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INTRODUCTION
The last decade has witnessed the dawn of a new era of silicon based
biology,opening the door ,for the first time,to the possible investigation and comparitive
analysis of complete genomes. At the outset it is important to recognize that we do not
fully understand what our complex nature is ;we can not invariably say that a particular
protein sequence or fold has arisen by divergent or convergent evolution. To run down
the chaos created we introduce computers here, accepting what we cannot do with
computers plays an essential role in forming an appreciation of what ,infact,we can do .
In the last few decades, advances in molecular biology

and the equipment available for research in this field have
allowed the increasingly rapid sequencing of large portions of the
genomes of several species. In fact, to date, several bacterial
genomes, as well as those of some simple eukaryotes (e.g.,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or baker's yeast) have been sequenced
in full. The Human Genome Project, designed to sequence all 24
of the human chromosomes, is also progressing. Popular
sequence databases, such as GenBank and EMBL, have been
growing at exponential rates. This deluge of information has
necessitated the careful storage, organization and indexing of
sequence information. Information science has been applied to
biology to produce the field called Bioinformatics.
What is Bio-informatics ?
Bioinformatics is the field of scince in which biology,computer science , and information
technology merge to from a single discipline.The ultimate goal of the field is to enable
the discovery of new biological insights as well as to create a global perspective from
which unifying principles in biology can be discerned.
Why is Bioinformatics so important ?

Biology in the 21 st century is being transformed from a purely lab based science to an
information science as well. The rationale for applying computational approaches to
facilitate the understanding of various biological processes includes :
1.A more global perspective in experimental design;
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2.The ability to capitalize on the emerging technology of database mining – the process
by which testable hypotheses are generated regarding the function or structure of a gene
or protein of interest by identifying similar sequences in better characterized organisms.
The simplest tasks used in bioinformatics concern the creation

and maintenance of databases of biological information. Nucleic acid sequences (and the
protein sequences derived from them) comprise the majority of such databases. While the
storage and or ganization of millions of nucleotides is far from trivial, designing a
database and developing an interface whereby researchers can both access existing
information and submit new entries is only the beginning.
The most pressing tasks in bioinformatics involve the

analysis of sequence information. Computational Biology is
the name given to this process, and it involves the following:
• Finding the genes in the DNA sequences of various

organisms
• Developing methods to predict the structure and/or

function of newly discovered proteins and structural
RNA sequences.
• Clustering protein sequences into families of related

sequences and the development of protein models.
• Aligning similar proteins and generating phylogenetic trees to examine

evolutionary relationships.
The process of evolution has produced DNA sequences that encode proteins with very
specific functions. It is possible to predict the three-dimensional structure of a protein
using algorithms that have been derived from our knowledge of physics, chemistry and
most importantly, from the analysis of other proteins with similar amino acid sequences.
The diagram below summarizes the process by which DNA sequences are used to model
protein structure. The processes involved in this transformation are detailed in the pages
that follow.
What is biological database ?

A biological database is a large, organized body of persistent data, usually associated with
computerized software designed to update,query,and retrieve components of the data
stored within the system.A simple database might be a single file containing
nucleotide and amino acid sequences.Development of this type of database involved
not only design issues, but the development of complex interfaces where by
researchers could both access existing data as well as submit new or revised data.
The Creation of
Sequence
Databases
Most biological databases consist of long
strings of nucleotides (guanine, adenine,
thymine, cytosine and uracil) and/or amino
acids (threonine, serine, glycine, etc.).
Each sequence of nucleotides or amino
acids represents a particular gene or
protein (or section thereof), respectively.
Sequences are represented in shorthand,
using single letter designations. This
decreases the space necessary to store
information and increases processing
speed for analysis.
While most biological databases contain nucleotide and protein sequence information,
there are also databases which include taxonomic information such as the structural and
biochemical characteristics of
organisms. The power and ease of
using sequence information has
however, made it the method of
choice in modern analysis.
In the last three decades, contributions

