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Earth

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


This article is about the planet. For other uses, see Earth (disambiguation).
Earth
"The Blue Marble" photograph of Earth,
taken from Apollo 17
Designations
Pronunciation
i
/ r /
Adjective
earthly, tellurian, telluric, terran,terrestrial.
Orbital characteristics
Epoch J2000.0
[note !

Aphelion
"2,0#$,2%2 km
.0&'%$$ ()
[note 2!

Perihelion
*',0#$,2#0 km
0.#$%2#%* ()
[note 2!
Semi-major axis
*#,"#$,2& km
.000002& ()
[!
Eccentricity
0.0&'2%
[!
Orbital period
%&".2"&%&%00* +ays
[2!
.0000'*2 yr
Average
orbital speed
2#.'$ km,s
[%!
0',200 km,h
Mean anomaly
%"'."'&-
[%!
Inclination
'.""- to .un/s e0uator
."'$&#-
[*!
to in1ariable plane
ongitude o!
ascending node
%*$.'%#%&-
[%![note %!
Argument o!
perihelion
*.20'$%-
[%![note *!
Satellites
natural 2The Moon3
$,%004 artificial 2as of March 2003
["!
Physical characteristics
Mean radius
&,%'.0 km
[&!
E"uatorialradius
&,%'$. km
['![$!
Polar radius
&,%"&.$ km
[#!
#lattening
0.00%%"2$
[0!
$ircum!erence
*0,0'".0' km 2e0uatorial3
[$!
*0,00'.$& km 2meri+ional3
[!
Sur!ace area
"0,0'2,000 km
2[2![%![note "!
*$,#*0,000 km
2
lan+ 22#.2 53
%&,%2,000 km
2
6ater 2'0.$ 53
%olume
.0$%270
2
km
%[%!
Mass
".#'%&70
2*
kg
[%!
Mean density
"."" g,cm
%[%!
E"uatorial
sur!ace gravity
#.'$0%2' m,s
2

[*!

0.##'%2 g
Escape velocity
.$& km,s
[%!
Sidereal rotation
period
0.##'2&#&$ +
["!
2%
h
"&
m
*.00
s
E"uatorial
rotation velocity
,&'*.* km,h 2*&". m,s3
[&!
Axial tilt
2%-2&/2".*#
[2!
Albedo
0.%&' 2geometric3
[%!
0.%0& 2Bon+3
[%!
Sur!ace temp&
'elvin
$elsius
min mean max
$* 8
['!
2$'.2 8
[$!
%% 8
[#!
9$#.2 -: * -: "'.$ -:
Atmosphere
Sur!acepressure
0.%2" k;a 2M.<3
$omposition
'$.0$5 nitrogen 2=23
[%!
20.#"5 o>ygen 2?23
0.#%5 argon
0.0%$5 carbon +io>i+e
(bout 5 6ater 1apor 21aries
6ith climate3
Earth (or the Earth) is the third planet from the Sun and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in
the Solar System. t is also the largest of the Solar System!s four terrestrial planets. t is sometimes referred
to as the World, the "lue #lanet,
$%&'
or (y its )atin name, Terra.
$note *'
+ome to millions of species including humans, Earth is currently the only astronomical (ody ,here life is
kno,n to e-ist.
$%.'
/he planet formed 0.10 (illion yearsago, and life appeared on its surface ,ithin one
(illion years.
$%%'
Earth!s (iosphere has significantly altered the atmosphere and other a(iotic conditions on
the planet, ena(ling the proliferation of aero(ic organisms as ,ell as the formation of the o2one
layer ,hich, together ,ith Earth!s magnetic field, (locks harmful solar radiation, permitting life on land.
$%3'
/he physical properties of the Earth, as ,ell as its geological history and or(it, ha4e allo,ed life to
persist during this period. /he planet is e-pected to continue supporting life for at least another 1&&
million years.
$%0'$%1'
Earth!s outer surface is di4ided into se4eral rigid segments, or tectonic plates, that migrate across the
surface o4er periods of many millions of years. 5(out 6.7 of the surface is co4ered ,ith salt ,ater oceans,
the remainder consisting of continents and islands ,hich together ha4e many lakes and other sources of
,ater contri(uting to the hydrosphere. )i8uid ,ater, necessary for all kno,n life, is not kno,n to e-ist
in e8uili(rium on any other planet!s surface.
$note 6'
Earth!s polesare mostly co4ered ,ith solid ice (5ntarctic
ice sheet) or sea ice (5rctic ice cap). /he planet!s interior remains acti4e, ,ith a thick layer of relati4ely
solid mantle, a li8uid outer core that generates a magnetic field, and a solid iron inner core.
Earth interacts ,ith other o(9ects in space, especially the Sun and the :oon. 5t present, Earth or(its the
Sun once e4ery 3**.%* times it rotates a(out its o,n a-is, ,hich is e8ual to 3*1.%* solar days, or
one sidereal year.
$note ;'
/he Earth!s a-is of rotation is tilted %3.0< a,ay from the perpendicular of its or(ital
plane, producing seasonal 4ariations on the planet!s surface ,ith a period of one tropical year (3*1.%0 solar
days).
$%*'
Earth!s only kno,n natural satellite, the :oon, ,hich (egan or(iting it a(out 0.13 (illion years ago,
pro4ides ocean tides, sta(ili2es the a-ial tilt and gradually slo,s the planet!s rotation. "et,een
appro-imately3.; (illion and 0.. (illion years ago, numerous asteroid impacts during the )ate +ea4y
"om(ardment caused significant changes to the greater surface en4ironment.
"oth the mineral resources of the planet, as ,ell as the products of the (iosphere, contri(ute resources that
are used to support a glo(al human population. /hese inha(itants are grouped into a(out %&&
independent so4ereign states, ,hich interact through diplomacy, tra4el, trade, and military action. +uman
cultures ha4e de4eloped many 4ie,s of the planet, including personification as a deity, a (elief in a flat
Earth or in the Earth as the center of the uni4erse, and a modern perspecti4e of the ,orld as an integrated
en4ironment that re8uires ste,ardship.
$ontents
:hronology
o . E1olution of life
o .2 @uture
2 :omposition an+ structure
o 2. .hape
o 2.2 :hemical composition
o 2.% Anternal structure
o 2.* Beat
o 2." Tectonic plates
o 2.& .urface
o 2.' By+rosphere
o 2.$ (tmosphere
2.$. Ceather an+ climate
2.$.2 )pper atmosphere
o 2.# Magnetic fiel+
% ?rbit an+ rotation
o %. Dotation
o %.2 ?rbit
o %.% (>ial tilt an+ seasons
* Moon
" Babitability
o ". Biosphere
o ".2 =atural resources an+ lan+ use
o ".% =atural an+ en1ironmental haEar+s
o ".* Buman geography
& :ultural 1ie6point
' .ee also
$ =otes
# Deferences
0 @urther rea+ing
E>ternal links
=hronology
Main article: History of the Earth
See also: eological history of Earth
Scientists ha4e (een a(le to reconstruct detailed information a(out the planet!s past. /he earliest dated
Solar System material ,as formed0.1*6% > &.&&&* (illion years ago,
$%6'
and (y 0.10 (illion years ago (,ithin
an uncertainty of .7)
$%%'
the Earth and the other planets in the Solar System had formed out of the solar
ne(ula?a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left o4er from the formation of the Sun. /his assem(ly of the
Earth through accretion ,as thus largely completed ,ithin .&@%& million years.
$%;'
nitially molten, the outer
layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid crust ,hen ,ater (egan accumulating in the atmosphere.
