1

Study and Evaluation

Of Balila Oil Field Vis-breaking plant
By:
Emam Mohammed Basheir Ebrahim
B.Sc. Hones. Chemical Engineering
Red Sea University April, 2005

A Dissertation submitted
In partial Fulfillment for the requirements of the degree of
M.Sc in chemical Engineering

Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
University of Gezira

Supervisor: Dr. Babiker Krama Abdalla Mohammed
Co. Supervisor: Dr. Fath Elrahman Abass Elshiekh



November, 2009


2







Dedication



I dedicate this work to:


The Soul of my mother

My father; Elshaikh / Mohammed Noor Basheir

Anyone still searching for peace and crying to our beloved country, Sudan






3





Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Babiker Krama for his
continuous support, guidance and the valuable comments on my
research work, which made it possible for me to reach this point.
I extend my special thanks to Dr. Fath Elrahman Abass and Imad
Abdu Elmonem for their help and support during this study.
I am extremely grateful to Engineer Mohammed Zakarya
Mohammed in Petro-Energy Company for contributing of giving me
directions and assistance to complete this work.
Finally the most grateful thanks are extended to my family
anywhere.










4




Abstract

In this study the Vis-breaking plant oI Balila crude oil which is
owned by Petro Energy Company was studied and the beneIit in cost oI this
plant was calculated. The improvement in crude oil quality was tested.
Besides investigating how Vis-breaking plant contributes in energy saving
hence minimize its consumption. The Ilow characteristics oI crude in
pipeline were studied experimentally beIore and aIter Vis-breaking plant and
described mathematically.
Rheological models were developed to relate the shear stress to shear
rate. These models were used to describe the eIIects oI oil viscosity on the
pressure required Ior pumping the oil through pipelines.
The result oI present study shows that the rheological characteristics oI
crude oil were improved Irom bulk Non- Newtonian to the Newtonian Iluid
at testing temperature, although the vis-breaking plant used as upstream unit,
it has been never applied beIore.





5





='' ,-- -= - - -=-' - ' = ,`,- ','- .-=- '=' =--''
-' _--- -' ) ,-,-' ,-,-' =- -- ( , -'-- ,-, - -=-' --' -'-- -,=
=--' -'-= ,-=-- =' ,==' '--- _' '=' .--' --=---' '=' .,'-- -=,' --
-',- =- ,'-= .,+-- - '=' -,-'-` ,== -= .
,--' -= -- .- _-' -==- --= ','-- --, - ','- '= ',- ,= , --- `
'+=` -,-'= _'= ='' ,`'- -- ,-- `'-' -- ,=,',, `'- -=--'- ',-',
-' -- .
,=,',,' ,=' -= --' -- _-'-- - -= .- '+,'= --' '-- ,` ---=- -
,--' , '=' _-' --=---' '=' - ,` _'= '-=' '-- --'- -' ,== -=
-,-'-` , ''-''- -,=''- -'-- ,- ---- '=' =--' .--' ,,--' -,''-' .,'-- _'
-'- --=---' '' ,-- -= '-- .- '- = , - -- -- ,--' -= - =' _'=
=--' ,-= -= - ,' ,'--' '----' '-- - --=---' =--' '-- -=
'=' , .- - ,+- - ' '- '+- .








6


Table of content
The title Page
No
Dedication i
Acknowledgement ii
Abstract iii
Arabic Abstract iv
List oI content v
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Transportation oI wax crude oils 1
1.2 Introduction to the Vis-breaking plant 1
1.3 Targets and goals 3
CHAPTER TWO LITRERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Fula crude oil 5
2.2 The viscosity and Deposition Background 6
2.3 Transportation oI the viscous oils 7
2.4 Vis-breaking plant VBP 7
2.5 Characteristics oI Ieedstock and products 11
2.6 Process Ilow introduction 19
2.7 Control system oI plant 23
2.8 Study oI area 23
2.9 Study oI cost 26
2.10 Study oI energy consumption Ior Vis-
breaking plant
30
2.10.1 Pump ability characteristics oI wax crude
oil
30
2.10.2 EIIective pipeline viscosity 31
2.10.3 Yield stress 32
2.10.4 Rheological classiIication oI Iluid 32
2.10.5 Losses oI energy in pipeline 34
2.10.6 Friction Loss along Pipe 35
2.10.7 Determine the eIIective oI the rheological
parameters
36
7

The title Page
No
CHAPTER
THREE
MATERIAL AND METHOD
3.1 Chemicals 40
3.2 Apparatus 40
3.3 Procedure Ior chemical and physical
analysis
42
3.4 Calculation data 44
3.5
Calculation Procedure
47
CHAPTER FOUR RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Result 49
4.2 Discussion 54
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND
RECOMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 56
5.2 Recommendation: 56
ReIerences 57












8


List of Tables
Serial No Tables Page
No
2-1 Composition oI overhead gas 13
2-2 Properties Ior gasoline (165
o
C ) 14
2-3 Properties oI diesel (165~330)
o
C 15
2-4 Properties oI Vis-broken oil (330
o
C) 16
2-5 Characteristics oI the Vis-broken liquid
product
18
2-6 DiIIerence in properties oI crude beIore
and aIter VBP
30
3.1 Field data collected Irom Balila beIore
VBP
45
3.2 Field data collected Irom Balila aIter
VBP
46
4-1 Calculation sheet beIore VBP 49
4-2 Calculation sheet aIter VBP 50

