VACUUM TECHNOLOGY FOR NUCLEAR FUSION

In the long term, on a scale of the order of 100 years, nuclear fusion arguably
offers the only sustainable means for the generation of electric power in a quantity
sufficient to satisfy the worlds needs. Solar, wind, and wave power can make
valuable but limited contributions to the energy budget, and fossil fuels, reserves
of which are finite, become increasingly scarce and costly, with oil needed for
purposes other than energy generation. In addition, their burning creates soundly
based environmental concerns. lectricity generation by nuclear fission, once
thought to be the solution to the perceived long!term problem, is no longer so
regarded for reasons partly political and partly technical, particularly those to do
with long!term storage of its radioactive waste products.
"lthough the technological challenges of controlled thermonuclear fusion and
capital cost of research facilities are enormous, and many challenges remain, the
fact that the ingredients that fuel the reaction are abundant in nature and easily
acquired, that there are no long!lived radioactive waste products, and that
considerable progress has already been made, are powerful incentives for the
furtherance of the work to its long!term goal. #he underlying principles of the
sub$ect and its current state are described in a recent book by %arms et al. &'000(,
and an essay by )ert &'00'( reviews past work and future prospects. *esearch in
this sub$ect has been under way since the 1+,0s, and from nationally financed
activities initially, often with military connections, it has evolved to one of
substantial open international collaboration. -esigns and planning for I#*, the
International #hermonuclear .perimental *eactor, are well advanced.
/f a number of thermonuclear reactions between light nuclei that yield products of
less total mass and the consequent release of energy equivalent to the mass
difference, attention is concentrated on that between the hydrogen isotopes
deuterium - and tritium # to produce an alpha particle and a neutron, in which
10.1 2e3 of energy is released as kinetic energy of the products4
1
-
'
5
1
#
6
7
'
%e
8
&6., 2e3( 5
0
n
1
&18.1 2e3(
9or this reaction to occur, the positively charged - and # nuclei must approach
each other with sufficient speed to overcome the strong repulsive :oulomb force.
9or a gaseous deuterium;tritium mi.ture, this requires that the temperature be of
the order of 10
<
=, so hot that the mi.ture is completely ioni>ed to form
electrically neutral plasma of intimately mi.ed positive ions and electrons. %eating
and confining the plasma are problematic. In order to have a sustained reaction in
an ignited plasma, such that the energy released is greater than that lost from it by
radiation, a criterion due to ?awson has to be satisfied, namely, that the @fusion
80
triple productA of ion density N, energy containment time t, and temperature T
e.ceed a specified value. #he value of t is determined by the rate of energy loss
from the plasma by radiation. "t temperature 10
<
=, the product N t has to be
greater than about ' B 10
'0
m
C6
s for the net release of energy. 9or a t value of 1
second, the N value is that associated with gas at 10
C'
mbar. Since the early 1+<0s,
e.perimental progress towards this goal has been quite rapid, with increases in the
reali>able values of N, t, and T. 3alues of the triple product have increased by
many orders of magnitude and are now only a factor of about 10 below that for
ignition. #he I#* machine previously mentioned is intended to take
investigations into the realm of ignited plasmas. Dltimately, the generation of
electricity will be achieved in plant that surrounds the burning plasma with a
lithium blanket. Ehile the energetic alpha nuclei generated will interact strongly
with the plasma to oppose cooling losses by radiation and maintain its
temperature, the neutrons will escape to be absorbed in the blanket. %ere they have
two functions4 by further nuclear reactions to produce more tritium that is sent
back to feed the reaction, and, from the heat generated as they are slowed down, to
raise steam for the electrical power plant. %elium nuclei that would otherwise
accumulate in the plasma from the spent -F# fuel constitute @ashA and have to be
removed.
:ontaining and controlling the hot plasma against instabilities remains one of the
central problems of the activity, and since the earliest days, strong magnetic fields
in various special configurations have been investigated for this purpose. #he
considerable progress of recent decades has been due to the adoption of the
tokamak configuration in which the plasma is contained in a toroidal &essentially
doughnut!shaped( vacuum vessel, sub$ect to a toroidal magnetic field that is
augmented by other stabili>ing components, such that the charged particles tend to
spiral around field lines. #he diagrams to be found in te.ts need to be consulted to
appreciate how the field affects particle tra$ectories. #he plasma is created by
pulsed transformer action G electric fields induced by rapidly changing magnetic
fields initiated by a large current pulse through an e.ternal, primary winding cause
ioni>ation of a low!pressure -F# gas mi.ture and its ohmic heating. #he plasma
pulse lasts for seconds or more, in which interval the diagnostic measurements are
made under sophisticated computer control. In this interval, higher temperatures
may be achieved by additional *9 heating and, in some cases, the in$ection of
beams of energetic neutrals tangentially into the plasma. Such beams are created
by partial neutrali>ation of energetic ion beams directed towards the plasma, with
the deflection of the non!neutrali>ed fraction electromagnetically into a dump.