/he :oon formed shortly thereafter, 0.13 (illion years ago.
$%A'
/he current consensus model
$3&'
for the formation of the :oon is the giant impact hypothesis, in ,hich the
:oon ,as created ,hen a :ars-si2ed o(9ect (sometimes called /heia) ,ith a(out .&7 of the Earth!s
mass
$3.'
impacted the Earth in a glancing (lo,.
$3%'
n this model, some of this o(9ect!s mass ,ould ha4e
merged ,ith the Earth and a portion ,ould ha4e (een e9ected into space, (ut enough material ,ould ha4e
(een sent into or(it to coalesce into the :oon.
Butgassing and 4olcanic acti4ity produced the primordial atmosphere of the Earth. =ondensing ,ater
4apor, augmented (y ice and li8uid ,ater deli4ered (y asteroids and the larger proto-planets, comets,
and trans-Ceptunian o(9ects produced the oceans.
$33'
/he ne,ly formed Sun ,as only 6&7 of its
presentluminosity, yet e4idence sho,s that the early oceans remained li8uid?a contradiction du((ed
the faint young Sun parado-. 5 com(ination of greenhouse gasesand higher le4els of solar acti4ity ser4ed
to raise the Earth!s surface temperature, pre4enting the oceans from free2ing o4er.
$30'
"y 3.1 (illion years
ago, the Earth!s magnetic field ,as esta(lished, ,hich helped pre4ent the atmosphere from (eing stripped
a,ay (y the solar ,ind.
$31'
/,o ma9or models ha4e (een proposed for the rate of continental gro,thD
$3*'
steady gro,th to the present-
day
$36'
and rapid gro,th early in Earth history.
$3;'
=urrent research sho,s that the second option is most
likely, ,ith rapid initial gro,th of continental crust
$3A'
follo,ed (y a long-term steady continental area.
$0&'$0.'
$0%'
Bn time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the surface continually reshaped as continents
formed and (roke up. /he continents migrated across the surface, occasionally com(ining to form
a supercontinent. Eoughly 61& million years ago (:a), one of the earliest kno,n supercontinents, Eodinia,
(egan to (reak apart. /he continents later recom(ined to form #annotia, *&&@10& :a, then
finally #angaea, ,hich (roke apart .;& :a.
$03'
Evolution of life
Main article: E!olutionary history of life
5t present, Earth pro4ides the only e-ample of an en4ironment that has gi4en rise to the e4olution of life.
$00'
+ighly energetic chemistry is (elie4ed to ha4e produced a self-replicating molecule around 0 (illion
yearsago and half a (illion years later the last common ancestor of all life e-isted.
$01'
/he de4elopment
of photosynthesis allo,ed the Sun!s energy to (e har4ested directly (y life formsF the resultant o-ygen
accumulated in the atmosphere and formed a layer of o2one (a form of molecular o-ygen $B3') in the upper
atmosphere. /he incorporation of smaller cells ,ithin larger ones resulted in the de4elopment of comple-
cells calledeukaryotes.
$0*'
/rue multicellular organisms formed as cells ,ithin colonies (ecame increasingly
speciali2ed. 5ided (y the a(sorption of harmful ultra4iolet radiation (y the o2one layer, life coloni2ed the
surface of Earth.
$06'
Since the .A*&s, it has (een hypothesi2ed that se4ere glacial action (et,een 61& and 1;& :a, during
the Ceoprotero2oic, co4ered much of the planet in a sheet of ice. /his hypothesis has (een termed
GSno,(all EarthG, and is of particular interest (ecause it preceded the =am(rian e-plosion, ,hen
multicellular life forms (egan to proliferate.
$0;'
Follo,ing the =am(rian e-plosion, a(out 131 :a, there ha4e (een fi4e ma9or mass e-tinctions.
$0A'
/he most
recent such e4ent ,as *1 :a, ,hen an asteroid impact triggered the e-tinction of the (non-
a4ian)dinosaurs and other large reptiles, (ut spared some small animals such as mammals, ,hich then
resem(led shre,s. B4er the past *1 million years, mammalian life has di4ersified, and se4eral million years
ago an 5frican ape-like animal such as "rrorin tugenensis gained the a(ility to stand upright.
$1&'
/his
ena(led tool use and encouraged communication that pro4ided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a
larger (rain, ,hich allo,ed the e4olution of the human race. /he de4elopment of agriculture, and then
ci4ili2ation, allo,ed humans to influence the Earth in a short time span as no other life form had,
$1.'
affecting
(oth the nature and 8uantity of other life forms.
/he present pattern of ice ages (egan a(out 0& :a and then intensified during the #leistocene a(out 3 :a.
+igh-latitude regions ha4e since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and tha,, repeating e4ery 0&@
.&&,&&& years. /he last continental glaciation ended .&,&&& years ago.
$1%'
Future
Main article: Future of the Earth
See also: #is$s to ci!ili%ation, humans and planet Earth
/he life cycle of the Sun
/he future of the planet is closely tied to that of the Sun. 5s a result of the steady accumulation of helium at
the Sun!s core, the star!s total luminosity ,ill slo,ly increase. /he luminosity of the Sun ,ill gro, (y .&7
o4er the ne-t ... Hyr (... (illion years) and (y 0&7 o4er the ne-t 3.1 Hyr.
$13'
=limate models indicate that
the rise in radiation reaching the Earth is likely to ha4e dire conse8uences, including the loss of the planet!s
oceans.
$10'
/he Earth!s increasing surface temperature ,ill accelerate the inorganic =B% cycle , reducing its
concentration to le4els lethally lo, for plants (.& ppm for =0 photosynthesis) in appro-imately 1&&
million
$%0'
toA&& million years. /he lack of 4egetation ,ill result in the loss of o-ygen in the atmosphere, so
animal life ,ill (ecome e-tinct ,ithin se4eral million more years.
$11'
5fter another (illion years all surface
,ater ,ill ha4e disappeared
$%1'
and the mean glo(al temperature ,ill reach 6& <=
$11'
(.1; <F). /he Earth is
e-pected to (e effecti4ely ha(ita(le for a(out another 1&& million years from that point,
$%0'
although this may
(e e-tended up to %.3 (illion years if the nitrogen is remo4ed from the atmosphere.
$1*'
E4en if the Sun ,ere
eternal and sta(le, the continued internal cooling of the Earth ,ould result in a loss of much of its =B% due
to reduced 4olcanism,
$16'
and 317 of the ,ater in the oceans ,ould descend to the mantle due to reduced
steam 4enting from mid-ocean ridges.
$1;'
/he Sun, as part of its e4olution, ,ill (ecome a red giant in a(out 1 Hyr. :odels predict that the Sun ,ill
e-pand out to a(out %1& times its present radius, roughly . 5I (.1&,&&&,&&& km).
$13'$1A'
Earth!s fate is less
clear. 5s a red giant, the Sun ,ill lose roughly 3&7 of its mass, so, ,ithout tidal effects, the Earth ,ill mo4e
to an or(it ..6 5I (%1&,&&&,&&& km) from the Sun ,hen the star reaches it ma-imum radius. /he planet
,as therefore initially e-pected to escape en4elopment (y the e-panded Sun!s sparse outer atmosphere,
though most, if not all, remaining life ,ould ha4e (een destroyed (y the Sun!s increased luminosity
(peaking at a(out 1&&& times its present le4el).
$13'
+o,e4er, a %&&; simulation indicates that Earth!s or(it
,ill decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the red giant Sun!s atmosphere and (e
4apori2ed.