List of Figures
Serial No figures page
1-1 Schematic diagram oI Vis-breaking plant 2
2-1 VBU Ieedstock and products 12
2-2 Process flow Diagram
2-3 Presentation oI Vis-breaking plant
2-4 Rheological classiIication oI Iluid 33
4-1 Shear rate verse shear stress Ior Crude
beIore VBU
51
4-2 Shear rate verse shear stress Ior Crude
aIter VBU
52



9






Chapter one


Introduction










10


1.1 Transportation of wax crude oils
Crude oil contains a mixture oI high and heavy hydrocarbons.
Typically, stabilized oil may contain paraIIinic, naphthenic and aromatic
components as heavy as C
60
.in addition, poolers and asphalting may also
present. The wax crystals usually lead to higher viscosity with increased
energy consumption Ior pumping and decreased capacity .in addition, may
also case problem oI restarting the pipeline. |1|
1.2 Introduction to the Vis-breaking plant
Passing through long-distance pipeline(730 kilometers), crude oil
exploited Irom Sudan Block 6 in western KordoIan state Balila; is
transported to coking unit in Khartoum ReIinery Company Sudan
(hereinaIter reIer to as KRC) Ior processing. Considering the high viscosity,
which cant satisIy the requirements on long-distance pipeline
transportation, the crude oil in Block 6 will be Vis-broken beIore exporting
to pipeline.
The output oI the Oil Field (phase I) and the current pipeline transIerring
capacity is matched with the processing capacity oI coking unit in KRC
(phase I), the output oI the Oil Field (phase II) will match with the
processing capacity oI coking unit in KRC (phase II). AIter Iinishing
construction oI Oil Field (phase II) and coking unit (phase II) in KRC, the
pipeline transIerring capacity must reach 40000BOPD, that is, the viscosity
oI crude must be decreased to 1600mPa.s at29C, so the Vis breaking Plant
shall be built to process part oI crude with result in the viscosity oI the
mixed crude (Vis-broken crude and crude) is lower than 1600mPa.s at29C,
which meets the pipeline transIerring requirements. |2|

11


1.2.1 Feedstock and products
The Ieedstock oI Vis-breaking Plant is Sudan Iula-north-2B crude. Product
oI this plant is:
Vis-broken oil: Comprise Iollowing products
A - Gasoline at temperature 165
o
C
B - Diesel at temperature (165-330
o
C)
C Vis-broken oil at temperature above 330
o
C

By-product: Vis-breaking overhead gas is used as a Iuel Vis-breaking
Iurnace.

To the KRC






Figure1.1 Schematic presentation of Vis-breaking plant



Train I
Vis-breaking
Train II
From CPE
Crude oil
Low viscosity
Crude oil
High viscosity
12


1.3 Research objectives
1- Did the Vis-breaking plant meet the expectations?
2- How to balance between cost minimization and process optimization
in the Vis-breaking plant?
3- Did the Vis-breaking plant contribute in power saving and
minimize the power consumption?
4- Vis-breaking plant produces diesel within its process then it mixed
with oil, can we design unit use for cracked diesel after treating?


















13






Chapter two



Literature Review












14


2.1 Fula crude oil
Fula crude oil was produced in Western KordoIan region in Almoglad
basin; the Iield had an area oI 38468 Sq. km. Since 1995 the Chinese
National Petroleum Company (CNPC) had worked at the Iield and exploded
some new Iields in Fula North, Fula West, Mega, Hadida, Naha, Kaikan and
SiIan, which contain over 60 wells that Iorm Fula mix crude.
The proposed production rate was 40,000 bpd. The expected reserve Irom
the reservoir was 115 BPD oI crude oil with a recovery Iactor (15-20) .
The Iield Iacilities were made to cater production rate up to 40000 bpd, Ior
the processing unit at size up to 200000 bpd Ior the pipeline to Khartoum
reIinery, these Iacilities were:
1. Central processing Iacilities (CPF) 40,000 BPD
2. Main storage tank 125,000 BPD
3. Pipe line (Irom Fula Iield to Khartoum) 723 km
2.1.1Fula crude oil general properties
High total acid number content
The treatments oI crude oil depend on its characteristics and
properties. Fula crude was classiIied as heavy crude oil. Heavy crude Irom
geologically young Iormation have the highest naphthenic acids content
while paraIIinic crude usually have low acid content.
High calcium content
The high calcium content in Fula crude caused lots oI Iouling and scale
problems, that increase the operation and maintenance cost. Under certain
conditions, the naphthenic acids present in acidic crude oil will precipitate
with calcium ions (Ca) that present in co-produced water and Iorm
calcium naphthenate and, to a lesser extent Iorm other metal naphthenates.

