Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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1. LITERATURE SURVEY 1.1 Overview Construction projects have to be accomplished within a defined scope, limited resources and defined time. Projects are implemented phase-by-phase starting from conception to closeout phase. It is necessary how the basic elements i.e. resources and time are managed systematically towards solving identified problems so that the final objective is achieved as per the project requirements towards its successful completion. The scope of this review is to discuss the concept of sanitary and storm sewer construction, excavation design guideline brief, cost estimation and breakdown for storm and sewage drainage and other new method of construction toward sustainable underground water related infrastructure construction that would help to identify problems and challenges in construction of underground infrastructure process. 1.2 Sanitary and Storm Sewer Construction Concept During rainfall, a part of the rainfall water percolates in to the ground and a part evaporates in to the atmosphere while the bulk volume flows over the ground surface and is termed as surface runoff or storm water. A storm drains is defined as that portion of the storm drainage system that receives runoff from inlets and conveys the runoff to some point where it is then discharged into a channel, water body, or piped system. This storm water has to be disposed off through open surface drains or through underground sewers. This is done in two ways. One is where two separate sets of sewers are laid one for the sanitary sewage and other for the storm water. In the other case combined system of sewerage is adopted where by the storm water and sanitary sewage are conveyed by a single large sized sewer. . The terminology of storm sewer which has been in general use for many years is gradually being replaced with the term storm drains to differentiate between sanitary sewer and storm drains. The natural condition of the land before development is in relative balance with the natural capacity of the receiving streams. Undeveloped conditions provide natural absorption of water into the ground and longer periods of concentrations. Modification of the ground surface from its natural vegetated state to solid paved surfaces and buildings causes water to runoff site at faster rates. The solid surfaces dont allow absorption and filtering of the storm water and all the benefits that vegetated ground cover provides. The management of storm water will reduce the possibility of damage to public and private property will reduce the possibility of damage to public and private property will reduce the reduce the erosion on land and creek channels Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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To improve living conditions and minimize environmental impacts and to prevent inundation of streets, walkways, yards and flooding of basement, traffic disruption and damage of property, it would be prudent to use the underground space for infrastructure, leaving the surface for more noble needs. Underground solutions can solve many urban problems in different areas, such as transportation (mass transit, urban motorways, railways links), public utilities (water supply, sewage, and cables), city center revitalization, and storage ( car parking, flood control and good storage). Hydraulic sewers are designed as open channels, flowing partially full or, at most, just filled. Such drainages lines are made usually from Concrete or masonry pipe or conduits for large ones Factor that determines the capacity of storm water drains are Intensity and duration of local rain storm water; Size and runoff characteristics of turbidity and Economy of design for quick discharge. In most cases, the collected water is disposed in to lakes or rivers taking care of the possible hazard that may be caused due to the disposal of hazardous wastes and materials. In such situations the necessary treatment of the wastewater or controlling the flow of hazardous wastes is done. 1.2.1 Trench Excavation The meaning of word to excavate is to dislodge the rock massif from its original place (in- situ).this involves two operations: digging the ground and its disposal. This can be carried out to any formation that exists within the earth crust. This operation can create openings or excavations of different sizes, shapes and configurations at the desired locations. 80% of the Sewer line construction is the excavation work and it covers about 41% of the total cost. The work of excavation is usually carried out in open cutting. The width of trench at or below the top of the sewer should be minimum necessary for its proper installation, with due consideration to is bedding. The width of the trench from the top of the sewer to ground surface is primarily related to its effect upon the adjoining service and nearby surfaces. Wherever surface is available, especially in undeveloped areas or open country, excavation is made with side slopes so that the slopes are stable. In many circumstances, however, it may be essential to restrict the top width of the trench, and hence the excavation has to be made with sides vertical.
Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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1.2.2 Minimum and Maximum Slope In order for a sewer line to work it needs to have the minimum slope. Minimum sanitary sewer slopes are established to provide a minimum cleansing velocity (usually 2 or 3 feet per second) at full flow or half-full flow. (The physics of hydraulic flow are such that a sloped pipe will carry flow by gravity half full at the same velocity as full.) The minimum slope for sewer line can vary depending upon the size of the piping. The minimum slopes for small pipes sewers in a sanitary sewer system should be satisfactory to give minimum Velocities, when flowing full, of not less than 0.6m/s. The following are the minimum slopes for gravity flow sanitary sewers, which should be provided (Table 4-3): Minimum Slopes Size (mm) Slope (m/m) n=0.013 n=0.015 200 0.0033 0.0044 250 0.0025 0.0033 300 0.0019 0.0026 400 0.0011 0.0015
1.2.3 Sewer Pipe Materials and Sizes Among the principal sewer pipe materials ultra-Polyvinyl chloride (UPVC Sewer) for gravity lines and ductile iron for force main and for road crossings are selected. From the available and relatively cheap pipe materials UPVC sewer pipe is selected for gravity lines up to a pipe size of 400mm due to the following reasons: Cheap (low initial cost) Corrosion resistant Light in weight, flexible, and can easily make joints The friction loss is lower than for most materials. It is less subject to incrustation It accommodates greater ground movements and easier, and light to lay
Size (mm) Slope( m/m) n=0.013 0.015 200 0.0033 0.0044 250 0.0025 0.0033 300 0.0019 0.0026 450 0.0011 0.0015 Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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1.2.4 Minimum Pipe Diameter The minimum pipe diameter for the trunk sewer is 300mm; The minimum pipe diameter for the secondary sewer is 200mm; The minimum pipe diameter for house connection sewer is 150mm; 1.2.5 Pipe material Diameter < 400mm: PVC Diameter 400mm < 700mm: Concrete Diameter > 700mm: Reinforced Concrete Minimum and Maximum Slope 1.3 Excavation Design Guidelines According to our research we couldnt find any excavation design guidelines that are applicable for the excavation works. 1.4 System Installation methods Pipework must be capable of carrying the required flows with a minimum of blockages, be leak- tight, durable, accessible for maintenance and capable of being tested. The system should be properly ventilated: it should be designed to avoid the escape of foul air near buildings except through appropriately sited vents, normally provided by the open tops of drainage stacks. It is perhaps hardly necessary to mention that drainage of this kind is almost invariably by gravity; sewage pumping or vacuum systems may be used mainly for specialized applications General Requirements Leak tightness: - is important to contain the discharge and avoid polluting the surroundings, and to exclude groundwater since the latter may carry earth into the drains; leaks may also encourage the penetration of roots into drains Durability: involves resistance to breakage and crushing of pipes due to ground or moisture movement or possibly thermal effects, and also to erosion and chemical attack from inside (or outside). Joints are critical as regards these two general requirements, and some flexibility in joints is an important asset Accessibility: is necessary for inspection, testing and breaking up and clearing blockages. It should, in general, be possible to perform these functions without entering a building commonly Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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used equipment for these purposes includes pipe fittings and chambers for access. The terms in common use are Rodding eye:- a pipe fitting, accessible from ground level, having a sealed removable cover, to permit rodding along a drain in one direction, normally downstream; usually constructed from the same piping system as the drain access fitting as above but with rodding possible in more than one direction; may be incorporated as a sealed fitting within a chamber. Manhole:- a chamber with a removable manhole, with removable cover, cover and large enough for a person to get into and be able to work reasonably freely, with breathing apparatus if necessary I nspection chamber:- shallower than a manhole, with removable cover, to enable a person on the surface to inspect, test, clear blockages and remove debris. Sewer Pipe Installation: 1. A sewer pipe needs to be installed carefully with the adequate slope. No matter if the pipe is going to be installed inside of a structure or outside, the installation method will be the same. Depending on the sewer pipe material, things could be easier or more complicated, because the pipe will be harder to handle and the installation process of the sewer pipe will require additional labor and equipment. 2. To start, you must determine how far the pipe needs to go, and determine the elevation at which the pipe will be connected to the specific fixture or if it will be connected to another pipe. Another important information is to determine what will be the final installation height. Both, initial and final elevation must be measured at the interior point of the connecting pipe, just in the middle portion of the pipe. 3. Now that you have both elevations and the pipe length, we need to calculate the pitch or fall of the sewer pipe run. Subtract both elevation and divide the horizontal or pipe length into the difference in elevation, and that will be the drop per linear foot or meters of pipe. Be careful, a drop greater than per foot is not adequate as water will flow faster than solids, while a slope to small, less than 0.003, will be sufficient to carry solids away. The recommended pitch for 4" pipe is 1/8" to 1/4" per foot. 4. Start by opening the trench. Be careful once the trench is open and provide all safety measures to protect workers inside and outside the trench. Remove all loose dirt at the trench bottom and grade the trench bottom so the pipe could be installed over a smooth surface. Sometime you will need to place a bedding material to provide additional support to the sewer pipe, to reduce the possibility of sag after the trench has been backfilled. The best material to use as bedding material is sand, but if unavailable then you can choose to place gravel bedding. 