$1A'
=omposition and structure
Main article: Earth science
Further information: Earth physical characteristics tables
Earth is a terrestrial planet, meaning that it is a rocky (ody, rather than a gas giant like Jupiter. t is the
largest of the four solar terrestrial planets in si2e and mass. Bf these four planets, Earth also has the
highest density, the highest surface gra4ity, the strongest magnetic field, and fastest rotation.
$*&'
t also is
the only terrestrial planet ,ith acti4e plate tectonics.
$*.'
Shape
Main article: Figure of the Earth
Si2e comparison of inner planets (left to right)D :ercury, Kenus, Earth and :ars
/he shape of the Earth is 4ery close to that of an o(late spheroid, a sphere flattened along the a-is from
pole to pole such that there is a (ulge around the e8uator.
$*%'
/his (ulge results from the rotation of the
Earth, and causes the diameter at the e8uator to (e 03 km larger than the pole to pole diameter.
$*3'
/he
a4erage diameter of the reference spheroid is a(out .%,60% km, ,hich is appro-imately 0&,&&& km/L, as
the meter ,as originally defined as ./.&,&&&,&&& of the distance from the e8uator to theCorth
#ole through #aris, France.
$*0'
)ocal topography de4iates from this ideali2ed spheroid, though on a glo(al scale, these de4iations are 4ery
smallD Earth has a tolerance of a(out one part in a(out 1;0, or &..67, from the reference spheroid, ,hich
is less than the &.%%7 tolerance allo,ed in (illiard (alls.
$*1'
/he largest local de4iations in the rocky surface
of the Earth are:ount E4erest (;;0; m a(o4e local sea le4el) and the :ariana /rench (.&,A.. m (elo,
local sea le4el). "ecause of the e8uatorial (ulge, the surface locations farthest from the center of the Earth
are the summits of :ount =him(ora2o in Ecuador and +uascarMn in #eru.
$**'$*6'$*;'
$hemical composition o! the crust
[&#!
$ompound #ormula
$omposition
$ontinental Oceanic
silica .i?2 &0.25 *$.&5
alumina (l2?% ".25 &."5
lime :a? "."5 2.%5
magnesia Mg? %.5 &.$5
iron2AA3 o>i+e @e? %.$5 &.25
so+ium o>i+e =a2? %.05 2.&5
potassium o>i+e 82? 2.$5 0.*5
iron2AAA3 o>i+e @e2?% 2."5 2.%5
6ater B2? .*5 .5
carbon +io>i+e :?2 .25 .*5
titanium +io>i+e Ti?2 0.'5 .*5
phosphorus
pento>i+e
;2?" 0.25 0.%5
(otal ))&*+ ))&)+
Chemical composition
See also: &bundance of elements on Earth
/he mass of the Earth is appro-imately 1.A;N.&
%0
kg. t is composed mostly of iron (3%..7), o-ygen
(3&..7), silicon (.1..7), magnesium (.3.A7),sulfur (%.A7), nickel (..;7), calcium (..17),
and aluminium (..07)F ,ith the remaining ..%7 consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Oue
to mass segregation, the core region is (elie4ed to (e primarily composed of iron (;;.;7), ,ith smaller
amounts of nickel (1.;7), sulfur (0.17), and less than .7 trace elements.
$6&'
/he geochemist F. W. =larke calculated that a little more than 067 of the Earth!s crust consists of o-ygen.
/he more common rock constituents of the Earth!s crust are nearly all o-idesF chlorine, sulfur and fluorine
are the only important e-ceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than .7.
/he principal o-ides are silica, alumina, iron o-ides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda. /he silica functions
principally as an acid, forming silicates, and all the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature.
From a computation (ased on .,*6% analyses of all kinds of rocks, =larke deduced that AA.%%7 ,ere
composed of .. o-ides (see the ta(le at right). 5ll the other constituents occur only in 4ery small 8uantities.
$6.'
Internal structure
Main article: Structure of the Earth
/he interior of the Earth, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is di4ided into layers (y their chemical or
physical (rheological) properties, (ut unlike the other terrestrial planets, it has a distinct outer and inner
core. /he outer layer of the Earth is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, ,hich is underlain (y a
highly 4iscous solid mantle. /he crust is separated from the mantle (y the :ohoro4iPiQ discontinuity, and
the thickness of the crust 4ariesD a4eraging * km under the oceans and 3&@1& km on the continents. /he
crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collecti4ely kno,n as the lithosphere, and it is of the
lithosphere that the tectonic plates are comprised. "eneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a
relati4ely lo,-4iscosity layer on ,hich the lithosphere rides. mportant changes in crystal structure ,ithin
the mantle occur at 0.& and **& kilometers (elo, the surface, spanning a transition 2one that separates
the upper and lo,er mantle. "eneath the mantle, an e-tremely lo, 4iscosity li8uid outer core lies a(o4e a
solid inner core.
$6%'
/he inner core may rotate at a slightly higher angular 4elocity than the remainder of the
planet, ad4ancing (y &..@&.1< per year.
$63'
,eologic layers o! the Earth
['*!
Earth cuta-ay !rom core to exosphere& .ot to scale&
Heat
Earth!s internal heat comes from a com(ination of residual heat from planetary accretion (a(out %&7) and
heat produced through radioacti4e decay (;&7).
$6*'
/he ma9or heat-producing isotopes in the Earth
arepotassium-0&, uranium-%3;, uranium-%31, and thorium-%3%.
$66'
5t the center of the planet, the
temperature may (e up to 6,&&& R and the pressure could reach 3*& H#a.
$6;'
"ecause much of the heat is
pro4ided (y radioacti4e decay, scientists (elie4e that early in Earth history, (efore isotopes ,ith short half-
li4es had (een depleted, Earth!s heat production ,ould ha4e (een much higher. /his e-tra heat production,
t,ice present-day at appro-imately 3 (illion years ago,
$6*'
,ould ha4e increased temperature gradients
,ithin the Earth, increasing the rates of mantle con4ection and plate tectonics, and allo,ing the production
of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are not formed today.
$6A'
Present-day major heat-producing isotopes
[$0!
Isotope
/eat release
012g isotope
/al!-li!e
years
Mean mantle concentration
2g isotope12g mantle
/eat release
012g mantle
2%$
) #.*& 7 0
F"
*.*' 7 0
#
%0.$ 7 0
F#
2.# 7 0
F2
2%"
) ".&# 7 0
F*
'.0* 7 0
$
0.22 7 0
F#
.2" 7 0
F%
2%2
Th 2.&* 7 0
F"
.*0 7 0
0
2* 7 0
F#
%.2' 7 0
F2
*0
8 2.#2 7 0
F"
.2" 7 0
#
%&.# 7 0
F#
.0$ 7 0
F2
/he mean heat loss from the Earth is ;6 mW m
S%
, for a glo(al heat loss of 0.0% N .&
.3
W.
$;.'
5 portion of the
core!s thermal energy is transported to,ard the crust (y mantle plumesF a form of con4ection consisting of
up,ellings of higher-temperature rock. /hese plumes can produce hotspots and flood (asalts.
$;%'
:ore of
the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, (y mantle up,elling associated ,ith mid-ocean ridges.
/he final ma9or mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the ma9ority of ,hich
occurs in the oceans (ecause the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.
$;3'
Tectonic plates
Earth3s main plates
[$*!

Plate name
Area
45
*
2m
6
(frican ;late
[note !
'$.0
(ntarctic ;late &0.#
An+o9(ustralian ;late *'.2
Eurasian ;late &'.$
=orth (merican ;late '".#
.outh (merican ;late *%.&
;acific ;late 0%.%
Main article: 'late tectonics
/he mechanically rigid outer layer of the Earth, the lithosphere, is (roken into pieces called tectonic plates.
