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Indirect heating of fluids is covered in this tutorial
including layouts, control and drainage of coils and
jackets, and heat transfer calculations.
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Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transf er Heating with Coils and Jackets
Heating with Coils and Jackets
Vessels can be heated in a number of different ways. This tutorial will deal with indirect heating. In these
systems, the heat is transferred across a heat transfer surface. Options include:
Submerged steam coils - A widely used form of heat transfer involves the installation inside a tank
of a steam coil immersed in a process fluid.
Steam jackets - Steam circulates in the annular space between a jacket and the vessel walls, and
heat is transferred through the wall of the vessel.
Submerged steam coils
The use of tank coils is particularly common in marine applications where cargoes of crude oil, edible oils,
tallow and molasses are heated in deep tanks. Many of these liquids are difficult to handle at ambient
temperatures due to their viscosity. Steam heated coils are used to raise the temperature of these liquids,
lowering their viscosity so that they become easier to pump.
Tank coils are also extensively used in electroplating and metal treatment. Electroplating involves passing
articles through several process tanks so that metallic coatings can be deposited on to their surfaces. One
of the first stages in this process is known as pickling, where materials such as steel and copper are
treated by dipping them in tanks of acid or caustic solution to remove any scale or oxide (e.g. rust) which
may have formed.
Steam coil sizing
Having determined the energy required (in Tutorial 2.9), and with knowledge of the steam
pressure/temperature in the coil, the heat transfer surface may be determined using Equation 2.5.3:
Equation 2.5.3
The heat transfer area calculated is equivalent to the surface area of the coil, and will enable an appropriate
size and layout to be specified.
Determining the 'U' value
To calculate the heat transfer area, a value for the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, must be chosen. This
will vary considerably with the thermal and transport properties of both fluids and a range of other
conditions.
On the product side of the coil a thermal boundary layer will exist in which there is a temperature gradient
between the surface and the bulk fluid. If this temperature difference is relatively large, then the natural
convective currents will be significant and the heat transfer coefficient will be high.
Assisted circulation (such as stirring) that will induce forced convection, will also result in higher
coefficients. As convection is partially dependent on the bulk motion of the fluid, the viscosity (which varies
with temperature) also has an important bearing on the thermal boundary layer.
Additional variations can also occur on the steam side of the coil, especially with long lengths of pipe. The
coil inlet may have a high steam velocity and may be relatively free from water. However, further along the
length of the coil the steam velocity may be lower, and the coil may be running partially full of water. In very
long coils, such as those sometimes found in seagoing tankers or in large bulk storage tanks, a significant
pressure drop occurs along the length of the coil. To acheive the mean coil temperature, an average steam
pressure of approximately 75% of the inlet pressure may be used. In extreme cases the average pressure
used may be as low as 40% of the inlet pressure.
Another variable is the coil material itself. The thermal conductivity of the coil material may vary considerably.
Steam Engineering
Principles and Heat
Transfer
Engineering Units
What is Steam?
Superheated Steam
Steam Quality
Heat Transf er
Methods of Estimating Steam
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Measurement of Steam
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Thermal Rating
Energy Consumption of Tanks
and Vats
Heating with Coils and
Jackets
Heating Vats and Tanks by
Steam Injection
Steam Consumption of Pipes
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Steam Consumption of Heat
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Steam Consumption of Plant
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Entropy - A Basic
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Tank Coil Heating
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However, overall heat transfer is governed to a large extent by the heat resistant films, and the thermal
conductivity of the coil material is not as significant as their combined effect. Table 2.10.1 provides typical
overall heat transfer coefficients for various conditions of submerged steam coil application. 'U' values for
steam pressures between 2 bar g and 6 bar g should be found by interpolation of the data in the table.
The range of figures shown in Table 2.10.1 demonstrates the difficulty in providing definitive 'U' values.
Customary figures at the higher end of the scale will apply to installations that are supplied with clean dry
steam, small coils and good condensate drainage. The lower end is more applicable to poor quality steam,
long coils and poor condensate drainage.
The recommended overall heat transfer coefficients will apply to typical conditions and installations. These
recommended rates are empirically derived, and will generally ensure that a generous safety margin
applies to the coil sizing.
In the case of fluids other than water, the heat transfer coefficient will vary even more widely due to the way
in which viscosity varies with temperature. However, the values shown in Table 2.10.2 will serve as a guide
for some commonly encountered substances, while Table 2.10.3 gives typical surface areas of pipes per
metre length.