from the fields of biology and
chemistry have facilitated an increase
in the speed of sequencing genes and
proteins. The advent of cloning
technology allowed foreign DNA
sequences to be easily introduced into
bacteria. In this way, rapid mass
production of particular DNA
sequences, a necessary prelude to sequence determination, became possible.
Oligonucleotide synthesis provided researchers with the ability to construct short
fragments of DNA with sequences of their own choosing. These oligonucleotides could
then be used in probing vast libraries of DNA to extract genes containing that sequence.
Alternatively, these DNA fragments could also be used in polymerase chain reactions to
amplify existing DNA sequences or to modify these sequences. With these techniques in
place, progress in biological research increased exponentially.
For researchers to benefit from all this information, however, two additional things were
required: 1) ready access to the collected pool of sequence information and 2) a way to
extract from this pool only those sequences of interest to a given researcher. Simply
collecting, by hand, all necessary sequence information of interest to a given project from
published journal articles quickly became a formidable task. After collection, the
organization and analysis of this data still remained. It could take weeks to months for a
researcher to search sequences by hand in order to find related genes or proteins.
Computer technology has provided the obvious solution to this problem. Not only can
computers be used to store and organize sequence information into databases, but they
can also be used to analyze sequence data rapidly. The evolution of computing power and
storage capacity has, so far, been able to outpace the increase in sequence information
being created. Theoretical scientists have derived new and sophisticated algorithms
which allow sequences to be readily compared using probability theories. These
comparisons become the basis for determining gene function, developing phylogenetic
relationships and simulating protein models. The physical linking of a vast array of
computers in the 1970's provided a few biologists with ready access to the expanding
pool of sequence information. This web of connections, now known as the Internet, has
evolved and expanded so that nearly everyone has access to this information and the tools
necessary to analyze it.
What is GENOME MAPPING?

Genomic maps serve as a scaffold for orienting sequence information .A few years
ago , a researcher wishing to localize a gene ,or nucleotide sequence, was forced to
manually map the genomic region of interest ,a time consuming and often painstaking
process.Today,thanks to new technologies and the influx of sequence data ,a number of
high quality ,genome-wide maps are available to the scientific community for use in
their research .The main advantage here is, although a human disease may not be found
in exactly the same form in animals,there may be sufficient data for an animal model that
allows researchers to make inferences about the process in humans.
Searching for Genes

The collecting, organizing and indexing of sequence information into a database, a
challenging task in itself, provides the scientist with a wealth of information, albeit of
limited use. The power of a database comes not from the collection of information, but in
its analysis. A sequence of DNA does not necessarily constitute a gene. It may constitute
only a fragment of a gene or alternatively, it may contain several genes.
Luckily, in agreement with evolutionary principles, scientific research to date has shown
that all genes share common elements. For many genetic elements, it has been possible to
construct consensus sequences, those sequences best representing the norm for a given
class of organisms (e.g, bacteria, eukaroytes). Common genetic elements include
promoters, enhancers, polyadenylation signal sequences and protein binding sites. These
elements have also been further characterized into further subelements.
Genetic elements share common sequences, and it is this fact that allows mathematical
algorithms to be applied to the analysis of sequence data. A computer program for
finding genes will contain at least the following elements.
Elements of a Gene-seeking Computer Program
Algorithms for
Probability formulae are used to determine if two sequences are
pattern
statistically similar.
recognition
These tables contain information on consensus sequences for

Data Tables various genetic elements. More information enables a better
analysis.
Consensus sequences vary between different taxonomic classes of

Taxonomic
organisms. Inclusion of these differences in an analysis speeds
Differences
processing and minimizes error.
These programming instructions define how algorithms are applied.