5. Once the select portion of trench has been prepared, lay the sewer pipe in the trench. It is recommended to start at the lower end of the pipe run, up to the higher elevation. If the sewer pipes, has bell end; the bell end must be placed on the uphill side of the pipe run, Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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reducing the possibility of leakage. Remember that before applying glue to the sewer PVC pipes, you must apply purple PVC primer. Purple PVC primer chemically cleans the PVC surface, so the glue acts properly. Insert the male end of the pipe into the female end and twist a little bit. To be sure that the pitch is being followed correctly, install a string along the pipe run. The string must be installed with the same slope as the pipe will be, but just one feet over the finished level. The measure from the string to the bottom of the trench will be the same along the entire run. 6. It is probable that the last portion of the run will need just a fraction of a pipe. Be aware that you will also need additional fittings to complete the installation. Once the pipe has been installed completely, check for any pipe that could be disconnected, broken or not installed properly. Now place the sand and/or gravel over the pipe, enough to cover at least 10 over the sewer pipe. Start compacting the material with a rammer or any other compaction equipment suitable for the type of pipe being installed. On long pipe runs, this process could be started once the pipe has been installed and while working on the next pipe segment. It is important to install a warning tape over the first layer of compacted soil, so others will be aware when excavating that a pipe is located under the detectable warning tape. During excavation protection methods should provide for the safety of workers in a trench. By keeping this in mind, when the depth of trench exceeds 1.5 to 2 m, and when excavation is made with side vertical, it becomes necessary to support the side by sheeting and bracing. This operation is known as timbering of trench, which may be done with the help of the following methods: Stay bracing Box sheeting Vertical sheeting Rennet sheeting Sheet piling There are some other protection methods when the excavation works are executed. Among those shoring is the most important. In this case, shoring should not be confused with shielding. Shoring is designed to prevent collapse where shielding is only designed to protect workers when collapses occur. Shoring is a general term used in construction to describe the process of supporting a structure in order to prevent collapse so that construction can proceed.
Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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1.5 Guides to Trench Excavation 1.5.1 Design Considerations 1.5.1.1 Loading When carrying out the design, consideration should be given to loading imposed on the open trench. The route of the trench should ideally be kept away from any traffic. However, if this cannot be avoided, traffic load should be taken into account in the design of temporary support. The trench support should also be properly designed to take the additional load from any excavated spoil or other construction materials placed along the trench sides. A trench located at the toe of a slope can greatly reduce the stability of the slope to the extent that it may fail catastrophically, and should be avoided wherever possible. If unavoidable, it is important that the trench support is designed to resist the force to ensure that the stability of the slope will not be adversely affected by the trench work. Stability analysis of the affected slope may also be required. In the above cases, the employment of a professionally qualified engineer to carry out the design of the temporary support system should be considered even if the trenches are less than 4.5 m deep.
1.5.1.2 Drainage Drainage measures to prevent ingress of surface runoff must be provided regardless of the excavation depth. These measures are particularly important to ensure the stability of any man-made or natural slope located below and in the vicinity of the trench excavation works and when the trench is open during any part of the wet season. The possible flooding condition in the area, especially at depression points of roads, should be estimated and considered in the drainage design. The drainage measures are intended to minimize water runoff from the surface into the open trench, and to control infiltration of collected rainwater and runoff from the open trench into the slope; both scenarios are likely to have some adverse effects on the stability of the slope.
To deal with surface runoff, up stands placed along either side of the trench are effective. The up stands are normally made of mass concrete blocks, or in the form of sandbags or compacted earth fill bunds cemented together. The designer/contractor should determine the required height of the up stand depending on site conditions, but in no circumstances should the height be less than 100 mm.