Example 2.10.1
Continuing from Example 2.9.1 determine:
Part 1. The average steam mass flowrate during start-up. (Mean heat load = 367 kW)
Part 2. The heat transfer area required.
Part 3. A recommended coil surface area.
Part 4. The maximum steam mass flowrate with the recommended heat transfer area.
Part 5. A recommendation for installation, including coil diameter and layout.
The following additional information has been provided:
Steam pressure onto the control valve = 2.6 bar g (3.6 bar a).
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A stainless steel steam coil provides heat.
Heat transfer coefficient from steam/coil/liquid, U = 650 W/mC
Part 1 Calculate the average steam mass flowrate during start-up
Steam pressure onto the control valve = 2.6 bar g (3.6 bar a)
Critical pressure drop (CPD) will occur across the control valve during start-up, therefore the minimum
steam pressure in the heating coil should be taken as 58% of upstream absolute pressure. An explanation
of this is given in Block 5.
Part 2 Calculate the heat transfer area required.
Part 3 A recommendation for coil surface area
Because of the difficulties in providing accurate 'U' values, and to allow for future fouling of the heat
exchange surface, it is usual to add 10% to the calculated heat transfer area.
Part 4 The maximum steam mass flowrate with the recommended heat transfer area
Maximum heat transfer (and hence steam demand) will occur when the temperature difference between the
steam and the process fluid is at its maximum, and should take into consideration the extra pipe area
allowed for fouling.
(a) Consider the maximum heating capacity of the coil
(coil)
Using Equation 2.5.3: = UAT
(b) Steam flowrate to deliver 519 kW
Part 5 A recommendation for installation, including coil diameter and layout
(a) Determine coil diameter and length
From Table 2.10.3, a 100 mm pipe has a surface area of 0.358 m/m run. This application will require:
It may be difficult to accommodate this length of large bore heating pipe to install in a 3 m 3 m tank.
One solution would be to run a bank of parallel pipes between steam and condensate manifolds, set at
different heights to encourage condensate to run to the lower (condensate) manifold. The drain line must
fall from the bottom of the condensate manifold down to the steam trap (or pump-trap). See Figure 2.10.1
for a suggested layout.
Fig. 2.10.1
Possible layout of coils in a rectangular tank
Note the steam supply is situated at one end of its manifold, whilst the trap set is at the other end. This will
help steam to flow and push condensate through the coils.
In the application, the steam and condensate headers would each be 2.8 m long. As the condensate
manifold is holding condensate, the heat from it will be small compared to the steam manifold and this can
be ignored in the calculation.
The steam manifold should be 100 mm diameter as determined by the previous velocity calculation. This
will provide a heating area of:
2.8 m x 0.358 m/m = 1.0 m
Consequently 7 m - 1 m = 6 m of heat transfer area is still required, and must be provided by the
connecting pipes.
Arbitrarily selecting 32 mm pipe as a good compromise between robustness and workability:
The lengths of the connecting pipes are 2.5 m.
CHECK
It is necessary to confirm the steam velocity through the connecting tubes:
On the basis of proportionality of heat transfer area, the steam header will condense:
This leaves 86% of the 850 kg/h = 731 kg/h of steam which must pass through the 18 connecting pipes and
also into the lower (condensate) manifold.
Other steam coil layouts
The design and layout of the steam coil will depend on the process fluid being heated. When the process
fluid to be heated is a corrosive solution, it is normally recommended that the coil inlet and outlet
connections are taken over the lip of the tank, as it is not normally advisable to drill through the corrosion
resistant linings of the tank side. This will ensure that there are no weak points in the tank lining, where
there is a risk of leakage of corrosive liquids. In these cases the coil itself may also be made of corrosion
resistant material such as lead covered steel or copper, or alloys such as titanium.
However, where there is no danger of corrosion, lifts over the tank structure should be avoided, and the
steam inlet and outlet connections may be taken through the tank side. The presence of any lift will result in
waterlogging of a proportion of the coil length, and possibly waterhammer, noise and leaking pipework.
Steam heating coils should generally have a gradual fall from the inlet to the outlet to ensure that
condensate runs toward the outlet and does not collect in the bottom of the coil.
Where a lift is unavoidable, it should be designed to include a seal arrangement at the bottom of the lift and
a small bore dip pipe, as shown in Figure 2.10.2.
