Effects of Music and Color On Memory

Running head: EFFECTS OF MUSIC AND COLOR ON MEMORY
Effects of Music and Color on Memory and

Evaluation of Influence Music and Color has on Memory
Terence Titus Chia Song An
James Cook University

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EFFECTS OF MUSIC AND COLOR ON MEMORY

Abstract
This paper aims to evaluate the effects of music and color on memory recall. Research
supports that music and color can increase arousal level; increase in arousal level can
improve memory performance (Ramey, Rolnick, Smith, Weng, Li, & Lokuta, 2012). There
are three hypotheses proposed for this study chartreuse color is more arousing which would
lead to better memory recall, classical music is more arousing which also would lead to better
memory recall and lastly, participants with chartreuse and music conditions would score the
highest in memory recall. In this experiment, classical music and chartreuse font color is used
to induce arousal. The independent variable (IV) of color was operationalized as the font
color of words: chartreuse and black. In addition, the second IV of music was operationalized
as the presence of music; silence versus classical music. The dependent variable (DV) of
memory recall was operationalized as the total number of correct words recalled. Participants
were given a set of 15 seven-letter non-words, with a minute to memorize and another minute
to recall the words. Analysis showed that there was no significant result which indicates that
the hypotheses are not true. Despite certain shortcomings of this experiment, future research
and improvements could deem this significant.
Keywords: memory recall, arousal level, effects of music, effects of color