1.5.1.3 Groundwater Control Where a high ground water table is encountered, the water may be controlled by dewatering. Dewatering may cause the lowering of groundwater in the area around the excavation, which will result in an increase in effective stress of soil and hence settlement of the ground. In cases where there is a concern on the adverse effects of ground settlement near the excavation adjoining sensitive structures, like old buildings on shallow foundations, Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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gas and water mains, busy roads, etc. an assessment of the possible adverse effects of the dewatering is required. The assessment should be carried out by a professionally qualified engineer, and appropriate precautionary measures and monitoring should be designed by him to ensure the safety of the adjoining sensitive structures. Existing guidelines on groundwater drawdown are given in GCO (1990).
1.5.1.4 Existing Man-Made Slope Features Where existing man-made slope features, such as cut slopes, fill slopes or masonry retaining walls, etc. are situated at the proximity of the planned trench, the stability condition of the slope features should be examined and taken into consideration in the design. If any slope feature is suspected to be marginally stable and particularly vulnerable to ground movement, precautionary measures should be provided to support the slope feature.
1.5.2. Construction Stage
1.5.2.1 Installation of Support Support of trench excavation should be constructed strictly in accordance with the design and contract specifications. In no circumstances should workers be permitted to work in an unsupported trench which is deeper than 1.2 m. Some general guidelines on the requirements of the support installation are given below. In ground composed of moderately firm to firm soil, vertical trench sides may stand unsupported for a considerable period of time, and hence half-timber board support or half sheet pile support may be adequate provided that the groundwater level is below the bottom of the trench. When the ground condition is poor and has little or no free-standing time, full timber board support or full sheet pile support should be installed in such a way that the sides of the trench are supported at all times. That is, installation of sheeting, excavation and insertion of walings and struts proceed by stages until the full excavation depth is achieved. Installation of support ahead of the excavation to the full depth is of advantage where the soil and sheeting sections allow this. Use of sheet piles rather than timber boards makes it possible to drive to full depth ahead of excavation in most ground and to greater depths. This is considered advantageous where the trench is to be constructed in poor ground and where there are few crossing services. Where existing services crossing a trench line are encountered, timber board support should be provided as far as possible to the exposed excavation face surrounding the services. If decking for traffic or pedestrians is not required, support frames should ideally protrude above ground level.
1.5.2.2 Special Drainage Provisions in the Wet Season If trench excavation during the wet season and located on or above man-made or natural slopes cannot be avoided, adequate drainage provisions must be provided to ensure that the stability of the slopes will not be adversely affected by any water ingress from the trench. Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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Preferably rigid trench covers such as fiber-glass or steel covers while work is not proceeding. For wider trenches, the use of tarpaulin sheeting properly secured against strong wind may be more practical. Any voids between the excavated face and the support should be filled with cement mortar to ensure water cannot get in. Pumping from small sumps should always be provided for all trenches located at slope crest, on slopes, or in flooding black spots, and opened up in the wet season. The sumps should preferably be lined with concrete. It is important that the pumps provided are of sufficient capacity. All pumping machinery can fail, therefore sufficient standby pumps should be provided. A workman should be employed to supervise the maintenance and functioning of pumps. He should carry out spot-checks on the trench, in particular when works are not proceeding and during inclement weather, to ensure the trench is not flooded and the pumps are functioning.
1.5.2.3 Backfilling of Trench and Reinstatement Upon completion of the trench work, the excavated trench must be backfilled with fine fill material in accordance with the specification and standard of Section 6 of the General Specification (GS) for Civil Engineering Works (CED, 1992 or as amended or updated). Loosely compacted trenches will permit lateral flow of water along the trench through the backfilled material. They will also lead to excessive settlement of roads which will damage the road structure and will cause damage to the underlying utilities. Infiltration through cracked pavement into the loose soil can lead to the failure of the adjacent downslopes. To control the compaction, it is good practice to carry out field density tests, using e.g. the sand replacement method.
