employed, one can therefore agree with the <ewin$s idea that changing the individual$s
behaviour at UD+ should be a group phenomenon. Bowever, it should be noted that this does
not guarantee hundred percent positive end results %due to different people$s perception on the
importance and the value of change*. Aor successfully changing the group behaviours at UD+,
chein %#005* believes that unfreezing the present stage would firstly reEuire flattering of the
hierarchical system within the institution to allow open door communication between
individual$s teams and their managers. Through effective communication, organizations would
be able to address the need for change, increase awareness of behavioural patterns and to ma!e
employees more interested in the change processes %?otter and chlesinger, '((2*. 1ritish
Airways, for e"ample, became privately owned in the #02(s. The 6hief E"ecutive :fficer
changed the business from transportation, to a service-based business and wanted to become the
world$s favourite airline. Through effective communication networ!, managers endeavoured to
0
change the old culture across all employees and made them understand the new culture which
was service-oriented %-oodstein and 1ur!e, '((,*.
'# Moving to a %e& /evel
This stage involves a transformation in processes that will help the organization move
forward to another level %-oodstein and 1ur!e '((,*. The UD+, in this case, will have to
adopt inventive schemes li!e rewarding employees Cudged to have put up positive behaviour
towards change processes. The management can also strengthen and sustain the discussion
approach which was adopted in the first stage, where +anagers can hold wee!ly or monthly
meetings with staff who, where they can have the chance to point out good ideas and loo! at
areas that reEuire improvement. 1y promoting the above suggestion, staff will feel responsible
and will endeavour to ma!e the change successful, because of their opportunities to contribute
directly. uggestion bo"es can also be introduced where customers can feed the management
bac! on the services offered to them.
c. Refree"ing
This is the last stage which aims at ensuring that the changes implemented can be
sustained and accepted by the entire group. 4ith the UD+$s case, successful change
management would then reEuire the active roles by the managers in the refreezing process.
8nstead of enior +anagers who are also academicians with different bac!grounds, UD+
reEuires managers with good s!ills in planning, organizing, monitoring, coordinating, directing
and controlling, which, according to +abey and 8les %#00;*, are most relevant in bureaucracies
in stable environment. 8n additional to ensuring that the new culture implemented will be
sustainable, managers would have to build and develop a fluid networ! and teams that span
across organization boundaries wor! hand in hand with B&+ to ensure employees reward,
#(
promotion and salary increases, are well channeled to promote individuals$ innovation and
creativity s!ills.
A Shift into 1RM *nternal 2rocess Model into Open System and Human Relations and
Model
2rocess *nternal Model
As far as the UD+ organization administrative functions and the organization culture
changes introduced are concerned, it is recommended that the UD+ should first be able to
transform and move from the internal process model into :pen ystem and Buman &elations
+odel. According to Hammumot and ?ra!omer %#00#*, the 8nternal /rocess +odel, as Euoted
from 4eber %#0;#* and Deal F ?ennedy %#02'* is referred to as hierarchical culture because it
involves the enforcement of formal rules, regulations, procedures and control mechanisms. The
organization with hierarchical structure, which follows strictly formal rules and procedures could
hardly promote positive culture change.
Open System Model
This model, according to Hammumot and ?ra!omer %#00#*, is !nown more as
developmental culture because it is associated with innovative leadership with vision. <eaders
who can, despite the e"ternal or internal threats, empower, motivate and persuade followers to
buy-in the idea of the changes in attaining the common goal %Denisson and preizer, #00#*.
UD+, in this case, would, therefore, reEuire a transformative leader, who can idealize and
influence the followers through creating a sense of shared vision, and also demonstrate high
standard of moral conduct %1eerel, '((0*. Bowever, unli!e the UD+ Appraisal cheme which
does not reward good practices of their employees, under the :pen ystem +odel, the
organization$s rewards are lin!ed to individuals$ initiatives, and, as such, individuals$ growth is
##
highly promoted through a procedural Custice rewards system. An organization with such an
element, according to Hammuto F ?ra!ommer %#00#* is dynamic, has entrepreneurial elements
and is characterized by readiness to change.
Human Relations Model
According to Hammuto and ?ra!owa %#00#*, it involves fle"ibility in which B&D
practices, especially training of individuals, are utilized to achieve cohesion and employees
morale. This model, in fact, offers a very crucial tool in change management as it recognizes the
importance of learning. 1eerel %'((0* also suggests that people resist change because they
sometimes find themselves in the comfort zones and conseEuently fail to adopt the situation in
that stage. Be suggests that learning becomes a very important aspect of the process, and
maintains that adaptation is about learning, not superficial role learning, but a deep learning that
is transformative. Aor him, transformative learning ta!es people into new territories of
understanding the need, importance and meaning of change.
8n sum, this model can be referred to as a Dgroup culture$ because, it is associated with trust and
participation through teamwor!. +anagers in this !ind of organization, see! to encourage, coach
and mentor employees in understanding organizational values, goals, and wor!ing procedures.
6ompliance with the organization$s goals are achieved through consensus-building rather than
control %chein, #02,*. 6ulture$s typology referred to this model as belonging to Type DA$, with
ideas coming from all over the organization. Therefore, it can be concluded that the UD+
could minimize the chances for employees resistance, if, the organization would employ a
strategic plan %a shared visionary plan*, effective training, and reward system, promote teamwor!
and changes to appraisal systems, as this will enable the beliefs, values and attitudes of
employees to be upheld.
#'
Conclusion
This &eport has highlighted some of the problems with efforts to establish a new culture
in the UD+, Dar Es alaam, Tanzania. The study indicates that the nature of change, that is,
radical change with top-down approach %Unitarist Approach*, the methods employed such as
leadership programme, and specific /&/ schemes whereby, instead of creating shared-value
atmosphere, gave birth to /&/ as a barrier, to successfully change management as it demoralizes,
and creates more stressfully rather than empower the wor!force.
This 6ase study also highlighted some of the organizational problems as resulting from
radical change, which include lac! of a shared vision, wrong and poor strategies employed by the
organization, and failure to study :rganization 6ulture 1lueprint. These manifesting in
organizational artifacts li!e B&+ rules and procedures, where individual problems include
selective perception and lac! of trust.
To minimize the forces for resistance to change and hence in attaining entrepreneurship,
this report recommends the need for the organization to loo! down the hierarchies within the
management, improve communication and levels of decision ma!ing, and change B&+ policies
such that /&+. This should be lin!ed to empowering rather than demoralizing the wor!force.
This report, therefore, suggests that organization culture can be assessed, managed, constructed
and manipulated in the pursuit and enhancement of new culture change. This is gven some
credence by +abaey F alaman %#00,*, who posits that the organization can replace its
decaying bureaucracy with a dynamic :rganic 6ulture.
#)
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