/hese plates are rigid segments that mo4e in relation to one another at one of three types of plate
(oundariesD =on4ergent (oundaries, at ,hich t,o plates come together, Oi4ergent (oundaries, at ,hich
t,o plates are pulled apart, and /ransform (oundaries, in ,hich t,o plates slide past one another
laterally. Earth8uakes, 4olcanic acti4ity, mountain-(uilding, and oceanic trenchformation can occur along
these plate (oundaries.
$;1'
/he tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid (ut less-4iscous
part of the upper mantle that can flo, and mo4e along ,ith the plates,
$;*'
and their motion is strongly
coupled ,ith con4ection patterns inside the Earth!s mantle.
5s the tectonic plates migrate across the planet, the ocean floor is su(ducted under the leading edges of
the plates at con4ergent (oundaries. 5t the same time, the up,elling of mantle material at di4ergent
(oundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. /he com(ination of these processes continually recycles the oceanic
crust (ack into the mantle. "ecause of this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than .&& million years
in age. /he oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western #acific, and has an estimated age of a(out %&&
million years.
$;6'$;;'
"y comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 0&3& million years old.
$;A'
Bther nota(le plates include the ndian #late, the 5ra(ian #late, the =ari((ean #late, the Ca2ca #late off
the ,est coast of South 5merica and the Scotia #late in the southern 5tlantic Bcean. /he 5ustralian #late
fused ,ith the ndian #late (et,een 1& and 11 million years ago. /he fastest-mo4ing plates are the oceanic
plates, ,ith the =ocos #late ad4ancing at a rate of 61 mm/yr
$A&'
and the #acific #late mo4ing 1%@*A mm/yr.
5t the other e-treme, the slo,est-mo4ing plate is the Eurasian #late, progressing at a typical rate of a(out
%. mm/yr.
$A.'
Surface
Main articles: (andform and E)treme points of Earth
/he Earth!s terrain 4aries greatly from place to place. 5(out 6&.;7
$A%'
of the surface is co4ered (y ,ater,
,ith much of the continental shelf (elo, sea le4el. /he su(merged surface has mountainous features,
including a glo(e-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as ,ell as undersea 4olcanoes,
$*3'
oceanic
trenches, su(marine canyons, oceanic plateaus and a(yssal plains. /he remaining %A.%7 not co4ered (y
,ater consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and othergeomorphologies.
/he planetary surface undergoes reshaping o4er geological time periods (ecause of tectonics and erosion.
/he surface features (uilt up or deformed through plate tectonics are su(9ect to
steady ,eathering fromprecipitation, thermal cycles, and chemical effects. Hlaciation, coastal erosion, the
(uild-up of coral reefs, and large meteorite impacts
$A3'
also act to reshape the landscape.
#resent day Earth altimetry and (athymetry. Oata from theCational Heophysical Oata =enter!s /errain"ase Oigital
/errain :odel.
/he continental crust consists of lo,er density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite.
)ess common is (asalt, a denser 4olcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.
$A0'
Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that (ecomes compacted together.
Cearly 617 of the continental surfaces are co4ered (y sedimentary rocks, although they form only a(out
17 of the crust.
$A1'
/he third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock, ,hich is created
from the transformation of pre-e-isting rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or (oth. /he
most a(undant silicate minerals on the Earth!s surface include 8uart2,
the feldspars, amphi(ole, mica, pyro-ene and oli4ine.
$A*'
=ommon car(onate minerals include calcite (found
in limestone) and dolomite.
$A6'
/he pedosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and su(9ect to soil formation
processes. t e-ists at the interface of thelithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and (iosphere. =urrently
the total ara(le land is .3.3.7 of the land surface, ,ith only 0.6.7 supporting permanent crops.
$.3'
=lose to
0&7 of the Earth!s land surface is presently used for cropland and pasture, or an estimated ..3N.&
6
km
%
of
cropland and 3.0N.&
6
km
%
of pastureland.
$A;'
/he ele4ation of the land surface of the Earth 4aries from the lo, point of S0.; m at the Oead Sea, to a
%&&1-estimated ma-imum altitude of ;,;0; m at the top of :ount E4erest. /he mean height of land a(o4e
sea le4el is ;0& m.
$AA'
Hydrosphere
Main article: Hydrosphere
Ele4ation histogram of the surface of the Earth
/he a(undance of ,ater on Earth!s surface is a uni8ue feature that distinguishes the G"lue #lanetG from
others in the Solar System. /he Earth!s hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, (ut technically includes
all ,ater surfaces in the ,orld, including inland seas, lakes, ri4ers, and underground ,aters do,n to a
depth of %,&&& m. /he deepest under,ater location is =hallenger Oeep of the :ariana /rench in the #acific
Bcean ,ith a depth of S.&,A...0 m.
$note .%'$.&&'
/he mass of the oceans is appro-imately ..31N.&
.;
metric tons, or a(out ./00&& of the total mass of the
Earth. /he oceans co4er an area of 3.*.;N.&
;
km
%
,ith a mean depth of 3,*;% m, resulting in an estimated
4olume of ..33%N.&
A
km
3
.
$.&.'
f all the land on Earth ,ere spread e4enly, ,ater ,ould rise to an altitude of
more than %.6 km.
$note .3'
5(out A6.17 of the ,ater is saline, ,hile the remaining %.17 is fresh ,ater. :ost
fresh ,ater, a(out *;.67, is currently ice.
$.&%'
/he a4erage salinity of the Earth!s oceans is a(out 31 grams of salt per kilogram of sea ,ater (31 T).
$.&3'
:ost of this salt ,as released from 4olcanic acti4ity or e-tracted from cool, igneous rocks.
$.&0'
/he
oceans are also a reser4oir of dissol4ed atmospheric gases, ,hich are essential for the sur4i4al of many
a8uatic life forms.
$.&1'
Sea ,ater has an important influence on the ,orld!s climate, ,ith the oceans acting
as a large heat reser4oir.
$.&*'
Shifts in the oceanic temperature distri(ution can cause significant ,eather
shifts, such as the El CiUo-Southern Bscillation.
$.&6'
Atmosphere
Main article: &tmosphere of Earth
/he atmospheric pressure on the surface of the Earth a4erages .&..3%1 k#a, ,ith a scale height of a(out
;.1 km.
$3'
t is 6;7 nitrogen and %.7 o-ygen, ,ith trace amounts of ,ater 4apor, car(on dio-ide and other
gaseous molecules. /he height of the troposphere 4aries ,ith latitude, ranging (et,een ; km at the poles
to .6 km at the e8uator, ,ith some 4ariation resulting from ,eather and seasonal factors.
$.&;'
Earth!s (iosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. B-ygenic photosynthesis e4ol4ed %.6
(illion years ago, forming the primarily nitrogen-o-ygen atmosphere of today. /his change ena(led the
proliferation ofaero(ic organisms as ,ell as the formation of the o2one layer ,hich (locks ultra4iolet solar
radiation, permitting life on land. Bther atmospheric functions important to life on Earth include transporting
,ater 4apor, pro4iding useful gases, causing small meteors to (urn up (efore they strike the surface, and
moderating temperature.
$.&A'
/his last phenomenon is kno,n as the greenhouse effectD trace molecules
,ithin the atmosphere ser4e to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, there(y raising the
a4erage temperature. =ar(on dio-ide, ,ater 4apor, methane and o2one are the primary greenhouse
gases in the Earth!s atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the a4erage surface temperature ,ould
(e S.; <= and life ,ould likely not e-ist.