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Effects of Music and Color on Memory and
Evaluation of influence Music and Color has on Memory
Advancement in technology has led to ground breaking inventions and discoveries; a
new era of color technology for electronic devices such as televisions, mobile phones and
even on the internet (Kang, 1997). Another research by Birren (1950) proved that color
increases an individuals arousal; warm color causes higher arousal elevation compared to
cool colors. Color consists of three different qualities; hue, value and chroma. Hue refers to
the color itself, value describes the lightness or darkness of the color and chroma is the
measure of the intensity of the color (Guilford, 1934). Research by Myers (2006) indicated
that color causes physiological arousal, in turn leading to better memory performance.
Music is a great influence in our daily lives; whenever we drive, work or even sleep,
we listen to music of our choice. Research by Rauscher, Shaw and Ky (1993) reported
elevated cognitive abilities for participants who listened to Mozart compared to participants
in silent conditions. The finding by Rauscher, Shaw and Ky (1993) was known as Mozart
effect; the effect was found to last 10-15 minutes. Research indicated that the Mozart
effect can be explained an an artifact of arousal (Chabris, Steele, Dalla Bella, Peretz,
Dunlop, Dawe, Humphrey, Shannon, Kirby, Olmstead, & Rauscher, 1999). Even though the
elevation of cognitive abilities can be explained by the level of arousal, what amount of
arousal is needed for better cognitive performance? A study by Nantais and Schellenberg
(1999) indicated that optimal levels of arousal have a significant effect on cognitive
performance.
This study seeks to investigate the influence of two factors, music and color, on ones
memory. Hypothetically, this experiment proposes three scenarios. Firstly, chartreuse colored
font is more arousing which would lead to greater word recall. Secondly, participants in the
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music condition would score higher in word recall. Lastly, participants given both the music
condition and chartreuse colored font would score the highest in word recall.
Method
Design
This experiment follows a 2 x 2 factorial design. The independent variable (IV) of
color as an arousing agent was operationalized as the font color of words; chartreuse and
black. The second IV of music also as an arousing agent was operationalized as the presence
of music; silence versus classical music. The dependent variable (DV) of memory recall was
operationalized as the total number of correct words recalled. The experiment was conducted
over a span of two weeks; first week was the silent condition and second was the music
condition. In the second week, the set of words were switched between the groups to prevent
any prior exposure which might hinder the true results of the experiment.
Participants
19 participants (6 males, 13 females aged 19 23 years; M = 21.26, SD = 1.56) were
used selected from a second-year Psychology class in using convenient sampling, as seen in
Appendix A Figure A1. The average age of male participants was (M = 22.67, SD = 0.21) and
the average age of female participants was (M = 20.62, SD = 0.40), as seen in Figure A2.
Materials
2 different sets of 15 seven-letter non-words were created, shown in Appendix B. The
words were printed onto slips of paper in either chartreuse font color (Set A) or black font
color (Set B). The words were printed in font face Times New Roman and bold font size 12.
Answer sheets were provided for the participants to write down their demographics and
words recalled.
Procedure
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Demographic information such as age and gender was obtained. Participants did not
declare any major mental handicap in memory. Participants were divided into two groups;
chartreuse (Set A) and black (Set B). In order to test for memory recall, participants were
given a set of 15 non-words, differing in color. In the first week, participants were given the
memory recall task in silent condition. They were given one minute to memorize and the list
of words was then collected back. Participants were given one minute to recall and write
down as many words as they can. The answer sheets were then collected back by the
experimenters.
In the second week, subjects who had Set A would take on Set B and vice versa. This
is to prevent any prior exposure to the same list of non-words which might hinder the true
results of this experiment. Participants were given one minute to memorize and classical
music was played throughout the memorizing. However, when they were given another
minute to recall as many words, the music was removed. The answer sheets were then
collected back by the experimenters. For both condition, words that were misspelled were
omitted from the results.
Results
An analysis of color with number of correct words recalled was generated;
participants with black colored font [M = 3.18, SD = 1.185, 95% CIs (2.57, 3.79)] scored
slightly higher than participants with the chartreuse colored font [M = 2.50, SD = 1.20, 95%
CIs (1.90, 3.10)] in Appendix C.
Analysis of music with number of correct words recalled was generated; participants
in silent condition [M = 2.89, SD = 1.37, 95% CIs (2.23, 3.56)] scored slightly higher than
participants in the music [M = 2.75, SD = 1.065, 95% CIs (2.18, 3.32) in Appendix D.
According to our hypotheses; 1 Chartreuse color increases arousal levels which
increases word recall, 2 presence of classical music increases arousal levels which increases
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word recall and 3 participants with chartreuse color and music condition recall words
better. A priori was performed to prove the hypotheses. According to Planned Contrast, there
is no significant difference of color on word recall, [t(33) = 1.67, p = .103] as seen in
Appendix E. This proves that hypothesis 1 is not true; participants with chartreuse condition
did not recall words significantly better than those with black condition.
According to Planned Contrast, there was no significant difference in music on word
recall, [t(33) = .344, p = .733] shown in Appendix F. This shows that hypothesis 2 is not true;
participants with music condition did not recall words significantly better than those in silent
condition.
Lastly, Omnibus was conducted to determine the interaction of font color, music and
word recall. There was no significant interaction of color, music and word recall, [F(1, 31) =
.004, p = .949] as seen in Appendix G. This shows that hypothesis 3 is not true; participants
with chartreuse and music condition did not recall words significantly better than the rest.
Discussion
Research by Baddeley, Thomson and Buchanan (1975) indicated that when an
individual attempts to memorize letters or numbers, they utilize 3 different components. It is
called Baddeleys working memory model, comprising the phonological loop, visuospatial
sketch pad and the central executive (Goldstein, 2011). Firstly, the phonological loop holds
verbal and auditory information and it consists of 2 separate segments the phonological
store which holds information for seconds, and the articulatory rehearsal process which
rehearse to keep information from decaying. Secondly, the visuospatial sketch pad holds
visual and spatial information which involves navigating. Lastly, the central executive is
responsible for dividing attention between the two different tasks. Baddeleys working
memory model can be used to explain what processes are involved during the experiment.
During the experiment, participants utilized their visuospatial sketch pad upon seeing the
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different sets of non-words. They then attempt to memorize using their articulatory rehearsal
process to hold and keep as much information from decaying. During this process, the central
executive plays an important role; it divides the attention needed for the different processes.
Other than the processes that occur within the brain, there are important parts of the
brain that are involved in memory. The different parts of the brain responsible for holding
memory are the frontal lobe, prefrontal cortex, amygdala and the hippocampus (Goldstein,
2011). Another research indicated that arousal increases the activation of sympathetic
nervous system, resulting in better memory performance (Ramey, Rolnick, Smith, Weng, Li,
& Lokuta, 2012).
Based on the results as shown above, results were insignificant for color condition. A
possible explanation could be that the duration of exposure to stimulus, in this case the
colored font, was too short. A study by Valdez and Mehrabian (1994) that explores the
arousal levels of different colors found that chartreuse, a mixture of green and yellow,
stimulates the highest level of arousal. Even though research has shown that chartreuse is
very arousing, the duration of exposure is critical as well. Nantais and Schellenberg (1999)
indicated that optimal levels of arousal have a significant effect on memory performance. For
this experiment, participants were exposed to the stimulus for merely 1 minute. This could
indicate that the participants arousal levels were not in the optimal range or there was no
significant increase in arousal for any significant results. Another possible explanation could
be that the components of color were not optimal, namely the hue, value and chroma. By
adjusting the hue, value and chroma properly, one might obtain a more arousing color.
The above result also indicates that there was no significant difference in memory
recall for music condition. A possible explanation could be that the music played was a mix
of slow and fast tempo classical music. Extensive research by Dillman Carpentier and Potter
(2007) indicated that tempo plays a critical role when it comes to arousal. Dillam Carpentier
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and Potter (2007) showed that the presence of fast tempo classical music increases the
activation of sympathetic nervous system. Increase in activation of sympathetic nervous
system is found to increase memory performance (Ramey et al., 2012). The study showed
that fast tempo classical music had a significant effect on arousal. This is due to the
expectancy of participants; most of the population would expect classical music to be slow
and perhaps boring. When fast tempo classical music is played, arousal levels are elevated as
it was not expected. However, there are limitations to this explanation, as participants who
listen to classical music or have large amounts of exposure may not generate the same results.
The duration of exposure to music could be too short to have any significant increase in
arousal, which in turn has no significant effect on memory performance.
Conclusion
Based on previous research, there was a significant difference in results for memory;
between colors as well as music conditions. However, our experiment obtained insignificant
results. It appears that the color chartreuse is no more arousing than black. There was an
insignificant difference in memory recall for music condition. It appears that music condition
is no more arousing than silent condition. Even though results were insignificant, there are
many areas for improvement. Perhaps with amendments and improvements, results could be
more significant. Future research and detailed analyses are strongly recommended.
Limitations
This study has a number of limitations problems with encoding and retrieval,
duration of exposure to stimulus, effect size and operationalization of arousal. For this
experiment, music was played during encoding. However, it was removed during retrieval.
This could cause an imbalanced level of arousal between encoding and retrieval, which might
affect memory performance. The duration of exposure of stimulus was mentioned earlier; the
amount of time an individual was exposed to music and colored font was too brief. This
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could hinder participants from reaching optimal levels of arousal known to have significant
effect on memory performance (Schellenberg, 2005). In addition, the sample size for this
experiment is too small to detect any significant results. Lastly, arousal was not defined and
operationalized.
Future Directions
Music should be played throughout encoding and retrieval to ensure that arousal is
constant throughout. This is also to control extraneous variables that could affect the
measurement of how music elevates arousal, which in turn increases memory performance.
The duration of exposure to music and colored font should be researched to obtain the
optimal duration. A larger sample size is needed to detect any significant results as well.
Lastly, arousal can be operationalized as physical arousal. It can be measured by skin
conductance response (SCR); this detects arousal when there is a rapid rise in skin
conductance over one-three seconds. A study by Ramey et al. (2012) showed that increase in
arousal increases the activation of sympathetic nervous system, which improves memory
performance.