15


High viscosity and high density
Fula Crude was heavy crude, its density is near to that oI water, and
this would reduce the driving Iorce oI settlement deIined by Stoke slaw, so
the desalting and dehydration required well adapted operation conditions.
The high viscosity means that very high temperature should be kept
throughout the whole processing operation, and this is expensive Irom the
standpoint oI cost.
2.2 The Viscosity and Deposition Background
Deposition oI complex and heavy organic compounds, which exist in
petroleum crude and heavy oil, the wax crystals change the Ilow behavior oI
crude oil Irom Newtonian to non-Newtonian which leads to higher viscosity,
can cause a number oI severe problems. II the temperature oI the oil Ialls
below the wax appearance point (WAP) or wax appearance temperature
(WAT), paraIIin generally deposition the pipeline wall. Decreased pipe
diameters are a major concern ,e.g. to oil transportation companies as they
represent a major increase in pumping costs, not to mention the loss oI
throughput and quality oI oil. In extreme cases oI deposition, routine
shutdown has to be scheduled to pig the pipeline or to apply a short-timed,
dramatic pressure increase to restart the pipeline, which stresses the pipeline
construction.
DiIIusion oI dissolved wax has long been recognized to be highly causative
in deposit Iormation, very prominently evident at high heat Iluxes.
2.2.1 Method of viscosity reduction due to paraffin removal
There are three common methods employed by the oil industry to
combat paraIIin removal, these methods are:
1- Thermal method (vis-breaking).
2- Chemical method (the use oI PPD).
16

3- Mechanical method
In many cases, a combination oI two or more method utilized the
relationship between temperature and paraIIin cloud point and solubility is
the logic behind the removal oI paraIIin deposits Irom down whole tubular
and piping equipment using the hot oiling method. |3|
2.3 Methods for pipeline transportation of the viscous oils
One oI the Iollowing methods Ior pipelining waxy crude oil may be
considered: |4|
1- Conditioning the crude oil beIore pipelining to change the wax crystal
structure and reduce pour point and viscosity.
2- Adding hydrocarbon diluents such as ales waxy crude or light
distillate.
3- Use oI pour point depressants, Ilow improvers.
4- Combination oI the above methods.
5- Some other methods.
2.4 Vis-breaking plant VBP
Vis-breaking is the one oI the thermal cracking applications which is
widely used to process vacuum distillation residue to produce more Diesel,
i.e. Vis-breaking usually used as downstream process within reIinery
processes. In this application Vis-breaker was used as upstream process.
Crude oil oI Sudan Block Six needs to be treated in Coking Unit oI
Khartoum ReIinery by 730 km long pipeline transIerring. For the high
viscosity oI crude oil can cause diIIiculties to pipeline transIerring, the crude
oil will be Vis-broken, In order to meet the need oI pipeline transportation.
Chinese National Petroleum Company (CNPC) and Sudan government,
now called petro Energy company agreed to build a Vis-breaking unit, to
reduce the viscosity Irom 5000 mpa.s 29c to 1600 mpa.s at29c or less to
meet the transporting condition oI the pipeline,|6|. The Vis-breaking Plant
17

was built to process part oI crude with result in the viscosity oI the mixed
crude (Vis-broken crude and crude) is lower than 2000mPa.s at29
o
C which
meets the pipeline transIerring requirements. |2|
2.4.1 Production process and energy utilization
A- Crude desalting & decalcifying
For Sudan Balila -Iula-north-2B crude, the content oI salt is
683mgNaCl/l(data analyzed in Khartoum ReIinery is 10ppm), the calcium
content is 1652ppm(data analyzed in Khartoum ReIinery is 1100ppm),
calcium content is higher, so desalting and decalciIying must be done to
avoid the corrosion caused by salt and calcium Iouling in equipment and
pipelines. According to the desalting and decalciIying process design
scheme and considering its actual running situation oI coking unit in
Khartoum ReIinery, crude Vis-breaking Plant adopt three-stage desalting
process, the result is the salt content equal or lower than 5mg/l Crude
decalciIying is the emphases and nod us oI this plant, they shall be careIully
studied and treated in the Iurther. The design keep decalciIying devices, but
decalciIying chemical will be chosen by owner in the Iuture.
B- Crude Vis-breaking Plant
Crude Vis-breaking Plant, SOAKER Vis-breaking process oI Petro-
chemical ScientiIic Research Institute is adopted, it is the process that liquid
phase reaction, which will stay Ior a long time under lower temperature,
shall be main, its characteristics is lower reaction temperature and pressure
which is beneIicial Ior cracking reaction, and coking reaction is slow.). So
the plant will has long producing period and good stable oI product quality,
as well as lower investment. With high acid number (up to 13.82mgKOH/g),
which is rare in local and overseas, the equipment and pipelines oI plant
18

might be seriously corroded iI it is treated improperly. The plant, otherwise,
must run long period to meet the requirement oI pipeline transportation.
Fuel oI plant shall be overhead gas recovered by crude Vis-breaking Plant,
the excess heat oI plant shall be used Ior CPFs thermal source oI crude
entering station.
2.4.2 Utilities and auxiliary facilities
For this plant, steam system and cooling water system shall be selI-
matched; the other utilities shall depend upon supply Irom CPF. Steam
system include a set oI water soItening device (soIt water production is 20
m
3
/hour) and two sets oI 1.0 MPa low-pressure steam boiler(steam
production is 2t/h); 1000m
3
/h, cooling water system shall be built, two
500m
3
/h cooling water towers shall be used therein.
2.4.3 Design review
The Vis-breaking plant can be divided two main sections: Vis-
breaking units and utilities, they will be divided Iurther into many sub
systems Ior:
1) Vis-breaking unit
2) Water Injection System
3) Chemical Injection System
4) Cooling water system
4) Instrument Air /Plant Air System
5) Fuel Gas System (include natural gas and overhead gas)
6) Start-up Diesel and instrument Ilushing oil System
7) Raw Water & SoIt Water Distribution System
19