$A%'
Weather and climate
Main articles: *eather and +limate
Satellite cloud co4er image of Earth usingC5S5!s :oderate-Eesolution maging Spectroradiometer
/he Earth!s atmosphere has no definite (oundary, slo,ly (ecoming thinner and fading into outer space.
/hree-8uarters of the atmosphere!s mass is contained ,ithin the first .. km of the planet!s surface. /his
lo,est layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface (elo,,
causing e-pansion of the air. /his lo,er density air then rises, and is replaced (y cooler, higher density air.
/he result is atmospheric circulation that dri4es the ,eather and climate through redistri(ution of heat
energy.
$..&'
/he primary atmospheric circulation (ands consist of the trade ,inds in the e8uatorial region (elo, 3&<
latitude and the ,esterlies in the mid-latitudes (et,een 3&< and *&<.
$...'
Bcean currents are also important
factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distri(utes heat energy from the
e8uatorial oceans to the polar regions.
$..%'
Water 4apor generated through surface e4aporation is transported (y circulatory patterns in the
atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of ,arm, humid air, this ,ater condenses and
settles to the surface as precipitation.
$..&'
:ost of the ,ater is then transported to lo,er ele4ations (y ri4er
systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. /his ,ater cycle is a 4ital mechanism
for supporting life on land, and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features o4er geological periods.
#recipitation patterns 4ary ,idely, ranging from se4eral meters of ,ater per year to less than a
millimeter. 5tmospheric circulation, topological features and temperature differences determine the a4erage
precipitation that falls in each region.
$..3'
/he amount of solar energy reaching the Earth!s decreases ,ith increasing latitude. 5t higher latitudes the
sunlight reaches the surface at a lo,er angles and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere.
5s a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea le4el decreases (y a(out &.0<= per per degree of
latitude a,ay from the e8uator.
$..0'
/he Earth can (e su(-di4ided into specific latitudinal (elts of
appro-imately homogeneous climate. Eanging from the e8uator to the polar regions, these are
the tropical (or e8uatorial), su(tropical, temperate and polar climates.
$..1'
=limate can also (e classified
(ased on the temperature and precipitation, ,ith the climate regions characteri2ed (y fairly uniform air
masses. /he commonly used RVppen climate classification system (as modified (y Wladimir RVppen!s
student Eudolph Heiger) has fi4e (road groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle latitudes, continental and
cold polar), ,hich are further di4ided into more specific su(types.
$...'
Upper atmosphere
/his 4ie, from or(it sho,s the full :oon partially o(scured and deformed (y the Earth!s atmosphere. ,&S& image
See also: "uter space
5(o4e the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually di4ided into the stratosphere, mesosphere,
and thermosphere.
$.&A'
Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature ,ith
height. "eyond these, the e-osphere thins out into the magnetosphere, ,here the Earth!s magnetic fields
interact ,ith the solar ,ind.
$..*'
Within the stratosphere is the o2one layer, a component that partially shields
the surface from ultra4iolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. /he RMrmMn line, defined as .&& km
a(o4e the Earth!s surface, is a ,orking definition for the (oundary (et,een atmosphere and space.
$..6'
/hermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the Earth!s atmosphere ha4e their
4elocity increased to the point ,here they can escape from the planet!s gra4ity. /his results in a slo, (ut
steady leakage of the atmosphere into space. "ecause unfi-ed hydrogen has a lo, molecular ,eight, it
can achie4e escape 4elocity more readily and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gasses.
$..;'
/he leakage of hydrogen into space contri(utes to the pushing of the Earth from an
initially reducing state to its current o-idi2ing one. #hotosynthesis pro4ided a source of free o-ygen, (ut the
loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is (elie4ed to ha4e (een a necessary precondition for the
,idespread accumulation of o-ygen in the atmosphere.
$..A'
+ence the a(ility of hydrogen to escape from
the Earth!s atmosphere may ha4e influenced the nature of life that de4eloped on the planet.
$.%&'
n the
current, o-ygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is con4erted into ,ater (efore it has an opportunity to
escape. nstead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper
atmosphere.
$.%.'
Magnetic field
Schematic of Earth!s magnetosphere. /he solar ,indflo,s from left to right
Main article: Earth-s magnetic field
/he Earth!s magnetic field is shaped roughly as a magnetic dipole, ,ith the poles currently located
pro-imate to the planet!s geographic poles. 5t the e8uator of the magnetic field, the magnetic field strength
at the planet!s surface is 3.&1 N .&
S1
/, ,ith glo(al magnetic dipole moment of6.A. N .&
.1
/ m
3
.
$.%%'
5ccording to dynamo theory, the field is generated ,ithin the molten outer core region ,here heat
creates con4ection motions of conducting materials, generating electric currents. /hese in turn produce the
Earth!s magnetic field. /he con4ection mo4ements in the core are chaoticF the magnetic poles drift and
periodically change alignment. /his results in field re4ersals at irregular inter4als a4eraging a fe, times
e4ery million years. /he most recent re4ersal occurred appro-imately 6&&,&&& years ago.
$.%3'$.%0'
/he field forms the magnetosphere, ,hich deflects particles in the solar ,ind. /he sun,ard edge of
the (o, shock is located at a(out .3 times the radius of the Earth. /he collision (et,een the magnetic field
and the solar ,ind forms the Kan 5llen radiation (elts, a pair of concentric, torus-shaped regions of
energetic charged particles. When the plasma enters the Earth!s atmosphere at the magnetic poles, it
forms the aurora.
$.%1'
Br(it and rotation
otation
Main article: Earth-s rotation
Earth!s a-ial tilt (or o(li8uity) and its relation to therotation a-is and plane of or(it
Earth!s rotation period relati4e to the Sun?its mean solar day?is ;*,0&& seconds of mean solar time
(;*,0&&.&&%1 S seconds).
$.%*'
5s the Earth!s solar day is no, slightly longer than it ,as during the .Ath
century (ecause of tidal acceleration, each day 4aries (et,een & and % S ms longer.
$.%6'$.%;'
Earth!s rotation period relati4e to the fi-ed stars, called its stellar day (y the nternational Earth Eotation
and Eeference Systems Ser4ice (EES), is;*.*0.&A;A&3*A. seconds of mean solar time (I/.),
or %3
h
1*
m
0.&A;A&3*A.
s
.
$%'$note .0'
Earth!s rotation period relati4e to the precessing or mo4ing mean
4ernale8uino-, misnamed its sidereal day, is ;*.*0.&A&13&;3%;; seconds of mean solar time
(I/.) (%3
h
1*
m
0.&A&13&;3%;;
s
).
$%'
/hus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day (y a(out ;.0 ms.
$.%A'
/he length of the mean solar day in S seconds is a4aila(le from the EES for the periods .*%3@
%&&1
$.3&'
and .A*%@%&&1.
$.3.'
5part from meteors ,ithin the atmosphere and lo,-or(iting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial
(odies in the Earth!s sky is to the ,est at a rate of .1</h W .1!/min. For (odies near the celestial e8uator,
this is e8ui4alent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or :oon e4ery t,o minutesF from the planet!s surface,
the apparent si2es of the Sun and the :oon are appro-imately the same.
$.3%'$.33'
!r"it
Main article: Earth-s orbit
Earth or(its the Sun at an a4erage distance of a(out .1& million kilometers e4ery 3*1.%1*0 mean solar
days, or one sidereal year. From Earth, this gi4es an apparent mo4ement of the Sun east,ard ,ith respect
to the stars at a rate of a(out .</day, or a Sun or :oon diameter, e4ery .% hours. "ecause of this motion,
on a4erage it takes %0 hours?a solar day?for Earth to complete a full rotation a(out its a-is so that the
Sun returns to the meridian. /he or(ital speed of the Earth a4erages a(out %A.; km/s (.&6,&&& km/h),
,hich is fast enough to co4er the planet!s diameter (a(out .%,*&& km) in se4en minutes, and the distance
to the :oon (3;0,&&& km) in four hours.