Fig. 2.10.2
Tank with a rising discharge pipe
The seal arrangement allows a small amount of condensate to collect to act as a water seal, and prevents
the occurrence of steam locking. Without this seal, steam can pass over any condensate collecting in the
bottom of the pipe, and close the steam trap at the top of the riser.
The condensate level would then rise and form a temporary water seal, locking the steam between the
bottom of the riser and the steam trap. The steam trap remains closed until the locked steam condenses,
during which time the coil continues to waterlog.
When the locked steam condenses and the steam trap opens, a slug of water is discharged up the riser.
As soon as the water seal is broken, steam will enter the rising pipe and close the trap, while the broken
column of water falls back to lie at the bottom of the heating coil.
The small bore dip pipe will only allow a very small volume of steam to become locked in the riser. It
enables the water column to be easily maintained without steam bubbling through it, ensuring there is a
steady and continuous condensate flow to the outlet.
When the seal is ultimately broken, a smaller volume of water will return to the heating coil than with an
unrestricted large bore riser, but as the water seal arrangement requires a smaller volume of condensate
to form a water seal, it will immediately re-form.
If the process involves articles being dipped into the liquid, it may not be convenient to install the coil at the
bottom of the tank - it may be damaged by the objects being immersed in the solution. Also, during certain
processes, heavy deposits will settle at the bottom of the tank and can quickly cover the heating surface,
inhibiting heat transfer.
For these reasons side hung coils are often used in the electroplating industry. In such cases serpentine or
plate-type coils are arranged down the side of a tank, as shown in Figure 2.10.3. These coils should also
have a fall to the bottom with a water seal and a small bore dip-pipe. This arrangement has the advantage
that it is often easier to install, and also easier to remove for periodic cleaning if required.
Fig. 2.10.3
Side hung coils
If articles are to be dipped into the tank, it may not be possible to use any sort of agitator to induce forced
convection and prevent temperature gradients occurring throughout the tank. Whether bottom or side coils
are used, it is essential that they are arranged with adequate coverage so that the heat is distributed evenly
throughout the bulk of the liquid.
The diameter of the coil should provide sufficient length of coil for good distribution. A short length of coil
with a large diameter may not provide adequate temperature distribution. However a very long continuous
length of coil may experience a temperature gradient due to the pressure drop from end to end, resulting in
uneven heating of the liquid.
Whilst the next two headings, 'Sizing the control valve' and 'The condensate removal device' are
included in this Tutorial, the new reader should refer to later Tutorials for full and comprehensive
information, before attempting sizing and selection of equipment.
Control valve arrangement
The control valve set may be either one or two valves in parallel. A single control valve, large enough to cope
with the maximum flowrate encountered at start-up, may be unable to control flow accurately at the
minimum expected flowrate. This could cause erratic temperature control. An alternative is to fit two
temperature control valves in parallel:
One valve (running valve) sized to control at the lower flowrate.
A second valve (starting valve) to pass the difference between the capacity of the first valve, and the
maximum flowrate.
The starting valve would have a set-point slightly lower than the running valve, so it would close first, leaving
the running valve to control at low loads.
Sizing the control valve
The control valve set (either one valve or two valves in parallel).
The coil has been sized on mean heat transfer values. However, it may be better to size the control valve to
supply the maximum (start-up) load. With large coils in tanks, this will help to maintain a degree of steam
pressure throughout the length of the coil when the steam is turned on, helping to push condensate
through the coil to the steam trapping device. If the control valve were sized on mean values, steam
pressure in the coil at start-up will tend to be lower and the coil may flood.
Using one valve
Continuing with Example 2.10.1 the maximum steam load is 850 kg/h and the coil is designed to deliver
this at a pressure of 1.1 bar g. A steam valve sizing chart would show that a K
v
of about 20 is required to
pass 850 kg/h of steam with a pressure of 2.6 bar g at the inlet of the control valve, and Critical Pressure
Drop (CPD) across the valve. (Tutorial 6.4 will show how the valve size can be determined by calculation).
A DN40 control valve with a larger K
vs
of 25 would therefore need to be selected for the application.
If one valve is to be used, this valve must ensure the maximum heat load is catered for, while maintaining
the required steam pressure in the coil to assist the drainage of condensate from it at start-up. However, for
reasons previously explained, two valves may be better.