1.5.2.4 Precaution in Use of Machinery Slopes with loose boulders, rock slopes with loose blocks or sub-vertical masonry or brick facing may be vulnerable to vibration induced by heavy machinery operating in close proximity, such as pneumatic hammers used for trench excavation. It is suggested that heavy machinery should be used with caution, and attention should be paid to any signs of instability or movement, such as loose soil or small pieces of rock falling from slopes, or loose masonry facing blocks. Operation should be stopped immediately when any signs of distress or movement are observed. The operation should not be resumed until the necessary precautionary measures have been implemented, such as provision of wire mesh to the areas with loose rock or raking
1.5.3 Other Considerations If the site conditions permit, construction vehicles and stockpiled materials should be kept at least 1.5 m away from the edge of the trench. However, if this minimum distance cannot be maintained due to space restriction on site, the stability of the trench should be checked in order to ensure no adverse effects would be resulted from the loading imposed due to the Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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close proximity of the construction vehicles and stockpiled materials. Otherwise, the support system should be properly designed to allow for the additional loading. Particular attention should be given to ensuring the safety of construction vehicles working close to the trench edge, especially after heavy rain which may have caused loosening or weakening of the soil behind the trench wall. The spoil should be placed and covered so as not to be washed into the trench during rainstorms or allowed to enter the surface drainage systems. An open trench should be securely fenced off to prevent accidental fall into the trench. Ground movement due to trench excavation should be minimized as it can damage existing services running parallel to or across the trench. In addition, when existing services cross a trench line may be undermined by the excavation, they should be supported either by propping from underneath or by hangers suspended from ground surface. As this Guide concentrates only on aspects relating to shoring support and drainage measures, users of this Guide should refer to the relevant documents on other aspects related to the construction safety of trench excavation 1.6 Methodologies Excavation is divided into classes A,B,C. Class A consists of solid rock in the original bed or in well-defined ledges and removable only by blasting and of all boulders over 8 cu ft. in volume. Another definition of rock is that it shall mean any material geologically in place cemented in to a mass by natural causes and having hardness when first exposed of 3 or more in the mineral scale of hardness. Frozen material is not classified as rock. Class B excavation comprises disintegrated limestone, shale, soapstone ,slate, hardpan, fire-clay, cemented gravel macadam pavement and boulders less than 8 and more than 1 cu ft. in volume this material can be removed with picks and shovels but with some difficulty. Class C includes all other materials. Where quick sand is known to occur it should also be included as a definite item in the contract. Hand excavation:-excavation with pick and shovel is used on the smaller jobs for class B and C excavation. It may first be necessary to break a hard top crust. Paving is broken with a bar, or air hammer. If the trench is narrow plowing may disturb the nearby surface and increase danger of caving. Top material should be saved to be replaced at the surface after backfilling. Frozen earth is not economically broken by picks but must first be thawed by building fires on the ground at night to prepare for work the next day. If steam is available, boxes are placed open side down over the ground, and the steam is discharged through a hose under the box. The process is speeded if the steam hose has a pointed pipe on the end with side perforations so that a work man may push it in to the frozen crust through a hole in the top of a box. Machine excavation: - hand excavation is so expensive that machine excavation of trenches for sewer and water pipes is frequently justified. In addition to economy it has the advantage of reducing the time that trench must remain open. It has the drawback, however, of possible damage to water and gas service pipes, requiring the attendance of water works man and a gas man to make repairs. When large mains are in the way the attendant warns the machine operator and a portion of the trench is left for hand excavation. Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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Machines used for trenching are the wheel type and ladder type. They will dig trenches rapidly with close control of depths and widths so that little hand trimming is necessary, and wheel operate in any soil except rock. 1.7 Safety requirements Excavation and trenching are among the most hazardous construction operations. OSHA( Occupation Safety and Health Administration) defines an excavation as any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earths surface formed by earth removal. A trench is defined as a narrow underground excavation that is deeper than it is wide, and is no wider than 15 feet (4.5 meters).
1.7.1 Dangers of Trenching and Excavation Cave-ins pose the greatest risk and are much more likely than other excavation related accidents to result in worker fatalities. Other potential hazards include falls, falling loads, hazardous atmospheres, and incidents involving mobile equipment. Trench collapses cause dozens of fatalities and hundreds of injuries each year.
1.7.2 Protect Yourself Do not enter an unprotected trench! Trenches 5 feet (1.5 meters) deep or greater require a protective system unless the excavation is made entirely in stable rock. Trenches 20 feet (6.1 meters) deep or greater require that the protective system be de-signed by a registered professional engineer or be based on tabulated data prepared and/ or approved by a registered professional engineer.