$3'
/he :oon re4ol4es ,ith the Earth around a common (arycenter e4ery %6.3% days relati4e to the
(ackground stars. When com(ined ,ith the Earth@:oon system!s common re4olution around the Sun, the
period of the synodic month, from ne, moon to ne, moon, is %A.13 days. Kie,ed from the celestial north
pole, the motion of Earth, the :oon and their a-ial rotations are all counter-clock,ise. Kie,ed from a
4antage point a(o4e the north poles of (oth the Sun and the Earth, the Earth appears to re4ol4e in a
counterclock,ise direction a(out the Sun. /he or(ital and a-ial planes are not precisely alignedD
Earth!s a-is is tilted some %3.0 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth@Sun plane, and the Earth@
:oon plane is tilted a(out 1 degrees against the Earth-Sun plane. Without this tilt, there ,ould (e an
eclipse e4ery t,o ,eeks, alternating (et,een lunar eclipses and solar eclipses.
$3'$.30'
/he +ill sphere, or gra4itational sphere of influence, of the Earth is a(out ..1 Hm (or .,1&&,&&& kilometers)
in radius.
$.31'$note .1'
/his is ma-imum distance at ,hich the Earth!s gra4itational influence is stronger than the
more distant Sun and planets. B(9ects must or(it the Earth ,ithin this radius, or they can (ecome un(ound
(y the gra4itational pertur(ation of the Sun.
llustration of the :ilky Way Hala-y, sho,ing the location of the Sun
Earth, along ,ith the Solar System, is situated in the :ilky Way gala-y, or(iting a(out %;,&&& light
years from the center of the gala-y. t is currently a(out %& light years a(o4e the gala-y!s e8uatorial
plane in the Brion spiral arm.
$.3*'
A#ial tilt and seasons
Main article: &)ial tilt
"ecause of the a-ial tilt of the Earth, the amount of sunlight reaching any gi4en point on the surface 4aries
o4er the course of the year. /his results in seasonal change in climate, ,ith summer in the northern
hemisphere occurring ,hen the Corth #ole is pointing to,ard the Sun, and ,inter taking place ,hen the
pole is pointed a,ay. Ouring the summer, the day lasts longer and the Sun clim(s higher in the sky. n
,inter, the climate (ecomes generally cooler and the days shorter. 5(o4e the 5rctic =ircle, an e-treme
case is reached ,here there is no daylight at all for part of the year?a polar night. n the southern
hemisphere the situation is e-actly re4ersed, ,ith the South #ole oriented opposite the direction of the
Corth #ole.
Earth and :oon from :ars, imaged (y:ars Eeconnaissance Br(iter. From space, the Earth can (e seen to go through
phases similar to the phases of the :oon.
"y astronomical con4ention, the four seasons are determined (y the solstices?the point in the or(it of
ma-imum a-ial tilt to,ard or a,ay from the Sun?and the e8uino-es, ,hen the direction of the tilt and the
direction to the Sun are perpendicular. n the northern hemisphere, Winter Solstice occurs on a(out
Oecem(er %., Summer Solstice is near June %., Spring E8uino- is around :arch %& and 5utumnal
E8uino- is a(out Septem(er %3. n the Southern hemisphere, the situation is re4ersed, ,ith the Summer
and Winter Solstices e-changed and the Spring and 5utumnal E8uino- dates s,itched.
$.36'
/he angle of the Earth!s tilt is relati4ely sta(le o4er long periods of time. +o,e4er, the tilt does
undergo nutationF a slight, irregular motion ,ith a main period of .;.* years.
$.3;'
/he orientation (rather than
the angle) of the Earth!s a-is also changes o4er time, precessing around in a complete circle o4er each
%1,;&& year cycleF this precession is the reason for the difference (et,een a sidereal year and a tropical
year. "oth of these motions are caused (y the 4arying attraction of the Sun and :oon on the Earth!s
e8uatorial (ulge. From the perspecti4e of the Earth, the poles also migrate a fe, meters across the
surface. /his polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, ,hich collecti4ely are termed 8uasiperiodic
motion. n addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a .0-month cycle called the =handler
,o((le. /he rotational 4elocity of the Earth also 4aries in a phenomenon kno,n as length of day 4ariation.
$.3A'
n modern times, Earth!s perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 0. +o,e4er,
these dates change o4er time due to precession and other or(ital factors, ,hich follo, cyclical patterns
kno,n as :ilanko4itch cycles. /he changing Earth-Sun distance results in an increase of a(out *.A7
$note
.*'
in solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relati4e to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is
tilted to,ard the Sun at a(out the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the
southern hemisphere recei4es slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern o4er the course of
a year. +o,e4er, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the a-ial tilt, and
most of the e-cess energy is a(sor(ed (y the higher proportion of ,ater in the southern hemisphere.
$.0&'
:oon
$haracteristics
Diameter %,*'*.$ km
Mass '.%*#70
22
kg
Semi-major axis %$*,*00 km
Orbital period 2' + ' h *%.' m
Main article: Moon
/he :oon is a relati4ely large, terrestrial, planet-like satellite, ,ith a diameter a(out one-8uarter of the
Earth!s. t is the largest moon in the Solar System relati4e to the si2e of its planet, although =haron is larger
relati4e to the d,arf planet #luto. /he natural satellites or(iting other planets are called GmoonsG after
Earth!s :oon.
/he gra4itational attraction (et,een the Earth and :oon causes tides on Earth. /he same effect on the
:oon has led to its tidal lockingD its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to or(it the Earth. 5s a
result, it al,ays presents the same face to the planet. 5s the :oon or(its Earth, different parts of its face
are illuminated (y the Sun, leading to the lunar phasesF the dark part of the face is separated from the light
part (y the solar terminator.
"ecause of their tidal interaction, the :oon recedes from Earth at the rate of appro-imately 3; mm a year.
B4er millions of years, these tiny modifications?and the lengthening of Earth!s day (y a(out %3 Xs a year
?add up to significant changes.
$.0.'
Ouring the Oe4onian period, for e-ample, (appro-imately 0.&
million years ago) there ,ere 0&& days in a year, ,ith each day lasting %..; hours.
$.0%'
Oetails of the Earth-:oon system. "esides the radius of each o(9ect, the radius to the Earth-:oon (arycenter is sho,n.
#hotos from C5S5. Oata from C5S5. /he :oon!s a-is is located (y =assini!s third la,.
/he :oon may ha4e dramatically affected the de4elopment of life (y moderating the planet!s
climate. #aleontological e4idence and computer simulations sho, that Earth!s a-ial tilt is sta(ili2ed (y tidal
interactions ,ith the :oon.
$.03'
Some theorists (elie4e that ,ithout this sta(ili2ation against
the tor8uesapplied (y the Sun and planets to the Earth!s e8uatorial (ulge, the rotational a-is might (e
chaotically unsta(le, e-hi(iting chaotic changes o4er millions of years, as appears to (e the case for :ars.
$.00'
Kie,ed from Earth, the :oon is 9ust far enough a,ay to ha4e 4ery nearly the same apparent-si2ed disk as
the Sun. /he angular si2e (or solid angle) of these t,o (odies match (ecause, although the Sun!s diameter
is a(out 0&& times as large as the :oon!s, it is also 0&& times more distant.
$.33'
/his allo,s total and
annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.