The running load is 52 kW and with the coil running at 1.1 bar g, the running steam load:
The steam valve sizing chart shows a K
v
of 2 is required to pass 85 kg/h with 3.6 bar upstream, operating at
critical pressure drop.
A DN15 KE type valve (K
vs
= 4) and a DN25 piston actuated valve (K
vs
= 18.6) operating together will cater for
the start-up load. When approaching the control temperature, the larger valve would be set to shut down,
allowing the smaller valve to give good control.
The condensate removal device
The selection and sizing of the condensate removal device will be very much influenced by the condensate
backpressure. For the purpose of this example, it is assumed the backpressure is atmospheric pressure.
The device should be sized so it is able to satisfy both of the following conditions:
Pass 850 kg/h of condensate with 1.1 bar g in the coil, i.e. the full-load condition.
Pass the condensate load when steam pressure in the coil equals the condensate backpressure,
i.e. the stall load condition.
If the steam trap is only sized on the first condition, it is possible that it may not pass the stall load (the
condition where the product approaches its required temperature and the control valve modulates to reduce
steam pressure). The stall load may be considerable. With respect to non-flow type applications such as
tanks, this may not be too serious from a thermal viewpoint because the contents of the tank will almost be
at the required temperature, and have a huge reservoir of heat.
Any reduction in heat transfer at this part of the heating process may therefore have little immediate effect on
the tank contents.
However, condensate will back up into the coil and waterhammer will occur, along with its associated
symptoms and mechanical stresses. Tank coils in large circular tanks tend to be of robust construction,
and are often able to withstand such stresses. Problems can however occur in rectangular tanks (which
tend to be smaller), where vibration in the coil will have more of an effect on the tank structure. Here, the
energy dissipated by the waterhammer causes vibration, which can be detrimental to the life of the coil, the
tank, and the steam trap, as well as creating unpleasant noise.
With respect to flow-type applications such as plate heat exchangers, a failure to consider the stall condition
will usually have serious implications. This is mainly due to the small volume in the heat exchanger.
For heat exchangers, any unwanted reduction in the heating surface area, such as that caused by
condensate backing up into the steam space, can affect the flow of heat through the heating surface. This
can cause the control system to become erratic and unstable, and processes requiring stable or accurate
control can suffer with poor performance.
If heat exchangers are oversized, sufficient heating surface may remain when condensate backs up into the
steam space, and reduction of thermal performance may not always occur. However, with heat exchangers
not designed to cope with the effects of waterlogging, this can lead to corrosion of the heating surface,
inevitably reducing the service life of the exchanger. Waterlogging can, in some applications, be costly.
Consider a waterlogging air heater frost coil. Cold air at 4C flowing at 3 m/s can soon freeze condensate
locked in the coils, resulting in premature and unwarranted failure. Proper drainage of condensate is
essential to maintain the service life of any heat exchanger and air heater.
Steam traps are devices which modulate to allow varying amounts of condensate to drain from applications
under varying conditions. Float traps are steam traps designed to modulate and release condensate close
to steam temperature, offering maximum plant performance, maximum plant life, and maximum return on
plant investment.
When stall conditions occur, and a steam trap cannot be used, an automatic pump-trap or pump and trap in
combination will ensure correct condensate drainage at all times, thus maximising the thermal capability
and lifetime costs of the plant.
Steam jackets
The most commonly used type of steam jacket consists simply of an outer cylinder surrounding the vessel,
as shown in Figure 2.10.4. Steam circulates in the outer jacket, and condenses on the wall of the vessel.
Jacketed vessels may also be lagged, or may contain an internal air space surrounding the jacket. This is
to ensure that as little steam as possible condenses on the outer jacket wall, and that the heat is
transferred inwards to the vessel.
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Fig. 2.10.4
A conventional jacketed vessel
The heat transfer area (the vessel wall surface area), can be calculated in the same manner as with a
steam coil, using Equation 2.5.3 and the overall heat transfer coefficients provided in Table 2.10.4.
Although steam jackets may generally be less thermally efficient than submerged coils, due to radiation
losses to the surroundings, they do allow space for the vessels to be agitated so that heat transfer is
promoted. The U values listed in Table 2.10.4. are for moderate non-proximity agitation.
Commonly the vessel walls are made from stainless steel or glass lined carbon steel. The glass lining will
offer an additional corrosion resistant layer. The size of the steam jacket space will depend on the size of
the vessel, but typically the width may be between 50 mm and 300 mm.
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