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References
Birren, F. (1950). Color psychology and color therapy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Chabris, C. F., Steele, K. M., Dalla Bella, S., Peretz, I., Dunlop, T., Dawe, L. A., Humphrey,
G. K., Shannon, R. A., Kirby, J. L. Jr., Olmstead, C. G., & Rauscher, F. H. (1999).
Prelude or requiem for the Mozart Effect? Nature, 400, 826828.
Goldstein, E. B. (2011). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday
experience. (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Guilford, J. P. (1934). The affective value of color as a function of hue, tint, and chroma.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 17(3), 342.
Kang, H. R. (1997). Color technology for electronic imaging devices. Washington, DC: The
International Society for Optical Engineering.
Myers, D. G. (2006). Psychology. (8th ed.). New York, NY: Worth.
Nantais, K. M., & Schellenberg, E. G. (1999). The Mozart effect: An artifact of preference.
Psychological Science, 10, 370373.
Ramsey, A., Rolnick, K., Smith, R., Weng, C., Li, Y., & Lokuta, A. (2012). Activation of the
human sympathetic nervous system: Effects on memory performance. Retrieved from
http://jass.neuro.wisc.edu/2012/01/Lab%20603%20Group%2010%20Final%20Submi
ssion%20Ramsey,%20Rolnick,%20Smith.pdf
Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance.
Nature, 365, 611.
Schellenberg, E. G. (2005). Music and cognitive abilities. American Psychological Society,
14(2), 317-320.