1.7.3 Protective Systems There are different types of protective systems. Sloping involves cutting back the trench wall at an angle inclined away from the excavation. Shoring requires installing aluminum hydraulic or other types of supports to prevent soil movement and. Shielding protects workers by using trench boxes or other types of supports to prevent soil cave-ins. Designing a protective system can be complex because you must consider many factors: soil classification, depth of cut, water content of soil, changes due to weather or climate, surcharge loads (eg., spoil, other materials to be used in the trench) and other operations in the vicinity.
1.7.4 Competent Person
OSHA( Occupation safety and Health Administration) standards require that trenches be inspected daily and as conditions change by a competent person prior to worker entry to ensure elimination of excavation hazards. A competent person is an individual who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards or working conditions that are hazardous, unsanitary, or dangerous to employees and who is authorized to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate or control these hazards and conditions.
1.7.5 Access and Egress OSHA requires safe access and egress to all excavations, including ladders, steps, ramps, or other safe means of exit for employees working in trench excavations 4 feet (1.22 meters) or deeper. These devices must be located within 25 feet (7.6 meters) of all workers. Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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1.7.6 General Trenching and Excavation Rules Keep heavy equipment away from trench edges. Keep surcharge loads at least 2 feet (0.6 meters) from trench edges. Know where underground utilities are located. Test for low oxygen, hazardous fumes and toxic gases. Inspect trenches at the start of each shift. Inspect trenches following a rainstorm. Do not work under raised loads. 1.8 Cost involved for labor based excavation and machine based excavation The costs fall broadly into the costs paid by the utility, as direct and indirect construction costs. The Direct and In-Direct costs are those most often associated as the Project Costs or Construction Costs, which are usually relatively straight forward to estimate using standard estimating methods, and are greatly represented proportionally by the construction cost fees tendered by contractors. The machine rate is usually, but not always, divided into fixed costs, operating costs, and labor costs. 1.8.1 Fixed Costs Fixed costs are those which can be predetermined as accumulating with the passage of time, rather than with the rate of work. They do not stop when the work stops and must be spread over the hours of work during the year. Commonly included in fixed costs are equipment depreciation, interest on investment, taxes, and storage, and insurance. Depreciation The objective of the depreciation charge is to recognize the decline of value of the machine as it is working at a specific task. Interest Interest is the cost of using funds over a period of time. Investment funds may be borrowed or taken from savings or equity. If borrowed, the interest rate is established by the lender and varies by locality and lending institution. If the money comes from savings, then opportunity cost or the rate this money would earn if invested elsewhere is used as the interest rate. The accounting practice of private firms may ignore interest on equipment on the ground that interest is a part of profits and, therefore, not a proper charge against operating equipment. Although this is sound from the point of view of the business as a whole, the exclusion of such charges may lead to the development of unrealistic comparative rates between machines of low and high initial cost. This may lead to erroneous decisions in the selection of equipment. Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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Taxes Many equipment owners must pay property taxes or some type of usage tax on equipment. Taxes, like interest, can be calculated by either using the estimated tax rate multiplied by the actual value of the equipment or by multiplying the tax rate by the average annual investment. Insurance Most private equipment owners will have one or more insurance policies against damage, fire, and other destructive events. It could be argued that the cost of insurance is a real cost that reflects the risk to all owners and some allowance for destructive events should be allowed. Not anticipating the risk of destructive events is similar to not recognizing the risk of fire or insect damage in planning the returns from managing a forest. Insurance calculations are handled in the same way as interest and taxes. Storage and Protection Costs for equipment storage and off-duty protection are fixed costs, largely independent of the hours of use. Costs of storage and protection must be spread over the total hours of equipment use. 1.8.2 Operating Costs Operating costs, unlike fixed costs, change in proportion to hours of operation or use. They depend upon a variety of factors, many of which are, to some extent, under the control of the operator or equipment owner. Operating costs vary directly with the rate of work. These costs include the costs of fuel, lubricants, tires, equipment maintenance and repairs. Maintenance and Repair This category includes everything from simple maintenance to the periodic overhaul of engine, transmission, clutch, brakes and other major equipment components, for which wear primarily occurs on a basis proportional to use. Operator use or abuse of equipment, the severity of the working conditions, maintenance