They define the degree of similarity accepted and whether entire
Analysis rules sequences and/or fragments thereof will be considered in the
analysis. A good program design enables users to adjust these
variables.
The Challenge of Protein Modelling

There are a myriad of steps following the location of a gene locus to the realization of a
three-dimensional model of the protein that it encodes.
Step One Location of Transcription Start/Stop

A proper analysis to locate a genetic locus will usually have already pinpointed at least
the approximate sites of the transcriptional start and stop. Such an analysis is usually
sufficient in determining protein structure. It is the start and end codons for translation
that must be determined with accuracy.
Step Two Location of Translation Start/Stop

The first codon in a messenger RNA sequence is almost always AUG. While this reduces
the number of candidate codons, the reading frame of the sequence must also be taken
into consideration.
There are six reading frames possible for a given DNA

sequence, three on each strand, that must be considered,
unless further information is available. Since genes are
usually transcribed away from their promoters, the
definitive location of this element can reduce the number of possible frames to three.
There is not a strong concensus between different species surrounding translation start
codons. Therefore, location of the appropriate start codon will include a frame in which
they are not apparent abrupt stop codons. Knowledge of a proteinÕs predicted molecular
mass can assist this analysis. Incorrect reading frames usually predict relatively short
peptide sequences. Therefore, it might seem deceptively simple to ascertain the correct
frame. In bacteria, such is frequently the case. However, eukaryotes add a new obstacle to
this process: INTRONS!
Step Three Detection of Intron/Exon Splice Sites

In eukaryotes, the reading frame is discontinuous at the level of the DNA because of the
presence of introns. Unless one is working with a cDNA sequence in analysis, these
introns must be spliced out and the exons joined to give the sequence that actually codes
for the protein.
Intron/exon splice sites can be predicted on the basis of their common features. Most
introns begin with the nucleotides GT and end with the nucleotides AG. There is a branch
sequence near the downstream end of each intron involved in the splicing event. There is
a moderate concensus around this branch site.
Step Four Prediction of 3-D Structure

With the completed primary amino acid sequence in hand, the challenge of modelling the
three-dimensional structure of the protein awaits. This process uses a wide range of data
and CPU-intensive computer analysis. Most often, one is only able to obtain a rough
model of the protein, and several conformations of the protein may exist that are equally
probable. The best analyses will utilize data from all the following sources.
Alignment to known homologues whose conformation is more

Pattern Comparison
secure
Most ideal when some data is available on the protein of interest.

X-ray Diffraction
However, diffraction data from homologous proteins is also very
Data
valuable.
Physical Biophysical data and analyses of an amino acid sequence can be

Forces/Energy States used to predict how it will fold in space.
All of this information is used to determine the most probable locations of the atoms of
the protein in space and bond angles. Graphical programs can then use this data to depict
a three-dimensional model of the protein on the two-dimensional computer screen.
Conclusion
Bio informatics is building up an extensive encyclopedia from which life’s
mysteries will be unraveled. Bio informatics may not be able to solve the numerous
social,ethical and legal issues in the field of bio technology but it can address many of the
scientific and economic issues.
The message here is that NATURE has her own complex rules,which we
only poorly understand ,and which we cannot easily encapsulate with in computer
programs. No computer algorithm can do biology .
These convergence are divergence processes of protein modeling are challenging
problems, even for the experienced biologists. But these computers gives a ocean of data
which narrows the options down so that we can navigate easily.
The Quantum Computer

An Introduction by Jacob West
April 28, 2000
(Originally used by Neil Gershenfeld in a quantum computing paper published in Scientific America)
What is a Quantum Computer?
Behold your computer. Your computer represents the culmination of years of technological
advancements beginning with the early ideas of Charles Babbage (1791-1871) and eventual
creation of the first computer by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1941. Surprisingly
however, the high speed modern computer sitting in front of you is fundamentally no different
from its gargantuan 30 ton ancestors, which were equipped with some 18000 vacuum tubes
and 500 miles of wiring! Although computers have become more compact and considerably
faster in performing their task, the task remains the same: to manipulate and interpret an
encoding of binary bits into a useful computational result. A bit is a fundamental unit of
information, classically represented as a 0 or 1 in your digital computer. Each classical bit is
physically realized through a macroscopic physical system, such as the magnetization on a
hard disk or the charge on a capacitor. A document, for example, comprised of n-characters
stored on the hard drive of a typical computer is accordingly described by a string of 8n zeros
and ones. Herein lies a key difference between your classical computer and a quantum
computer. Where a classical computer obeys the well understood laws of classical physics, a
quantum computer is a device that harnesses physical phenomenon unique to quantum
mechanics (especially quantum interference) to realize a fundamentally new mode of
information processing.
In a quantum computer, the fundamental unit of information (called a quantum bit or qubit),
is not binary but rather more quaternary in nature. This qubit property arises as a direct
consequence of its adherence to the laws of quantum mechanics which differ radically from
the laws of classical physics. A qubit can exist not only in a state corresponding to the logical
state 0 or 1 as in a classical bit, but also in states corresponding to a blend or superposition of
these classical states. In other words, a qubit can exist as a zero, a one, or simultaneously as
both 0 and 1, with a numerical coefficient representing the probability for each state. This
may seem counterintuitive because everyday phenomenon are governed by classical physics,
not quantum mechanics -- which takes over at the atomic level. This rather difficult concept is
perhaps best explained through an experiment. Consider figure a below:
(Figure taken from a paper by Deutsch and Ekert)