#o illustrate the scale and operation of these large fusion e.periments, we will
consider the vacuum system of the H# tokamak. #he acronym signifies Hoint
uropean #orus, reflecting its funding by the uropean :ommunities, now
transferred to the uropean 9usion -evelopment "greement, 9-". 9irst
8<
operated in the early 1+<0s and, like related e.periments in the D.S., Hapan, and
elsewhere, continuously developed in advancing programs of work to discover the
comple. physics of high temperature plasmas and their confinement, a full
description of the pro$ect will be found at www.$et.efda.org. #he vacuum systems
are described by -uesing &1+<0(.
#he H# toroidal vessel is a very large ultrahigh vacuum system with ma$or radius
of about 6 m and -!shaped torus cross section of height 8.' m and minor radius
'.1 m as indicated in 9igure '0.1. #he need for ultrahigh vacuum conditions,
commensurate leak tightness, and special attention to wall conditioning in order to
minimi>e outgassing products and control their identity is discussed below. #he
torus, constructed from eight octants welded together, has an all!metal double!
walled structure with numerous access ports of various si>es to allow for
diagnostic probes, robotic manipulation, additional heating, and other services.
#he independently pumped interspace between the relatively thin inner and outer
walls, appropriately braced for strength, facilitates leak detection and allows the
circulation of hot helium gas for bakeout. #he surface area of the inner wall is
about 1000 m
'
and the torus volume 1<+ m
6
. #wo chambers :, one of which is
indicated, have hori>ontal entry to the torus via 1.'!m diameter ports and at their
base carry 800!mm inlet turbomolecular pumps #, with matching all!metal gate
valves 3, backed by primary pumps. #he total effective pumping speed at the
torus is 1000 l s
C1
. )rior to this secondary pumping, the rough pumping from
atmosphere to 0.1 mbar, using several pumping stations each with capacity '000
m
6
h
C1
, takes less than ' h. #he torus wall is degassed by heating it at up to ,00I:
by blowing hot helium through the interspace, and in operation the wall is held at
600I:. In addition, surface conditioning by e.tensive glow discharge cleaning is
carried out, after which partial pressures of %
'
/, :/, :%
8
, and :
'
%
8
are less than
or of order 10
C+
mbar, with a hydrogen partial pressure about 10
C0
mbar. %igher
hydrogen partial pressures are tolerable because the torus is backfilled with a very
pure mi.ture of its - and # isotopes to a pressure of about 10
C1
mbar prior to the
creation of the plasma. #he pulsed operation of a tokamak is a relatively violent
event. #he large toroidal currents induced, , 2" or more, impose large
mechanical forces of magnetic origin on the structure, and occasionally if plasma
reaches the wall inadvertently, where it is quenched, a small perforation may
result. "n ingenious scheme of sectioning the interspace to detect such leaks in the
inner wall is described by /rchard and Scales &1+++(.
/ne of the most critical aspects of operation is to minimi>e the presence of
impurities in the background gas and their entry into the plasma by wall
outgassing and by the surface interactions that occur when the hot plasma touches
the plates ? that serve as limiters to define its shape and keep it away from the
8+
inner vessel wall. #his is because energy loss from the plasma, as well as due to a
small amount of actual particle loss, is principally by radiation, predominantly
Jremsstrahlung &braking radiation( due to the inevitable accelerations and
decelerations of electrons in the plasma as they move in the electric fields of
positive ions. #his radiation scales with the atomic number as Z
'
. ?ow Z materials
are therefore necessary for the limiter surfaces that define the @first!wallA with
which the plasma comes into direct contact. Kraphite &Z L 1( and Je &Z L 6( are
used, the latter where the
plasma flu. is especially high. "s noted by -ylla &1++<(, in an article on the
evolution of large machines for particle physics and fusion e.periments, it was
advances and collaborations in solving first!wall problems that have enabled
machines such as H#, #9#* in the D.S., and H#10D in Hapan to achieve plasma
parameters sufficiently near to the ?awson criterion minimum to $ustify the ne.t
phase of development of the significantly larger and more e.pensive I#*
machine.
Synchrotron Radiation Sources:
" particle of mass m and charge q moving with velocity v in a direction
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B e.periences a force qvB perpendicular
,0
FIGURE 20.1 Schematic diagram of torus cross section.
to both v and B, causing it to move in the arc of a circle of radius R. #he value of
R, determined by equating qvB to the product of m and the centripetal acceleration
v
'
/R, is R L mv/qB. #his relationship, which we will refer to as the @orbit equationA
is of prime importance for machines in which charged particles, guided by
magnetic fields, move in circular orbits at high energies. Jecause the acceleration
of electrical charge causes the emission of electromagnetic radiation, there will be
radiation from these orbits associated with the continuous inward acceleration.