/he most ,idely accepted theory of the :oon!s origin, the giant impact theory, states that it formed from
the collision of a :ars-si2e protoplanet called /heia ,ith the early Earth. /his hypothesis e-plains (among
other things) the :oon!s relati4e lack of iron and 4olatile elements, and the fact that its composition is
nearly identical to that of the Earth!s crust.
$.01'
Earth has at least fi4e co-or(ital asteroids, including 3613 =ruithne and %&&% 55%A.
$.0*'$.06'
5s of %&.., there
are A3. operational, man-made satellitesor(iting the Earth.
$.0;'
5 scale representation of the relati4e si2es of, and a4erage distance (et,een, Earth and :oon
+a(ita(ility
See also: 'lanetary habitability
5 planet that can sustain life is termed ha(ita(le, e4en if life did not originate there. /he Earth pro4ides the
(currently understood) re8uisite conditions of li8uid ,ater, an en4ironment ,here comple- organic
molecules can assem(le, and sufficient energy to sustain meta(olism.
$.0A'
/he distance of the Earth from
the Sun, as ,ell as its or(ital eccentricity, rate of rotation, a-ial tilt, geological history, sustaining
atmosphere and protecti4e magnetic field all contri(ute to the conditions (elie4ed necessary to originate
and sustain life on this planet.
$.1&'
$iosphere
Main article: .iosphere
/he planet!s life forms are sometimes said to form a G(iosphereG. /his (iosphere is generally (elie4ed to
ha4e (egun e4ol4ing a(out 3.1 (illion years ago. Earth is the only place ,here life is kno,n to e-ist. /he
(iosphere is di4ided into a num(er of (iomes, inha(ited (y (roadly similar plants and animals. Bn land,
(iomes are separated primarily (y differences in latitude, height a(o4e sea le4el and humidity.
/errestrial(iomes lying ,ithin the 5rctic or 5ntarctic =ircles, at high altitudes or in e-tremely arid areas are
relati4ely (arren of plant and animal lifeF species di4ersity reaches a peak in humid lo,lands at e8uatorial
latitudes.
$.1.'
%atural resources and land use
Main article: ,atural resource
/he Earth pro4ides resources that are e-ploita(le (y humans for useful purposes. Some of these are non-
rene,a(le resources, such as mineral fuels, that are difficult to replenish on a short time scale.
)arge deposits of fossil fuels are o(tained from the Earth!s crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, natural
gas and methane clathrate. /hese deposits are used (y humans (oth for energy production and as
feedstock for chemical production. :ineral ore (odies ha4e also (een formed in Earth!s crust through a
process of Bre genesis, resulting from actions of erosion and plate tectonics.
$.1%'
/hese (odies form
concentrated sources for many metals and other useful elements.
/he Earth!s (iosphere produces many useful (iological products for humans, including ((ut far from limited
to) food, ,ood, pharmaceuticals, o-ygen, and the recycling of many organic ,astes. /he land-
(asedecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh ,ater, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon
dissol4ed nutrients ,ashed do,n from the land.
$.13'
+umans also li4e on the land (y using (uilding
materials to construct shelters. n .AA3, human use of land is appro-imatelyD
and use (rable lan+ ;ermanent crops ;ermanent pastures @orests an+ 6oo+lan+ )rban areas ?ther
Percentag
e
%.%5
[%!
*.'5
[%!
2&5 %25 ."5 %05
/he estimated amount of irrigated land in .AA3 ,as %,0;.,%1& km
%
.
$.3'
%atural and environmental ha&ards
)arge areas of the Earth!s surface are su(9ect to e-treme ,eather such as tropical cyclones, hurricanes,
or typhoons that dominate life in those areas. :any places are su(9ect
to earth8uakes, landslides,tsunamis, 4olcanic eruptions, tornadoes, sinkholes, (li22ards, floods, droughts,
and other calamities and disasters.
:any locali2ed areas are su(9ect to human-made pollution of the air and ,ater, acid rain and to-ic
su(stances, loss of 4egetation (o4ergra2ing, deforestation, desertification), loss of ,ildlife, species
e-tinction, soil degradation, soil depletion, erosion, and introduction of in4asi4e species.
5ccording to the Inited Cations, a scientific consensus e-ists linking human acti4ities to glo(al
,arming due to industrial car(on dio-ide emissions. /his is predicted to produce changes such as the
melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more e-treme temperature ranges, significant changes in ,eather and
a glo(al rise in a4erage sea le4els.
$.10'
Human geography
Main article: Human geography
See also: *orld
=artography, the study and practice of map making, and 4icariously geography, ha4e historically (een the
disciplines de4oted to depicting the Earth. Sur4eying, the determination of locations and distances, and to a
lesser e-tent na4igation, the determination of position and direction, ha4e de4eloped alongside cartography
and geography, pro4iding and suita(ly 8uantifying the re8uisite information.
Earth has appro-imately *,A.&,&&&,&&& human inha(itants as of 5pril %1, %&...
$.11'
#ro9ections indicate that
the ,orld!s human population,ill reach 6 (illion in early %&.% and A.% (illion in %&1&.
$.1*'
:ost of the gro,th
is e-pected to take place in de4eloping nations. +umanpopulation density 4aries ,idely around the ,orld,
(ut a ma9ority li4e in 5sia. "y %&%&, *&7 of the ,orld!s population is e-pected to (e li4ing in ur(an, rather
than rural, areas.
$.16'
t is estimated that only one-eighth of the surface of the Earth is suita(le for humans to li4e on?three-
8uarters is co4ered (y oceans, and half of the land area is either desert (.07),
$.1;'
high mountains (%67),
$.1A'
or other less suita(le terrain. /he northernmost permanent settlement in the ,orld is 5lert, on Ellesmere
sland in Cuna4ut, =anada.
$.*&'
(;%<%;YC) /he southernmost is the 5mundsen-Scott South #ole Station, in
5ntarctica, almost e-actly at the South #ole. (A&<S)
/he Earth at night, a composite of O:S#/B)S ground illumination data on a simulated night-time image of the ,orld.
/his image is not photographic and many features are (righter than they ,ould appear to a direct o(ser4er.
ndependent so4ereign nations claim the planet!s entire land surface, e-cept for some parts of 5ntarctica
and the odd unclaimed area of "ir /a,il (et,een Egypt and Sudan. 5s of %&.. there are %&3 so4ereign
states, including the .A% Inited Cations mem(er states. n addition, there are 1A dependent territories, and
a num(er of autonomous areas, territories under dispute and other entities.
$.3'
+istorically, Earth has ne4er
had a so4ereign go4ernment ,ith authority o4er the entire glo(e, although a num(er of nation-states ha4e
stri4en for ,orld domination and failed.
$.*.'
/he Inited Cations is a ,orld,ide intergo4ernmental organi2ation that ,as created ,ith the goal of
inter4ening in the disputes (et,een nations, there(y a4oiding armed conflict.
$.*%'
t is not, ho,e4er, a ,orld
go4ernment. /he I.C. ser4es primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and international la,. When
the consensus of the mem(ership permits, it pro4ides a mechanism for armed inter4ention.
$.*3'
/he first human to or(it the Earth ,as Zuri Hagarin on 5pril .%, .A*..
$.*0'
n total, a(out 0&& people
4isited outer space and reached Earth or(it as of %&&0, and, of these, t,el4e ha4e ,alked on the :oon.
$.*1'
$.**'$.*6'
Cormally the only humans in space are those on the nternational Space Station. /he station!s cre,,
currently si- people, is usually replaced e4ery si- months.
