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2.
3.
From the integral form of Maxwells equations, performing the line integral
of the electric and magnetic fields around any transverse contour C1 gives
0
The line integrals of E and H for the TEM mode on the transmission line
reduce to
These equations show that the transverse field distributions of the TEM
mode on a transmission line are identical to the corresponding static
distributions of fields. That is, the electric field of a TEM at any frequency
has the same distribution as the electrostatic field of the capacitor formed
by the two conductors charged to a DC voltage V and the TEM magnetic
field at any frequency has the same distribution as the magnetostatic field
of the two conductors carrying a DC current I. If we change the contour
C1 in the electric field line integral to a new path C2 from the !
conductor to the + conductor, then we find
These equations show that we may define a unique voltage and current at
any point on a transmission line operating in the TEM mode. If a unique
voltage and current can be defined at any point on the transmission line,
then we may use circuit equations to describe its operation (as opposed to
writing field equations).
Transmission lines are typically electrically long (several
wavelengths) such that we cannot accurately describe the voltages and
currents along the transmission line using a simple lumped-element
equivalent circuit. We must use a distributed-element equivalent circuit
which describes each short segment of the transmission line by a lumpedelement equivalent circuit.
KCL
Taking the limit as )z 6 0, the terms on the right hand side of the
equations above become partial derivatives with respect to z which gives
Time-domain
transmission line
equations
(coupled PDEs)
The derivatives of the voltage and current with respect to time yield jT
times the respective phasor which gives
Freq u en c y-domain
(phasor) transmission
line equations
(coupled DEs)
Note the similarity in the functional form of the time-domain and the
frequency-domain transmission line equations to the respective source-free
Maxwells equations (curl equations). Even though these equations were
derived without any consideration of the electromagnetic fields associated
with the transmission line, remember that circuit theory is based on
Maxwells equations.
Just as we manipulated the two Maxwell curl equations to derive the
wave equations describing E and H associated with an unguided wave
(plane wave), we can do the same for a guided (transmission line TEM)
wave. Beginning with the phasor transmission line equations, we take
derivatives of both sides with respect to z.
We then insert the first derivatives of the voltage and current found in the
original phasor transmission line equations.
Voltage and
current wave
equations
where ( is the complex propagation constant of the wave on the
transmission line given by
Just as with unguided waves, the real part of the propagation constant (")
is the attenuation constant while the imaginary part ($) is the phase
constant. The general equations for " and $ in terms of the per-unit-length
transmission line parameters are
The general solutions to the voltage and current wave equations are
~~~~~
_
+z-directed waves
~~~~~
a
!z-directed waves
The coefficients in the solutions for the transmission line voltage and
current are complex constants (phasors) which can be defined as
The ratio of voltage to current for the forward and reverse traveling waves
defines the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
The voltage and current wave equations can be written in terms of the
voltage coefficients and the characteristic impedance (rather than the
voltage and current coefficients) using the relationships
These equations have unknown coefficients for the forward and reverse
voltage waves only since the characteristic impedance of the transmission
line is typically known.
Although the shape of the signal is not distorted, the signal will suffer
attenuation as the wave propagates along the line since the distortionless
line is a lossy transmission line. Note that the attenuation constant for a
distortionless transmission line is independent of frequency. If this were
not true, the signal would suffer distortion due to different frequencies
being attenuated by different amounts.
In the previous derivation, we have assumed that the per-unit-length
parameters of the transmission line are independent of frequency. This is
also an approximation that depends on the spectral content of the
propagating signal. For very wideband signals, the attenuation and phase
constants will, in general, both be functions of frequency.
For most practical transmission lines, we find that RC > GL. In order
to satisfy the distortionless line requirement, series loading coils are
typically placed periodically along the line to increase L.
The general transmission line equations for the voltage and current as a
function of position along the line are
We may solve the two equations above for the voltage coefficients in terms
of the current and voltage at the load.
Inserting the expressions for the voltage coefficients in terms of the load
voltage and current gives
Note that the ideal case is to have 'L = 0 (no reflections from the load
means that all of the energy associated with the forward traveling wave is
delivered to the load). The reflection coefficient at the load is zero when
ZL = Zo. If ZL = Zo, the transmission line is said to be matched to the load
and no reflected waves are present. If ZL Zo, a mismatch exists and
reflected waves are present on the transmission line. Just as plane waves
reflected from a dielectric interface produce standing waves in the region
containing the incident and reflected waves, guided waves on a
transmission line reflected from the load produce standing waves on the
transmission line (the sum of forward and reverse traveling waves).
The transmission line equations can be expressed in terms of the
reflection coefficients as
The last term on the right hand side of the above equations is the reflection
coefficient '(z). The transmission line equations become
The voltage coefficients have been determined in terms of the load voltage
and current as
Inserting these equations for the voltage coefficients into the impedance
equation gives
which yields
Input impedance at any
point along a lossless
transmission line
Special Case #1 Open-circuited lossless line (*ZL*64 , 'L = 1)
The equations for the voltage and current magnitude follow the crank
diagram form that was encountered for the plane wave reflection example
and the minimum and maximum values for voltage and current are
The standing wave ratio (s) on the lossless line is defined as the ratio of
maximum to minimum voltage magnitudes (or maximum to minimum
current magnitudes).
and 4.