Synchrotrons are large modern machines for accelerating electrons, protons, or
their antiparticles to very high energies. #he synchrotron principle may be
described with reference to 9igure +.10&a(, which is a schematic plan view of a
ring!shaped vacuum system in which particles of charge q may circulate at radius
R. /ver the area indicated by dotted lines, e.ternal electromagnets create a
vertically directed magnetic field B that can be increased with time in a controlled
way. " radio frequency voltage source, whose frequency may also be varied,
provides an electric field of the correct phase to accelerate particles
circumferentially as they pass through a resonant cavity. )articles are in$ected
tangentially into the system at a velocity and magnetic field B such that the orbit
equation is satisfied, and then accelerated to higher and higher energies by
applying an *9 field of increasing frequency while increasing the value of the
magnetic field commensurately so as to maintain them in the same circular orbit.
Such a scheme allows for the relativistic mass increase of the particles with
energy, which limited the attainment of earlier types of accelerating machines.
*adiation from these orbits has come to be known as synchrotron radiation. In
electron synchrotrons, it is particularly strong and the principal mechanism by
which the circulating beam loses energy. #he electrons travel with speeds very
close to that of light, and the radiated photons are emitted tangentially in a forward
direction in a very narrow cone G for 1 Ke3 electrons, the semi!angle of this cone
is only about 0.'I, so the radiation is highly collimated. 9rom the whole
circulating beam, therefore, there is a pattern of emission that resembles the spray
of water that is thrown off the rim of a wet wheel rotating at high speed. It
occupies a thin disc of space that e.tends radially outwards in the plane of the
circulating charges. #he emitted radiation is intense and spans a broad spectral
range, typically from millimeter infrared wavelengths through the visible and D3
to soft and hard M!rays, corresponding to photon energies less than 1 e3 up to
more than 10 ke3. 9urthermore, it is highly polari>ed in the plane of the orbit.
#ypical synchrotron sources are brighter than traditional M!ray tubes by a factor of
order 10
,
or more.
,1
In recent decades, a number of electron synchrotrons have been built specifically
to provide radiation for scientific investigations on the structure of materials. #hey
have beam energies in the range 1 to 10 Ke3 and require vacua of about 10
C10
mbar so that the high!energy beam, once established, can circulate continuously to
provide a steady supply of well!characteri>ed radiations for a number of hours.
#hey are described as electron storage rings. #he lifetime of the beam is
determined by the loss of electrons due to their scattering by residual gas
molecules. #he *9 voltage maintains the energy of those remaining against the
radiation losses. It is in the nature of the processes involved that the current is
bunched, consisting of very short pulses of less than a nanosecond duration and
this is therefore also true of the output radiation.
Ehile 9igure '0.'&a( illustrates the principle, 9igure '0.'&b(, though highly
simplistic, is more representative of matters in practice. Storage rings are not
simply circular but are made up of alternate curved and straight sections. In the
curved sections, dipole magnets cause beam!bending and therefore synchrotron
emission as described in the preceding te.t. #he limited arc length means that the
radiation is in the form of a thin fan shape. #he straight sections accommodate the
primary beam in$ection arrangement and accelerating cavities and allow the
insertion of special devices that enhance performance. "lso located e.ternally at
these sections are magnetic quadrupole lenses that, allied with the focusing role
that the dipole magnets have for electron tra$ectories close to the central orbit, are
part of the beam focusing and control system. #he focusing role of the dipole
magnet arises by making their pole faces slightly divergent rather than parallel, so
that small changes in the vertical field are created in a direction transverse to the
beam. Jecause the vacuum tube has to pass between the poles of magnets, its
cross section is relatively small and typically elliptical with vertical minor a.is of a
few centimeters, and the hori>ontal ma$or a.is rather more.
,'
Figure: 20.2 (a) Principle of synchrotron, (b) practical arrangement with curved
and straight sections.
" fraction of the fan!shaped radiation from a particular dipole magnet may be
selected by apertures and e.tracted into a tangentially directed beam line, while
the rest impinges on the vacuum walls. #here are, therefore, a number of $unctions
made with the main vacuum ring to allow this. Inside a beam line are housed
apertures, mirrors, monochromators, and other optical elements appropriate to the
wavelength components of the selected radiation. Jeam lines are dedicated to
specific purposes, infrared, ultraviolet, and various .!ray investigative techniques,
diffraction, microscopy, and gra>ing incidence diffraction, for e.ample. Eoodruff
and -elchar &1+<1( describe particular techniques that are valuable in surface
science, and 9ield &'001( discusses further applications over a wider range.