8) Steam system
9) Cooling water system
10) RelieI Gas System
11) Oily water system (open drain system)
12) Slop Oil System (Close Drain System)
13) Fire Fighting System (Iire water system)
2.4.3.1 Scope of design
The work scope oI detail design was limited to crude Vis-breaking
Plant; Crude Vis-breaking Plant includes Vis-breaking unit (two trains crude
Vis-breaking production line, each oI lines is matched with a set oI crude
electric desalting equipment which included three desolaters) and auxiliary
steam system and cooling water system, and warehouse etc.
2.4.3.2 Capacity and design life of plant
- The design processing capacity oI crude Vis-breaking Plant is
16000(80002) BOPD (the capacity oI crude desalting equipment is
also 16000(80002) BOPD).
- Steam generation capacity oI steam system is 4 ton/hour (The rated
soIt water output oI water soItening equipment is 20t/h).
- Cooling water treatment capacity oI cooling water system is 1000
m
3
/hour.
- Annual operation time oI the plant is 8400 hours.
- The plant capacity margin is 0.8-1.2 times.
- The plant design liIe is 15 years.
20

2.5 Characteristics of feedstock and products:
2.5.1 Characteristics of feedstock:
The Ieedstock oI Vis-breaking Plant is Sudan Iula-north-2B crude.
According to sulIur content and key Iractions, Sudan Iula-north-2B crude
is classiIied as low sulIur content naphthenic intermediate base crude,
which has the Iollowing characteristics:
Great density. Lower in light oil yield. Density at 20C is 0.9428 g/cm
3
,
the yield oI Iraction (35C) is only 9.26wt.
Low sulIur content, high nitrogen content. With sulIur content oI 0.15
m, it belongs to low sulIur-bearing crude; the nitrogen content is
0.29wt, which is higher.
High acid number. It is 13.82mgKOH/g, which is rare in China and
abroad, high acid number can not only aIIect the quality oI the Iollowed
products, but also corrode the oil processing plant seriously.
High content oI salt. The salt content oI water-removed oil is also up to
683mgNaCI/l, so that depth desalting oI crude must be done beIore
processing.
High metal content. Content oI nickel is 18.3ppm,the contents oI calciIy,
sodium and magnesium are higher, they are 1652ppm, 264ppm and
8.5ppm separately.
Iurthermore, in the test report I in 2004, the Ieedstock is Sudan crude AB
and Testing No. is VB 04-02, list it here only Ior reIerence.


21








Figure2-1 VBU feedstock and products











Vis-breaking
Unit
In put Out put
Gases G
Water W
Gasoline
Diesel
Water W
Heavy Crude F
Oil
Vis-broken Crude
Light Crude P
22


2.5.2 Characteristics of Sudan Block 6Crude (Balila Crude)
2.5.3Characteristics of Vis-broken liquid product and by-product
Liquid product oI Vis-breaking Plant is Vis-broken oil, by-product is
overhead gas.
Table 2-1 Composition of overhead gas
Testing No. VB 02-07 VB 04-02
Composition w w
Hydrogen 0.28 4.69 0.31
Methane 21.23 38.11 20.31
Ethane 17.57 19.34 19.33
Ethene 3.04 2.93 2.74
Propane 19.11 13.21 19.37
Propene 10.55 6.54 9.16
Butane 16.47 9.34 18.06
Butene 11.75 5.61 10.46
1,3 butadiene 0.02 0.03
H
2
S , mg/m
3
2770 0.21 0.23
Mean molecular weight 30.01 30.01

23


Table 2-2 Properties for gasoline (<165 C)
Testing No. VB 02-07
No. Item Unit Data
1 Density (20C) g/cm3 0.7277
2 Acidity mgKOH/100ml 72.3
3 Actual gum mg/100ml 20
4 Induction period Min 292
5 Copper corrosion (50C,3h) UnqualiIied
6 S mg/kg 453
7 N mg/kg 29
8 Bromine value gBr/100ml 44.5
9 Distillate range C
Initial distillate point 44
Final distillate point 164





24


Table 2-3 Properties of diesel (165~330C)
Testing No. VB 02-07
No. Item Unit Data
1 Density (20C) g/cm3 0.8387
2 Dynamic viscosity

20
o

mm2/s 3.766
3 Freezing point

C -25
4 Actual gum mg/100ml 138
5 Acidity mgKOH/100ml 40.8
6 Basic nitrogen mg/kg 155
7 Flash point (open)