Here a light source emits a photon along a path towards a half-silvered mirror. This mirror
splits the light, reflecting half vertically toward detector A and transmiting half toward
detector B. A photon, however, is a single quantized packet of light and cannot be split, so it
is detected with equal probability at either A or B. Intuition would say that the photon
randomly leaves the mirror in either the vertical or horizontal direction. However, quantum
mechanics predicts that the photon actually travels both paths simultaneously! This is more
clearly demonstrated in figure b.
In an experiment like that in figure a, where a photon is fired at a half-silvered mirror, it can
be shown that the photon does not actually split by verifying that if one detector registers a
signal, then no other detector does. With this piece of information, one might think that any
given photon travels either vertically or horizontally, randomly choosing between the two
paths. However, quantum mechanics predicts that the photon actually travels both paths
simultaneously, collapsing down to one path only upon measurement. This effect, known as
single-particle interference, can be better illustrated in a slightly more elaborate experiment,
outlined in figure b below:
(Figure taken from a paper by Deutsch and Ekert)

In this experiment, the photon first encounters a half-silvered mirror, then a fully silvered
mirror, and finally another half-silvered mirror before reaching a detector, where each half-
silvered mirror introduces the probability of the photon traveling down one path or the other.
Once a photon strikes the mirror along either of the two paths after the first beam splitter, the
arrangement is identical to that in figure a, and so one might hypothesize that the photon will
reach either detector A or detector B with equal probability. However, experiment shows that
in reality this arrangement causes detector A to register 100% of the time, and never at
detector B! How can this be?
Figure b depicts an interesting experiment that demonstrates the phenomenon of single-