#he Synchrotron *adiation Source &S*S( at -aresbury, D.=. &www.srs.ac.uk( is
an e.ample of a machine offering world!class facilities to a large community of
researchers in diverse fields. #he main storage ring is +1 m in circumference and
contains 11 bending magnets, each ' m long. Inside it a current in the range of 1,0
to 600 m" circulates at an energy of ' Ke3. #he in$ection system consists of a 1'
2e3 linear accelerator that feeds pulses of electrons into an intermediate booster
synchrotron, accelerates them up to 100 2e3, and in$ects them into the main ring.
Ehen sufficient current has been built up at this energy, it is accelerated up to '
Ke3. Dseful currents are maintained for '0 h or more, and 61 e.perimental
stations are supplied with electromagnetic radiations of various wavelengths.
Some of these are obtained by the insertion of @wigglersA and @undulatorsA in the
straight sections to produce enhanced effects. In these devices the electron beam is
made to pass through magnetic field configurations that, in the former case, locally
force it to be highly curved with the enhancement of radiation brightness at very
short wavelengths. In the latter case, a periodic field variation leads to interference
and the emergence of a number of very bright, almost monochromatic, beams.
#he vacuum system of the S*S is rather comple., and aspects of its design and
early performance were described by #rickett &1+<0(. *eid &1++0( has given a
brief account of some aspects of its operation more recently. It is and all!metal
D%3 system in which scrupulous attention is paid to the avoidance of
hydrocarbon contamination, which would have serious effects in beam scattering
and the degradation of surfaces. #he main ring is divided into sections that can be
isolated by gate valves, and the beam lines can be similarly isolated. #he machine
stays at D%3 for long periods during which many users simultaneously carry out
e.periments on a nonstop shift basis at its various stations. #he pumps for
ultrahigh vacuum are distributed ion pumps at the bending sections that utili>e the
field of the bending magnets in an e.tended pumping cell parallel and ad$acent to
the beam path. In the straight sections there are large 800 l s
C1
ion pumps on top of
which are mounted titanium sublimation pumps. Sections are brought to
atmosphere rarely, but when this is necessary, re!establishment of D%3 starts with
,6
oilfree rough pumping by diaphragm pumps and turbomolecular pumps with
magnetic bearings. Items to be inserted into the system are rigorously cleaned,
sub$ected to prior vacuum degassing in special vacuum furnaces, and also glow!
discharge cleaned.
)ressure is sensed at places distributed throughout the systems by J"K gauges
that have to be carefully located so that their function is not impaired by the
various fields and the electron beam. Nuadrupole residual gas analy>ers are also
strategically located to monitor the system and give warning of undesirable
changes such as the opening of small leaks. #he pressure around the ring is not
uniform because there is some distance between pumps, and the pipe conductance
is limited by its cross section and the presence of apertures. " pressure profile as a
function of distance therefore shows minima nearest to pumps and ma.ima remote
from them. #he profiles with and without the beam are considerably different
because when the beam is on it, it produces a large gas load due to photon
stimulated desorption of molecules off the wall in the vicinity of the bending
regions where the high photon flu. of the radiation impinges. #his dynamic effect
is the main gas load in electron storage rings. 9ortunately, it progressively
diminishes with accumulating photon dose to acceptable levels, an effect referred
to as @beam cleaning.A #his can frequently be e.ploited in restoring D%3
conditions when such occasions arise, rather than the lengthier procedure of sector
bakeout. #he modeling of the photon!induced gas load is therefore a crucially
important aspect in the design of the vacuum systems of an electron storage ring.
#he vacuum in the beam lines has of course to be compatible with that in the ring,
e.cept in the case of beam lines that can be isolated from it by physical windows
that are transparent to the radiation, as is beryllium for high energy .!rays. #he
vacuum conditions are then slightly less stringent.
#he pressure measured in the straight sections of the ring in operation can be
related to the mean pressure around it, which determines the beam lifetime. #he
state of this very comple. machine is monitored by numerous pressure,
temperature, and other sensors together with status indicators for valves, pumps,
etc., and associated interlocks. #he strategy for the control of the machine by
computer and its implementation was first discussed by *eid &1+<'(. *ecent
developments in this area are described on the Eeb site.
#he S*S was the first large high!current synchrotron built as a dedicated .!ray
light source, and its value to the scientific community has paved the way for the
design and building of -iamond, a third!generation synchrotron source, and
currently D.=.s largest scientific pro$ect, whose first beam lines are scheduled to
come into operation in '001. #his machine will be ,10 m in circumference, with
beam energy 6 Ke3, current 600 m", and sophisticated facilities at many user
stations. -etails may be found at the web site www.diamond.ac.uk
,8