C 77
8 Aniline point

C 57.8
9 Cetane No 47
10 Copper corrosion (50C,3h) UnqualiIied
14 Bromine value gBr/100ml 21
Initial distillate point 190
25

Final distillate point 345
26



Table 2-4 Properties of Vis-broken oil (330

C)
Testing No. VB 02-07
No. Item Unit Data
1 Density (20 ) C g/cm3 0.9534
2 Dynamic viscosity mm2/s
100 C 36.70
80

C 76.79
3 Freezing point

C 11
4 Pour point

C 15
5 Group analysis
Saturation percentage m 39.8
Aromatics m 28.5
Gum m 27.5
Asphaltene m 4.2
6 Acid number mgKOH/g 1.2
7 Strong acid number mgKOH/g NIL
8 Flash point (open)

C 211
27

9 Flash point (closed)

C 121
10 Ash m 0.48
11 CCR m 12.0
12 Heat value Cal/g 9786
13 C m 87.09
14 H m 11.41
15 S m 0.17
16 N m 0.32
17 Distillate range

C
Initial point 296
5 339
10 360
30 434
50 519
18 Stability in grade 1.5





28



Table 2-5 Characteristics of the Vis-broken liquid product
(gasoline+>165 Vis-broken oil)
Testing No. VB 04-02
Class oI stability 1
Density(20C),g/cm
3
0.9179
Kinematic viscosity,mm
2
/s
20C 438.1
25C 298.0
30C 208.9
50C 64.52
Flash point(opened cup), C 84
Freezing point, C -8
Carbon residual, w 8.50
Ash, w 0.38
Total oI acid number, mg KOH/g 3.01
29

Testing No. VB 04-02
Gum, w 15.7
Asphalt, w 2.5
2.6 Process flow introduction
2.6.1Crude desalting and decalcifying
Through Ieedstock pump set in tank Iarm, crude shall be pumped to
electric desalting and decalciIying, where it shall be heat exchanged to
temperature oI 130C, then enter into Iirst-stage electric desalter. Three-
stage AC and DC desalting and decalciIying process is adopted Ior crude
desalting and decalciIying, demulsiIier shall be injected Ior three stages,
decalciIier shall be injected Ior Iirst and second stages, drain water oI the
third stage shall be back to Iirst-stage. DemulsiIier and decalciIier injection
packages shall be used. The operation pressure oI electric desalter shall be
1.0Mpa. The desalted crude shall be sent to Vis-breaking unit.
2.6.2 Crude Vis-breaking
The desalted crude come Irom crude desalting and decalciIying shall
be heat exchanged to temperature oI 300C with medium pump around
reIlux and Vis-broken oil, then enter into Ilash drum, little escaped gas shall
enter into Iractionator, the liquid phase shall Ilow into Vis-breaking Iurnace
aIter being pressurized by crude pump, reaching temperature oI 430C by
heating, it shall Ilow out oI Iurnace and, Ilow into the soaker Irom the
bottom. In the soaker, the long-time low-temperature thermal cracking
reaction shall be carried out, the reaction phase is liquid, the pressure oI
soaker shall be controlled by overhead pressure control valve, and the
reaction product shall leave Irom the top oI soaker and enter Iractionator
thereaIter.
30

In order to prevent coking, soIt water shall be injected at inlet oI Iurnace
tube oI radiation zone Ior increasing the Ilow rate oI Iluid in radiation zone.
The reaction product covers gas and liquid phases, which shall enter the
Ilash zone oI Iractionator and be separated rapidly into gas and liquid, the
liquid phase, shall Ilow to the lower tray oI tower, where it shall be
quenched to temperature oI 350C by bottom circulating oil (or be called as
quenching oil), the cracking reaction shall be stopped. The Vis-broken oil
shall leave Irom the bottom oI tower, the carried coke grain shall be Iiltered
out, then it shall be pressurized by bottom Vis-broken oil pump, and be heat
exchanged to temperature oI 260C with desalted crude, thereaIter, it shall
be divided into two ways, one way shall be back to the tray at lower oI
Iractionator as quenching oil, another way shall be cooled to temperature oI
80C via water cooler aIter be heat exchanged with crude and CPF
Ieedstock.
For gas phase Ilashed Irom the Ilashing zone oI Iractionator, it shall up Ilow
to the top oI tower, Vis-broken diesel shall be drawn out Irom the 4
th
tray,
then be pressurized by pump around reIlux pump and be heat exchanged
with desalted crude, thereaIter it shall be separated into two ways, one way
shall be back to tower as pump around reIlux, another way shall be used as
diesel and directly mixed with Vis-broken oil which has been heat
exchanged with desalted crude.
Vis-broken gasoline, Vis-broken gas and water steam shall leave Irom the
top oI tower, then they shall be cooled to temperature oI 60C via air cooler,
and be cooled to temperature oI 40C via overhead oil & gas cooler,
thereaIter they shall enter into overhead oil & gas separator Ior separating
oil, gas and water, the Vis-broken gasoline, Vis-broken gas shall be
separated Irom oily water. The separated Vis-broken gasoline shall be
31

pumped out by gasoline pump, one section oI them shall be back to top oI
tower as overhead reIlux, and the other section shall be blended with Vis-
broken oil aIter leaving plant. The separated Vis-broken gas shall be used as
Iuel oI Vis-breaking Iurnace.
Process flow Diagram
The following fig(2-2)shows process flow Diagram:




32


Fig 2-2 Flow diagram of Balila Vis-breaking plant VBP





33


2.7 Control system of plant
According to scope and sensitivity oI central processing Iacilities With
the accurate instrument equipment, advanced computer program, the control
theory and the auto-control level oI this unit will reach the advanced level in
the world; it can realize the high eIIiciency, saIety and long time stable
running with less personnel.
The control system is the new distributed control system (DCS) all the
key process parameters will be inputted into DCS to conduct the real time
control, real time display and alarm oI the operating period together with
creating various reporting Iorms(such as about operation, management and
alarm).
Emergency shutting down system (ESD) separated Irom DCS shall be
equipped Ior Iurnace to ensure the saIety oI operation.
2.8 Study of area
Balila crude oil Iield one oI the most oil producing area in Sudan.
The basin located in western KordoIan state belongs to the Fula town.
2.8.1Address and occupied area
Crude Vis-breaking Plant locates at the northeast oI CPF, CPF tank Iarm
locates to west oI plant, CPF utilities locates to the south oI plant.
The appropriate site Ior the Vis-breaking unit is in a heavy crude oil CPF,
beIore the Iirst pump station, and Almoglad basin with its heavy crude oil is
a perIect site.
CPF unit is composed oI heat exchangers, diesel tanks, gas package
treatment system, light crude oil & natural gas treatment Iacilities, produced
34

water treatment system, Vis-breaking unit, pump station 1 and tanks. The
occupied area oI this plant is 120m94m11280 m
2
.
2.8.2 Climate and vegetation
The study area pass semi arid to semi tropical region in the south,
there are seasonal variation in the rain Ialls temperature and wind.
Generally the area is characterized by eight month oI dry weather in which
the wind blows Irom north east Iollowed by Iour month oI rainy season. The
ambient temperature Ior the region ranges between 18-23
o
c during
November-March and 34-37
o
c during hot net period oI April to September.
The majority oI rain Iall is during July, August and September.
2.8.3 Plant layout of Vis-breaker in Balila
From the Balila lay out location oI the oIIices, laboratory, control
room and rest room is down wind, and there is no Iire station but there is a
Iire Iighting system Ior each unit, there is no medical unit but there is a Iirst
aid unit in the oIIices.
Following Fig (2-3) shows Balila vis-breaking plant:









35



























Fig (2-3) Plant layout of Vis-breaking plant in Balila
UTILITIES


PROCESS
L
A
B
O
R
A
T
O
R
Y

WARE
HOUSE
R
E
S
T

R
O
O
M

POWRE STATION
OFFICES
C
O
N
T
R
O
L

R
O
O
M

MSQUE



CPF
36


2.9 Economical analyses
2.9.1Transportation cost
2.9.1.1 Past transportation cost
The estimation oI transporting Ior Balila crude oil beIore established
the Vis-breaking plant depends on:
- Cost oI pipeline.
- Cost oI pump station
- Heat station and heat tracing.
- Cost oI chemical, but we dont have inIormation about the chemical
use or cost oI this operation. So is use chemical which cost 2.8$ per
liter and Ior every 1,000,000 bbl oI crude we need 1900 liter oI
chemical. For40000bpd need 76 liter oI chemical
Then the cost per year 76*44*4.546*2.8*365
15536264.13$
Labors cost per year:
Two operator in each heating station, the system its shiIt work
940*2*2*6*12
270720$
Then the total past cost per year 15806984.13$
Marshal& SwiIt Index value at 2004 1178.5
37

Marshal& SwiIt Index value at 2009 1489.6
Cost per year at 2009 15806984.13 *1489.6
1178.5
19979706.03$
2.9.2 Estimation of the benefit
Vis-breaking plant can be decrease the cost oI transportation by
elimination the cost oI chemical and thermal station& coil which use heat
tracing.
II we want estimate the beneIit must be calculate the total capital investment
TCI & production cost by year.
2.9.2.1 Estimation of capital investment
Total capital investment comprise direct and indirect cost, various
methods can be employed Ior estimating capital investment. The choice oI
any one depends upon the amount oI detailed inIormation available and
accuracy desired. One oI this method is the percentage method which based
on the delivered equipment cost, or we can use modiIy Irom the percentage
method, which based on type oI process plant gives rise to delivered
equipment ratio Iactor method DERE.
Based on DERE , that is by Iound purchased equipment, then the calculated
value oI the TCI in year 2008 its equal to 33.00732 M$
Marshal& SwiIt Index value at 2008 1438.5
Marshal& SwiIt Index value at 2009 1489.6

38

By using Marshal& SwiIt cost index as shown below:
Present cost (C
t
)
Original cost (C
0
)* index value at present year (Y
t
) |2-1|
Index value at original year (Y
0
)
Cost at 2009 33007320*1489.6
1438.5
34179843$
2.9.2.2Estimation of total production cost
The total production cost TPC involves the Iollowing;
1- ManuIacturing cost, comprise Iixed cost & variable cost.
2- General expense.
The calculated value oI the TPC in year 2009 its equal to
11901612$
2.9.2.3 Benefit by year
past transportation cost per year production cost per year
19979706.03 - 11901612
8078094.03$