We may apply the previous equations to the special cases of opencircuited and short-circuited lossless transmission lines to determine the
positions of the voltage and current nulls.
Open-Circuited Transmission Line ( 'L =1)
Current null (Zin = 4 ) at the load and every 8/2 from that point.
Voltage null (Zin = 0) at 8/4 from the load and every 8/2 from that point.
Short-Circuited Transmission Line ( 'L = !1)
Voltage null (Zin = 0) at the load and every 8/2 from that point.
Current null (Zin = 4 ) at 8/4 from the load and every 8/2 from that point.
From the equations for the maximum and minimum transmission line
voltage and current, we also find
It will be shown that the voltage maximum occurs at the same location as
the current minimum on a lossless transmission line and vice versa. Using
the definition of the standing wave ratio, the maximum and minimum
impedance values along the lossless transmission line may be written as
Thus, the impedance along the lossless transmission line must lie within
the range of Zo /s to sZo.
Example
A source [Vsg =100 p0o V, Zg = Rg = 50 S, f = 100 MHz] is connected
to a lossless transmission line [L = 0.25 :H/m, C=100pF/m, l=10m]. For
loads of ZL = RL = 0, 25, 50, 100 and 4 S, determine (a.) the reflection
coefficient at the load (b.) the standing wave ratio (c.) the input impedance
at the transmission line input terminals (d.) voltage and current plots along
the transmission line.
RL (S)
(b.) 'L
(c.) s
25
25
!0.333
50
50
100
100
+0.333
+1
!1
RL (S)
*V (z)*
s
max
(V)
*V (z)*
s
min
(V)
*V (l)* (V)
s
100
25
66.7
33.3
33.3
50
50
50
50
100
66.7
33.3
66.7
100
100
Smith Chart
The Smith chart is a useful graphical tool used to calculate the reflection
coefficient and impedance at various points on a (lossless) transmission line
system. The Smith chart is actually a polar plot of the complex reflection
coefficient (z) [ratio of the reflected wave voltage to the forward wave
voltage] overlaid with the corresponding impedance Z(z) [ratio of overall
voltage to overall current].
Constant VSWR
circle
Once the position of 'L is located on the Smith chart, the location of the
reflection coefficient as a function of position [ '(z)] is determined using
the reflection coefficient formula.
This equation shows that to locate '(z), we start at 'L and rotate through
an angle of 2z =2$(z !l) on the constant VSWR circle. With the load
located at z=l, moving from the load toward the generator (z < l) defines
a negative angle 2z (counterclockwise rotation on the constant VSWR
circle). Note that if 2z = !2B, we rotate back to the same point. The
distance traveled along the transmission line is then
Thus, one complete rotation around the Smith chart (360o) is equal to one
half wavelength.
CW rotation
CCW rotation
8 /2=360o
8 =720o
The points along the constant VSWR circle represent the complex
reflection coefficient at points along the transmission line. The reflection
coefficient at any given point on the transmission line corresponds directly
to the impedance at that point. To determine this relationship between 'L
and ZL, we first solve (1) for zL.
(2)
where rL and xL are the normalized load resistance and reactance,
respectively. Solving (2) for the resistance and reactance gives equations
for the resistance and reactance circles.
(3)
Thus, as we move from point to point along the transmission line plotting
the complex reflection coefficient (rotating around the constant VSWR
circle), we are also plotting the corresponding impedance.
Once a normalized impedance is located on the Smith chart for a
particular point on the transmission line, the normalized admittance at that
point is found by rotating 180o from the impedance point on the constant
The locations of maxima and minima for voltages and currents along
the transmission line can be located using the Smith chart given that these
values correspond to specific impedance characteristics.
Voltage maximum, Current minimum
Impedance maximum
Impedance minimum
(a.)
DP#1 (120.0 + j0.0) S
DP#2 (46.9 + j0.0) S
Zin = (46.9 + j0) S
(b.)
(a.)
(b.) [Zin]max occurs at the rightmost point on the s=3 circle. From this
point, move 8/24 toward the load (CCW) to find ZL.
(c.) Insert series transmission line section and from ZL, move 0.3 8 toward
the generator (CW) to find Zin.
The input impedance seen looking into the quarter wave transformer is
Stub Tuner
A quarter-wave transformer is effective at matching a resistive load
RL to a transmission line of characteristic impedance Zo when RL Zo.
However, a complex load impedance cannot be matched by a quarter wave
transformer. The stub tuner is a transmission line matching technique that
can used to match a complex load. If a point can be located on the
transmission line where the real part of the input admittance is equal to the
characteristic admittance (Yo =Zo!1) of the line (Yin =Yo jB ), the
susceptance B can be eliminated by adding the proper reactive component
in parallel at this point. Theoretically, we could add inductors or
capacitors (lumped elements) in parallel with the transmission line.
However, these lumped elements usually are too lossy at the frequencies
of interest.
Rather than using lumped elements, we can use a short-circuited or
open-circuited segment of transmission line to achieve any required
reactance. Because we are using parallel components, the use of
admittances (as opposed to impedances) simplifies the mathematics.
l ! length of the shunt stub
d !distance from the load to
the stub connection
Ytl = Yo + jB
Ys = !jB
Yin = Ytl + Ys = Yo
ys = !jb
yin = 1
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