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Appendix A
Figure A1
Average age of participants
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Male = 0, Female = 1 19 0 1 .68 .478
Age 19 19 23 21.26 1.558
Valid N (listwise) 19

Figure A2
Average age of participants base on sex
Male = 0, Female = 1 Statistic Std. Error
Age 0 Mean 22.67 .211
95% Confidence Interval
For Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
22.12
23.21

5 % Trimmed Mean 22.69
Median 23
Variance .267
Std. Deviation .516
Minimum 22
Maximum 23
Range 1
Interquatile Range 1
Skweness -.968 .845
Kurtosis -1.875 1.741
1 Mean 20.62 .401
For Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
19.74
21.49

Median 21.00
Variance 2.090
Std. Deviation 1.446
Minimum 19
Maximum 23
Range 4
Skweness .413 .616
Kurtosis -.898 1.191

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Appendix B
Lists of 15 seven-letter non-words
Set A Set B
Bapbosf Tirchra
Oxalain Uetonid
Wlevivy Caszcal
Quitsch Dazvisn
Twadtil Pazerly
Toridli Hogpash
Bodelat Temimov
Horazye Actiate
Phipude Zariloh
Pagrori Limidal
Cyrimop Tsavagi
Glendle Rotoack
Flitete Zuelyni

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Appendix C
Average score of participants base on color
Black = 0, Chartreuse = 1 Statistic Std. Error
Score 0 Mean 3.18 .287
For Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
2.57
3.79

Median 3.00
Variance 1.404
Minimum 1
Maximum 5
Range 4
Skweness .128 .550
1 Mean 2.50 .283
For Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
1.90
3.10

Median 3.00
Variance 1.441
Minimum 0
Maximum 4
Range 4
Skweness -.459 .536
Kurtosis -.8581 1.038

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Appendix D
Average score of participants base on music
No music = 0, Music = 1 Statistic Std. Error
Score 0 Mean 2.89 .314
For Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
2.23
3.56

Median 3.00
Variance 1.877
Minimum 0
Maximum 5
Range 5
Skweness -.370 .524
1 Mean 2.75 .266
For Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
2.18
3.32

Median 3.00
Variance 1.133
Minimum 1
Maximum 5
Range 4
Skweness .189 .564
Kurtosis .213 1.091

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Appendix E
Contrast Tests for Color Condition

Contrast
Value of
Contrast

Std. Error

t

df

Sig. (2-tailed)
Score Assume equal
variances
1 .68 .403 1.677 33 .103
Does not assume
equal variances
1 .68 .403 1.677 32.930 .103

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Appendix F
Contrast Tests for Music Condition

Contrast
Value of
Contrast

Std. Error

t

df

Sig. (2-tailed)
Score Assume equal
variances
1 .14 .421 .344 33 .733
Does not assume
equal variances
1 .14 .412 .351 32.819 .728

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Appendix G
Test of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent variable: Score

Source
Type III
df

Mean Square

F

Sig Sum of Squares
Corrected Model 4.070
a
3 1.357 .897 .454
Intercept 276.642 1 276.642 182.849 .000
Color 3.877 1 3.877 2.563 .120
Music .061 1 .061 .040 .842
Color*Music .006 1 .006 .004 .949
Error 46.902 31 1.513
Total 331.000 35
Corrected Total 50.971 34
a. R Squared = .080 (Adjusted R Squared = -.009)

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Effects of Music and Color on Memory and

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