39

Payback period for Vis-breaking investment plant
capital investment .. |2-2|
BeneIit per year
34179843
8078094.03
4.23 year
Besides saving in the total transportation expense per year the Vis-
breaking process increase the value oI crude and the Iollowing discussion
show how to estimate this increase in value and Pricing oI the crude oil.
2.9.2.4 The differences of crude oil price are based upon
- API gravity diIIerentials.
- Freight rate diIIerential.
- Sulphur content diIIerential.
- Other disparities, e. g, pour point, wax content and metal content, etc.
The Iollowing table shows the diIIerence in properties beIore and aIter Vis-
breaking process and aIter blending. Tested and measured on Balila Iield lap
Ior Petro Energy Company.




40


Table 2-6 Difference in properties of crude before and after VBU






2.10 Energy consumption for Vis-breaking plant
Each pipeline system requires very high investment should be used most
economical and eIIicient operation oI pipeline could reached by maintaining
a continuous constant Ilow rate without any interruption , also in respect oI
reliable and continuous supply to the reIineries , a steady state through put
and this is not endangered by weather conditions such as Iog.
2.10.1Pump ability characteristics of wax crude oil
In any pipeline system Ior transportation Ior waxy oils, we have to
ensure the Iollowing |4|:
1- Operating saIety, i.e. Protection pipeline against blockage by the setting
oI the Ilow oI oil into strong gel.
2- Operating economy, i.e. maintaining a reasonable Ilowing viscosity with
resulting economic level oI power consumption.
properties Density API Viscosity
stage g/cm m Pa.s
Feed from CPF 0.9468 17.8 8518
Blend Train 1&2 0.9376 19.2 1517
Final blend 0.9354 19.6 1950
41

As already explained, the viscous crude oils show complex rheological
relationships. The pumping and restarting condition oI the pipeline require
physical properties oI the crude oil which represent the actual condition in
the pipeline, these properties should be easy to determine and have good
reproducibility.
2.10.2 Effective pipeline viscosity
For determining pressure gradients in the pipeline, eIIective pumping
viscosities have to be determined. Using these viscosities, the conventional
Iormulae can be use Ior calculation oI pressure drop.
The eIIective pipeline viscosity Ior calculating Irictional pressure drop at
various Ilow rates and temperature, and this is lead as to estimate the total
cost oI crude oil transportation due to determined cost oI energy
consumption oI the main part oI the transportation system. (5)
Main parts oI the transportation system are the pipeline and the pump
stations. II the oil is to transport to a place located at a relatively small
distance, then one pump station at the head end point may prove to be
suIIicient. II , however , the pipeline is long then the building oI several ,
so-called booster pump stations is required Iormerly, at the booster stations
, also cylindrical and vertical storage tanks oI atmospheric pressure were
used. The pump station in the head end oI pipeline section transported
crude to the tanks oI the tail end point, and Irom these tanks the pump oI
station sucked oil and transmitted into the next section.



42

2.10.3 Yield stress
It measures the ability oI Iluid to restart its Ilow aIter shutdown oI the
transportation system. The yield stress oI an oil, at given temperature is
deIined as the shear stress required to initiate Ilow. |4|
2.10.4 Rheological classification of fluid
There exists a rate oI shear and shear stress at each point in a Ilowing Iluid:
1 - Newtonian fluids
A Newtonian Iluid is one whose viscosity at given temperature is
independent oI the rate oI shear. There is a linear relationship between the
shear stress and the rate oI shear. |4|
2 Non-Newtonian fluid
Is one whose viscosity at given temperature is dependent on the
rate oI shear.
3 Pseudo-plastic fluid
In pseudo-plastic Iluids, the viscosity decreases with increase in the
rate oI shear, Iluid may be Newtonian.
4 - Dilatent fluids
In the dilatent Iluid, the viscosity increases with increase in the rate oI
shear.

5 - Bingham-plastic fluids
43

This Iluid yield stress below which no Ilow occurs, the behavior
close to that oI solid |7|, above classiIication is shown that in the
Iollowing Figure





Figure 2-4 Rheological classification of fluid



A-Newtonian, B-Pseudoplastic, C-Bingham plastic, D-Dilaten.
Any Ilow curve has diIIerent shapes but in its Rang according
to deIormation rang Irom high to low, Ior example:




Pseudoplastic Iluid Newtonian Iluid
44

2.10.5 Losses of energy in pipeline
Losses oI energy in a pipeline are due to:
A Shock Irom the disturbance oI normal Ilow due to bends or sudden
change oI section.
B - Frictional resistance to Ilow.
These losses are conventionally expressed as energy lost in N-m/N.
that is to say as the head lost in terms oI the pipe, and related to the velocity
head. (8)
II v velocity in the pipe, velocity head v
2
.. |2-3|
2g
And head lost K (v
2
/2g ) were k is a constant.
Losses oI energy in a pipeline ca not ignored. When the shock losses and
Iriction loss have been determined they are inserted in Bernoullis equation
in the usual way. (8)
Let the speciIic energy content oI the crude oil be W
1
(J/N) at the head end,
and W
L
(J/N) at a distance L m Irom the head end .the decrease in speciIic
energy content is equivalent to the Iriction loss, i.e. it is :
W
1
- W
L
(P
1
- P
L
) |2-4|
( g (v
1
2
- v
L
2
)/2g Z
1
- Z
L
)