$.*;'
/he furthest humans ha4e tra4elled from
Earth is 0&&,.6. km, achie4ed during the .A6&5pollo .3 mission.
$.*A'
=ultural 4ie,point
Main article: Earth in culture
/he first photograph e4er taken (y astronauts of an GEarthriseG, from 5pollo ;
/he name GEarthG deri4es from the 5nglo-Sa-on ,ord erda, ,hich means ground or soil, and is related to
the Herman ,ord Erde. t (ecame eorthe later, and then erthe in:iddle English.
$.6&'
/he standard
astronomical sym(ol of the Earth consists of a cross circumscri(ed (y a circle.
$.6.'
Inlike the rest of the planets in the Solar System, humankind did not (egin to 4ie, the Earth as a mo4ing
o(9ect in or(it around the Sun until the .*th century.
$.6%'
Earth has often (een personified as a deity, in
particular a goddess. n many cultures the mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility deity. =reation
myths in many religions recall a story in4ol4ing the creation of the Earth (y a supernatural deity or deities. 5
4ariety of religious groups, often associated ,ith fundamentalist (ranches of #rotestantism
$.63'
or slam,
$.60'
assert that their interpretations of these creation myths in sacred te-ts are literal truth and should (e
considered alongside or replace con4entional scientific accounts of the formation of the Earth and the origin
and de4elopment of life.
$.61'
Such assertions are opposed (y the scientific community
$.6*'

$.66'
and (y other
religious groups.
$.6;'$.6A'$.;&'
5 prominent e-ample is the creation-e4olution contro4ersy.
n the past there ,ere 4arying le4els of (elief in a flat Earth,
$.;.'
(ut this ,as displaced (y the concept of
a spherical Earth due to o(ser4ation and circumna4igation.
$.;%'
/he human perspecti4e regarding the Earth
has changed follo,ing the ad4ent of spaceflight, and the (iosphere is no, ,idely 4ie,ed from a glo(ally
integrated perspecti4e.
$.;3'$.;0'
/his is reflected in a gro,ing en4ironmental mo4ement that is concerned
a(out humankind!s effects on the planet.
$.;1'
See also
Earth sciences portal
Book: Solar System
Cikipe+ia Books are collections of articles that can
be +o6nloa+e+ or or+ere+ in print.
Heodesy
Heology
Cotes
1. ' 5ll astronomical 8uantities 4ary, (oth secularly and periodically. /he 8uantities gi4en are the
4alues at the instant J%&&&.& of the secular 4ariation, ignoring all periodic 4ariations.
%. [
a

b
aphelion W a N (. \ e)F perihelion W a N (. - e), ,here a is the semi-ma9or a-is and e is the
eccentricity.
3. ' /he reference lists the longitude of the ascending node as -...%*&*0<, ,hich is e8ui4alent to
30;.63A3*< (y the fact that any angle is e8ual to itself plus 3*&<.
0. ' /he reference lists the longitude of perihelion, ,hich is the sum of the longitude of the
ascending node and the argument of perihelion. /hat is, ..0.%&6;3< \ (-...%*&*0<) W .&%.A06.A<.
1. ' Oue to natural fluctuations, am(iguities surrounding ice shel4es, and mapping con4entions
for 4ertical datums, e-act 4alues for land and ocean co4erage are not meaningful. "ased on data from
theKector :ap and Hlo(al )andco4er datasets, e-treme 4alues for co4erage of lakes and streams are
&.*7 and ..&7 of the Earth!s surface. /he ice shields of 5ntarctica and Hreenland are counted as land,
e4en though much of the rock ,hich supports them lies (elo, sea le4el.
*. ' "y nternational 5stronomical Inion con4ention, the term terra is used only for naming
e-tensi4e land masses on celestial (odies other than the Earth. +f. "lue, Jennifer (%&&6-&6-
&1). GOescriptor /erms (Feature /ypes)G. a%etteer of 'lanetary ,omenclature. ISHS. Eetrie4ed
%&&6-&6-&1.
6. ' 5t present, the other planets in the Solar System are either too hot or too cold to support
li8uid ,ater on the surface in 4apor-li8uid e8uili(rium. 5s of %&&6, ,ater 4apor has (een detected in the
atmosphere of only one e-trasolar planet, and it is a gas giant. SeeD /inetti, H.F Kidal-:ad9ar, 5.F )iang,
:.=.F "eaulieu, J. #.F Zung, Z.F =arey, S.F "ar(er, E. J.F /ennyson, J.F Ei(as, (July %&&6). GWater
4apour in the atmosphere of a transiting e-trasolar planetG.,ature (() (6.1&)D .*A@
.6.. "i(code %&&6Catur.00;...*A/.doiD.&..&3;/nature&*&&%. #:O .6*%111A.
;. ' /he num(er of solar days is one less than the num(er ofsidereal days (ecause the or(ital
motion of the Earth a(out the Sun results in one additional re4olution of the planet a(out its a-is.
A. ' )ocally 4aries (et,een 1 and %&& km.
.&. ' )ocally 4aries (et,een 1 and 6& km.
... ' ncluding the Somali #late, ,hich is currently in the process of formation out of the 5frican
#late. SeeD =horo,ic2, Jean (Bcto(er %&&1). G/he East 5frican rift systemG. /ournal of &frican Earth
Sciences (* (.@3)D 36A@0.&. "i(code %&&1J5fES..03..36A=.doiD.&..&.*/9.9afrearsci.%&&1.&6.&.A.
.%. ' /his is the measurement taken (y the 4essel 0ai$1 in :arch .AA1 and is (elie4ed to (e the
most accurate measurement to date. See the =hallenger Oeep article for more details.
.3. ' /he total surface area of the Earth is 1..N.&
;
km
%
. /o first appro-imation, the a4erage depth
,ould (e the ratio of the t,o, or %.6 km.
.0. ' 5oki, the ultimate source of these figures, uses the term Gseconds of I/.G instead of
Gseconds of mean solar timeG.?5oki, S. (.A;%). G/he ne, definition of uni4ersal timeG. &stronomy and
&strophysics +,- (%)D 31A@3*.. "i(code .A;%5]5....&1..31A5.
.1. ' For the Earth, the +ill radius is
,
,here m is the mass of the Earth, a is an 5stronomical Init, and Mis the mass of the Sun. So the
radius in 5.I. is a(outD .
.*. ' 5phelion is .&3.07 of the distance to perihelion. Oue to the in4erse s8uare la,, the radiation
at perihelion is a(out .&*.A7 the energy at aphelion.
Eeferences
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a

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&3. See ta(le ;..&.%. =alculation (ased upon . 5I W .0A,1A6,;6&,6&&(3) m.
2. [
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Further reading
=omins, Ceil F. (%&&.). Aisco!ering the Essential :ni!erse (%nd ed.). W. +.
Freeman. "i(code %&&3deu..(ook.....=. S"C &-6.*6-1;&0-&.
E-ternal links
@in+ more about Earth on Cikipe+ia/s sister
proGectsH
Iefinitions from Ciktionary
Amages an+ me+ia from :ommons
<earning resources from Ciki1ersity
=e6s stories from Cikine6s
Juotations from Ciki0uote
.ource te>ts from Cikisource
Te>tbooks from Cikibooks
ISHS Heomagnetism #rogram
C5S5 Earth B(ser4atory
5udio?=ain/Hay (%&&6) 5stronomy =ast Earth
Earth #rofile (y C5S5!s Solar System E-ploration
=limate changes cause Earth!s shape to change @ C5S5
/he Hate,ay to 5stronaut #hotography of Earth
Hlo(al :easured E-tremes of /emperature and #recipitation Cational =limatic Oata =enter

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