and repair policies, and the basic equipment design and quality all affect maintenance and repair costs. Fuel The fuel consumption rate for a piece of equipment depends on the engine size, load factor, the condition of the equipment, operator's habit, environmental conditions, and the basic design of equipment. To determine the hourly fuel cost, the total fuel cost is divided by the productive time of the equipment. Lubricants Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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These include engine oil, transmission oil, final drive oil, grease and filters. The consumption rate varies with the type of equipment, environmental working condition (temperature), the design of the equipment and the level of maintenance Tires Due to their shorter life, tires are considered an operating cost. Tire cost is affected by the operator's habits, vehicle speed, surface conditions, wheel position, loadings, relative amount of time spent on curves, and grades. 1.8.3 Labor Costs Labor costs are those costs associated with employing labor including direct wages, food contributions, transport, and social costs, including payments for health and retirement. The cost of supervision may also be spread over the labor costs. Labor costs include direct and indirect payments such as taxes, insurance payments, food, housing subsidy, etc. Labor costs need to be carefully considered when calculating machine rates since the hours the labor works often differs from the hours the associated equipment works. The machine rate is the sum of the fixed plus operating plus labor costs. The division of costs in these classifications is arbitrary although accounting rules suggest a rigid classification. The key point is to separate the costs in such a way as to make the most sense in explaining the cost of operating the men and equipment The cost estimate includes: Costs for local material / equipment delivery to and service provider transportation to and from the job site. Costs to prepare the worksite for Trenching, including costs to protect existing structure(s), finishes, materials and components. Costs for job cleanup and debris removal at project completion. Labor setup time, mobilization time and minimum hourly charges that are commonly included for small Trenching jobs. The cost estimate does not include: General contractor fees for organizing and supervising the Trenching. Add 12.1% to 19.3% to the total cost above if a general contractor will supervise this project. Sales tax on materials and supplies. Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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Permit or inspection fees (or portion therof) required by your local building department for your overall project 1.9 New method of construction: trench less excavation methods Under the traditional method of sewer relief, a replacement or additional parallel sewer line is constructed by digging along the entire length of the existing pipeline. While these traditional methods of sewer rehabilitation require unearthing and replacing the deficient pipe (the dig-and- replace method), trenchless methods of rehabilitation use the existing pipe as a host for a new pipe or liner. Trenchless sewer rehabilitation techniques offer a method of correcting pipe deficiencies that requires less restoration and causes less disturbance and environmental degradation than the traditional dig- and-replace method. Trenchless sewer rehabilitation methods include: Pipe Bursting, or In-Line Expansion Slip lining; Cured-In-Place Pipe; and Modified Cross Section Liner. 1.9.1 Pipe Bursting or In-Line Expansion Pipe bursting, or in-line expansion, is a method by which the existing pipe is forced outward and opened by a bursting tool. During in-line expansion, the existing pipe is used as a guide for inserting the expansion head (part of the bursting tool). The expansion head, typically pulled by a cable rod and winch, increases the area available for the new pipe by pushing the existing pipe radially outward until it cracks. The bursting device pulls the new pipeline behind itself. Various types of expansion heads, categorized as static or dynamic, can be used on the bursting tool to expand the existing pipeline. Static heads, which have no moving internal parts, expand the existing pipe only through the pulling action of the bursting tool. Unlike static heads, dynamic heads provide additional pneumatic or hydraulic forces at the point of impact. Pneumatic heads pulsate internal air pressure within the bursting tool, while hydraulic heads expand and collapse the head. While the dynamic head pulsates or expands and contracts, the bursting device is pulled through the existing pipeline and breaks up the existing pipe, replacing it with the new pipe directly behind it. Dynamic heads are often required to penetrate difficult pipe materials and soils. However, because dynamic heads can cause movement of the surrounding soils-resulting in additional pressure and ground settlement-static heads are preferred where pipe and soil conditions permit During the pipe bursting process, the rehabilitated pipe segment must be taken out of service by re-routing flows around it. After the pipe bursting is completed, laterals are re-connected, typically with robotic cutting devices. Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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1.9.2 Sliplining Sliplining is a well-established method of trenchless rehabilitation. During the sliplining process, a new liner of smaller diameter is placed inside the existing pipe. The annular space, or area between the existing pipe and the new pipe, is typically grouted to prevent leaks and to provide structural integrity. If the annulus between the sections is not grouted, the liner is not considered a structural liner. Continuous grouting of the annular space provides a seal. Grouting only the end-of-pipe sections can cause failures and leaks. In most sliplining applications, manholes cannot function as proper access points to perform the rehabilitation. In these situations, an insertion pit must be dug for each pipeline segment. Because of this requirement, in most applications, sliplining is not a completely trenchless technique. However, the excavation required is considerably less than that for the traditional dig-and-replace method. System and site conditions will dictate the amount of excavation spared. Methods of sliplining include continuous, segmental and spiral wound. All three methods require laterals to be re- connected by excavation or by a remote-cutter. In continuous sliplining, the new pipe, joined to form a continuous segment, is inserted into the host pipe at strategic locations. The installation access point, such as a manhole or insertion pit, must be able to handle the bending of the continuous pipe section. Installation by the segmental method involves assembling pipe segments at the access point. Sliplining by the segment method can be accomplished without rerouting the existing flow. In many applications, the existing flow reduces frictional resistance and thereby aids in the installation process. Spiral wound sliplining is performed within a manhole or access point by using interlocking edges on the ends of the pipe segments to connect the segments. 1.9.3 Cured-in-place pipe During the cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) renewal process, a flexible fabric liner, coated with a thermosetting resin, is inserted into the existing pipeline and cured to form a new liner. The liner is typically inserted into the existing pipe through an existing manhole. The fabric tube holds the resin in place until the tube is inserted in the pipe and ready to be cured. Commonly manufactured resins include unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy, with each having distinct chemical resistance to domestic wastewater The CIPP method can be applied to rehabilitate pipe lines with defects such as cracks, offset joints, and structurally deficient segments. The thermosetting resin material bonds with the existing pipe materials to form a tighter seal than most other trenchless techniques. The two primary methods of installing CIPP are winch-in-place and invert-in- place. These methods are used during installation to feed the tube through the pipe. The winch-in- place method uses a winch to pull the tube through the existing pipeline. After being pulled through the pipeline, the tube is inflated to push the liner against the existing pipe walls. The more typically applied inversion-in-place method uses gravity and either water or air pressure to force the tube through the pipe and invert it, or turn the tube inside out. This process of inversion presses the resin- coated tube against the walls of the existing pipe. During both the winch-in- place and inversion-in-place methods, heat is then circulated through the tube to cure the resin to Cost Comparison Of Labor Based Excavation And Machine Based Excavation For Storm And Sewage Drainage
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form a strong bond between the tube and the existing pipe. Under both CIPP methods, as the liner expands to fit the new pipe, dimples occur in the line where the laterals exist. Dimples in the line can be found by TV inspection or robotic equipment. In some applications, a Tee is placed at the junction before rehabilitation begins. Tees enable junction to be easily identified and modified after the pipeline has been re-lined. Laterals are typically reinstated with robotic cutting devices, or, for large-diameter pipes, by manually cutting the liner. 1.9.4 Modified cross section lining methods The modified cross section lining methods include deformed and reformed methods, swage lining, and roll down. These methods either modify the pipes cross sectional profile or reduce its cross- sectional area so that the liner can be extruded through the existing pipe. The liner is subsequently expanded to conform to the existing pipes size. During deformed and reformed pipeline renewal, a new flexible pipe is deformed in shape and inserted into the host pipe. While the method of deforming the flexible pipe varies by manufacturer, with many processes referred to as fold and form methods, a typical approach is to fold the new liner into a U shape, reducing the pipes diameter by about 30 percent. After the liner is pulled through the existing line, the liner is heated and pressurized to conform to the original pipe shape. Another method of obtaining a close fit between the new lining and existing pipe is to temporarily compress the new liner before it is drawn through the existing pipeline. The swage lining and roll down processes use chemical and mechanical means, respectively, to reduce the cross-sectional area of the new liner. During swage lining, a typical drawdown process, the new liner is heated and subsequently passed through a reducing die. A chemical reaction between the die and liner material temporarily reduces the liners diameter by 7 percent to 15 percent and allows the liner to be pulled through the existing pipe. As the new liner cools, it expands to its original diameter. The roll down process uses a series of rollers to reduce the pipe liners diameter. As in deform-and-reform methods, heat and pressure are applied to expand the liner to its original pipe diameter after it has been pulled through the existing pipe.