particle interference. In this case, experiment shows that the photon always reaches detector
A, never detector B! If a single photon travels vertically and strikes the mirror, then, by
comparison to the experiment in figure a, there should be an equal probability that the photon
will strike either detector A or detector B. The same goes for a photon traveling down the
horizontal path. However, the actual result is drastically different. The only conceivable
conclusion is therefore that the photon somehow traveled both paths simultaneously, creating
an interference at the point of intersection that destroyed the possibility of the signal reaching
B. This is known as quantum interference and results from the superposition of the possible
photon states, or potential paths. So although only a single photon is emitted, it appears as
though an identical photon exists and travels the 'path not taken,' only detectable by the
interference it causes with the original photon when their paths come together again. If, for
example, either of the paths are blocked with an absorbing screen, then detector B begins
registering hits again just as in the first experiment! This unique characteristic, among others,
makes the current research in quantum computing not merely a continuation of today's idea of
a computer, but rather an entirely new branch of thought. And it is because quantum
computers harness these special characteristics that gives them the potential to be incredibly
powerful computational devices.
The Potential and Power of Quantum Computing
In a traditional computer, information is encoded in a series of bits, and these bits are
manipulated via Boolean logic gates arranged in succession to produce an end result.
Similarly, a quantum computer manipulates qubits by executing a series of quantum gates,
each a unitary transformation acting on a single qubit or pair of qubits. In applying these gates
in succession, a quantum computer can perform a complicated unitary transformation to a set
of qubits in some initial state. The qubits can then be measured, with this measurement
serving as the final computational result. This similarity in calculation between a classical and
quantum computer affords that in theory, a classical computer can accurately simulate a
quantum computer. In other words, a classical computer would be able to do anything a
quantum computer can. So why bother with quantum computers? Although a classical
computer can theoretically simulate a quantum computer, it is incredibly inefficient, so much
so that a classical computer is effectively incapable of performing many tasks that a quantum
computer could perform with ease. The simulation of a quantum computer on a classical one
is a computationally hard problem because the correlations among quantum bits are
qualitatively different from correlations among classical bits, as first explained by John Bell.
Take for example a system of only a few hundred qubits, this exists in a Hilbert space of
dimension ~1090 that in simulation would require a classical computer to work with
exponentially large matrices (to perform calculations on each individual state, which is also
represented as a matrix), meaning it would take an exponentially longer time than even a
primitive quantum computer.
Richard Feynman was among the first to recognize the potential in quantum superposition
for solving such problems much much faster. For example, a system of 500 qubits, which is
impossible to simulate classically, represents a quantum superposition of as many as 2500
states. Each state would be classically equivalent to a single list of 500 1's and 0's. Any
quantum operation on that system --a particular pulse of radio waves, for instance, whose
action might be to execute a controlled-NOT operation on the 100th and 101st qubits-- would
simultaneously operate on all 2500 states. Hence with one fell swoop, one tick of the computer
clock, a quantum operation could compute not just on one machine state, as serial computers
do, but on 2500 machine states at once! Eventually, however, observing the system would
cause it to collapse into a single quantum state corresponding to a single answer, a single list
of 500 1's and 0's, as dictated by the measurement axiom of quantum mechanics. The reason
this is an exciting result is because this answer, derived from the massive quantum parallelism
achieved through superposition, is the equivalent of performing the same operation on a
classical super computer with ~10150 separate processors (which is of course impossible)!!
Early investigators in this field were naturally excited by the potential of such immense
computing power, and soon after realizing its potential, the hunt was on to find something
interesting for a quantum computer to do. Peter Shor, a research and computer scientist at
AT&T's Bell Laboratories in New Jersey, provided such an application by devising the first
quantum computer algorithm. Shor's algorithm harnesses the power of quantum superposition
to rapidly factor very large numbers (on the order ~10200 digits and greater) in a matter of
seconds. The premier application of a quantum computer capable of implementing this
algorithm lies in the field of encryption, where one common (and best) encryption code,
known as RSA, relies heavily on the difficulty of factoring very large composite numbers into
their primes. A computer which can do this easily is naturally of great interest to numerous
government agencies that use RSA -- previously considered to be "uncrackable" -- and anyone
interested in electronic and financial privacy.
Encryption, however, is only one application of a quantum computer. In addition, Shor has
put together a toolbox of mathematical operations that can only be performed on a quantum
computer, many of which he used in his factorization algorithm. Furthermore, Feynman
asserted that a quantum computer could function as a kind of simulator for quantum physics,
potentially opening the doors to many discoveries in the field. Currently the power and
capability of a quantum computer is primarily theoretical speculation; the advent of the first
fully functional quantum computer will undoubtedly bring many new and exciting
applications.
A Brief History of Quantum Computing
The idea of a computational device based on quantum mechanics was first explored in the
1970's and early 1980's by physicists and computer scientists such as Charles H. Bennett of
the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Paul A. Benioff of Argonne National
Laboratory in Illinois, David Deutsch of the University of Oxford, and the late Richard P.
Feynman of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The idea emerged when
scientists were pondering the fundamental limits of computation. They understood that if
technology continued to abide by Moore's Law, then the continually shrinking size of circuitry
packed onto silicon chips would eventually reach a point where individual elements would be
no larger than a few atoms. Here a problem arose because at the atomic scale the physical
laws that govern the behavior and properties of the circuit are inherently quantum mechanical
in nature, not classical. This then raised the question of whether a new kind of computer could
be devised based on the principles of quantum physics.

Feynman was among the first to attempt to provide an answer to this question by producing
an abstract model in 1982 that showed how a quantum system could be used to do
computations. He also explained how such a machine would be able to act as a simulator for
quantum physics. In other words, a physicist would have the ability to carry out experiments
in quantum physics inside a quantum mechanical computer.
Later, in 1985, Deutsch realized that Feynman's assertion could eventually lead to a general
purpose quantum computer and published a crucial theoretical paper showing that any
physical process, in principle, could be modeled perfectly by a quantum computer. Thus, a
quantum computer would have capabilities far beyond those of any traditional classical
computer. After Deutsch published this paper, the search began to find interesting
applications for such a machine.
Unfortunately, all that could be found were a few rather contrived mathematical problems,
until Shor circulated in 1994 a preprint of a paper in which he set out a method for using
quantum computers to crack an important problem in number theory, namely factorization.
He showed how an ensemble of mathematical operations, designed specifically for a quantum
computer, could be organized to enable a such a machine to factor huge numbers extremely
rapidly, much faster than is possible on conventional computers. With this breakthrough,
quantum computing transformed from a mere academic curiosity directly into a national and
world interest.
Obstacles and Research
The field of quantum information processing has made numerous promising advancements
since its conception, including the building of two- and three-qubit quantum computers
capable of some simple arithmetic and data sorting. However, a few potentially large
obstacles still remain that prevent us from "just building one," or more precisely, building a
quantum computer that can rival today's modern digital computer. Among these difficulties,
error correction, decoherence, and hardware architecture are probably the most formidable.
Error correction is rather self explanatory, but what errors need correction? The answer is
primarily those errors that arise as a direct result of decoherence, or the tendency of a quantum
computer to decay from a given quantum state into an incoherent state as it interacts, or
entangles, with the state of the environment. These interactions between the environment and
qubits are unavoidable, and induce the breakdown of information stored in the quantum
computer, and thus errors in computation. Before any quantum computer will be capable of
solving hard problems, research must devise a way to maintain decoherence and other
potential sources of error at an acceptable level. Thanks to the theory (and now reality) of
quantum error correction, first proposed in 1995 and continually developed since, small scale
quantum computers have been built and the prospects of large quantum computers are looking
up. Probably the most important idea in this field is the application of error correction in
phase coherence as a means to extract information and reduce error in a quantum system
without actually measuring that system. In 1998, researches at Los Alamos National
Laboratory and MIT led by Raymond Laflamme managed to spread a single bit of quantum
information (qubit) across three nuclear spins in each molecule of a liquid solution of alanine
or trichloroethylene molecules. They accomplished this using the techniques of nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR). This experiment is significant because spreading out the
information actually made it harder to corrupt. Quantum mechanics tells us that directly
measuring the state of a qubit invariably destroys the superposition of states in which it exists,
forcing it to become either a 0 or 1. The technique of spreading out the information allows
researchers to utilize the property of entanglement to study the interactions between states as
an indirect method for analyzing the quantum information. Rather than a direct measurement,
the group compared the spins to see if any new differences arose between them without
learning the information itself. This technique gave them the ability to detect and fix errors in
a qubit's phase coherence, and thus maintain a higher level of coherence in the quantum
system. This milestone has provided argument against skeptics, and hope for believers.
Currently, research in quantum error correction continues with groups at Caltech (Preskill,
Kimble), Microsoft, Los Alamos, and elsewhere.
At this point, only a few of the benefits of quantum computation and quantum computers
are readily obvious, but before more possibilities are uncovered theory must be put to the test.
In order to do this, devices capable of quantum computation must be constructed. Quantum
computing hardware is, however, still in its infancy. As a result of several significant
experiments, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has become the most popular component in
quantum hardware architecture. Only within the past year, a group from Los Alamos National
Laboratory and MIT constructed the first experimental demonstrations of a quantum computer
using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technology. Currently, research is underway to
discover methods for battling the destructive effects of decoherence, to develop an optimal
hardware architecture for designing and building a quantum computer, and to further uncover
quantum algorithms to utilize the immense computing power available in these devices.
Naturally this pursuit is intimately related to quantum error correction codes and quantum
algorithms, so a number of groups are doing simultaneous research in a number of these
fields. To date, designs have involved ion traps, cavity quantum electrodynamics (QED), and
NMR. Though these devices have had mild success in performing interesting experiments, the
technologies each have serious limitations. Ion trap computers are limited in speed by the
vibration frequency of the modes in the trap. NMR devices have an exponential attenuation of
signal to noise as the number of qubits in a system increases. Cavity QED is slightly more
promising; however, it still has only been demonstrated with a few qubits. Seth Lloyd of MIT
is currently a prominent researcher in quantum hardware. The future of quantum computer
hardware architecture is likely to be very different from what we know today; however, the
current research has helped to provide insight as to what obstacles the future will hold for
these devices.
Future Outlook
At present, quantum computers and quantum information technology remains in its

pioneering stage. At this very moment obstacles are being surmounted that will provide the
knowledge needed to thrust quantum computers up to their rightful position as the fastest
computational machines in existence. Error correction has made promising progress to date,
nearing a point now where we may have the tools required to build a computer robust enough
to adequately withstand the effects of decoherence. Quantum hardware, on the other hand,
remains an emerging field, but the work done thus far suggests that it will only be a matter
time before we have devices large enough to test Shor's and other quantum algorithms.
Thereby, quantum computers will emerge as the superior computational devices at the very
least, and perhaps one day make today's modern computer obsolete. Quantum computation
has its origins in highly specialized fields of theoretical physics, but its future undoubtedly lies
in the profound effect it will have on the lives of all mankind.
References:
1. D. Deutsch, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A 400, 97 (1985).
2. R. P. Feynman, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 21, 467 (1982).
3. J. Preskill, "Battling Decoherence: The Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computer," Physics

Today, June (1999).
4. Shor, P. W., Algorithms for quantum computation: Discrete logarithms and factoring, in
Proceedings of the 35th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, IEEE
Computer Society Press (1994).
5. Nielsen, M., "Quantum Computing," (unpublished notes) (1999).
6. QUIC on-line, "Decoherence and Error Correction," (1997).
7. D.G. Cory et al., Physical Review Letters, 7 Sept 1998.
8. J. Preskill, "Quantum Computing: Pro and Con," quant-ph/9705032 v3, 26 Aug 1997.
9. Chuang, I. L., Laflamme, R., Yamamoto, Y., "Decoherence and a Simple Quantum
Computer," (1995).
10. D. Deutsch, A. Ekert, "Quantum Computation," Physics World, March (1998).

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In the last few decades, advances in molecular biology

Why is Bioinformatics so important ?

1.A more global perspective in experimental design;

The simplest tasks used in bioinformatics concern the creation

The most pressing tasks in bioinformatics involve the

• Finding the genes in the DNA sequences of various

• Developing methods to predict the structure and/or

• Clustering protein sequences into families of related

• Aligning similar proteins and generating phylogenetic trees to examine

What is biological database ?

In the last three decades, contributions

What is GENOME MAPPING?

Searching for Genes

Elements of a Gene-seeking Computer Program

These tables contain information on consensus sequences for

Consensus sequences vary between different taxonomic classes of

These programming instructions define how algorithms are applied.

The Challenge of Protein Modelling

Step One Location of Transcription Start/Stop

Step Two Location of Translation Start/Stop

There are six reading frames possible for a given DNA

Step Three Detection of Intron/Exon Splice Sites

Step Four Prediction of 3-D Structure

Alignment to known homologues whose conformation is more

Most ideal when some data is available on the protein of interest.

Physical Biophysical data and analyses of an amino acid sequence can be

The Quantum Computer

What is a Quantum Computer?

(Figure taken from a paper by Deutsch and Ekert)

(Figure taken from a paper by Deutsch and Ekert)

Figure b depicts an interesting experiment that demonstrates the phenomenon of single-

The Potential and Power of Quantum Computing

A Brief History of Quantum Computing

be devised based on the principles of quantum physics.

Obstacles and Research

At present, quantum computers and quantum information technology remains in its

1. D. Deutsch, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A 400, 97 (1985).

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