In horizontal pipeline at steady Ilow
W
1
- W
L
(P
1
- P
L
) .|2-5|
g
2.10.6 Friction Loss in Pipe
Friction loss is caused by several Iactors, all oI which depend on the
45

Iluid viscosity and Ilow velocity generated by the pump. The major sources
oI Iriction loss are included:
1. Friction between the pumped liquid and the side walls oI the pipe.
2. Valves, elbows, and other mechanical Ilow restrictions.
3. Other Ilow restrictions, such as back-pressure created by the weight
oI the liquid in the delivery storage tank or resistance within the system
components. (11)
The Irictional resistance to which a Iluid is subjected as it Ilows along a
pipe results in a continuous loss oI energy or total head oI Iluid. It is
customary to reIer to the rate oI total head along the pipe by term hydraulic
gradient . (12)
i h . |2-5|
L
Where:
h: Total head loss in length L oI pipe.
Experiments show that Ior a given Iluid moving along a given pipe:

Ior turbulent Ilow
i v
n
|2-6|
Where:
v: is the average Iluid velocity.
n: An index which lies between (1.7 and 2.0) depending on the value oI
Reynolds number (Re) and roughness oI the wall oI the pipe.
In turbulent Ilow, the pressure drop (P) over length (L) is related to the wall
Shear stress (
w
) by the equation:


w
P*R P*D .. |2-7|
2L 4L
Where:
R and D: Are piped radius and diameter respectively.
46

The shear stress is related to the velocity pressure v
2
:
I
w
/ |(1/2)*v* | .. |2-8|
Where:
: is the Iluid density.
I: Ianning Iriction loss Iactor.

2.10.7 Determine the effective of the rheological parameters
Shear stress
Consider the steady Ilow oI Iluid in a horizontal pipe oI circular
cross-section.the Iluid Ilows with and an average velocity oI U in a pipe oI
inside diameter D. the pressure between two points 1 & 2 separated by a
distance oI l is (P
1
P
2
).
The decrease in pressure in the Iluid reIlects the applied Iorce causing
the Iluid to steady Ilow (no change in Ilow and hence velocity), this Iorce
must be counter-balanced by a shearing Iorce oI equal magnitude at the
wall oI the pipe .iI
w
is shear stress at the pipe wall, then Iorce acting on
the Iluid at the wall must be - DL
w
,

the negative sign indicates that this
Iorce acts in a direction opposite to the direction oI Ilow. The Iorce acting
upon the Iluid due to pressure diIIerence is the (D
2
/4) (P
1
P
2
).in steady
state (no acceleration), the sum oI these tow Iorces is zero. There Ior we
can write:
*D*L *
w
(D
2
/4) (P
1
P
2
) 0 |2-9|

w
D (P
1
P
2
) ...|2-10|
4L
Where:
47

L: pipeline length
P
1
: initial pressure
P
2
: pressure aIter length L
D: internal diameter oI pipeline.
Above equation merely shows that the shear stress at the pipeline wall
is just another means oI expression oI Iriction loss such as pressure Iriction
loss, it Iollows that available shear stress Ior a particular pipeline depends
on the length oI the pipeline between tow pump station and the pressure
diIIerence.
Viscosity
The viscosity also can be deIined as the ratio oI shear stress to the rate oI
shear (4).

w
.. |2-11|
(du / dr)
For the Ilow in pipe, the Iriction loss is given by
(P
1
P
2
) 32 U |2-12|
L D
Where:
: viscosity oI Iluid
U: Iluid velocity
D (P
1
P
2
)/4L} |2-13|
(8U/D)

w
|2-14|
(8U/D)
48

Then the relation between viscosity & shear stress:

w
|2-15|
(8U/D)
Rate of shear ()
(8U/D) |2-16|

w
. |2-17|




















49







Chapter Three


Material
And
Method







50


2.7 Control system of plant
According to scope and sensitivity oI central processing Iacilities With
the accurate instrument equipment, advanced computer program, the control
theory and the auto-control level oI this unit will reach the advanced level in
the world; it can realize the high eIIiciency, saIety and long time stable
running with less personnel.
The control system is the new distributed control system (DCS) all the
key process parameters will be inputted into DCS to conduct the real time
control, real time display and alarm oI the operating period together with
creating various reporting Iorms(such as about operation, management and
alarm).
Emergency shutting down system (ESD) separated Irom DCS shall be
equipped Ior Iurnace to ensure the saIety oI operation.
2.9 Study of area
Balila crude oil Iield one oI the most oil producing area in Sudan.
The basin located in western KordoIan state belongs to the Fula town.
2.8.1Address and occupied area
Crude Vis-breaking Plant locates at the northeast oI CPF, CPF tank Iarm
locates to west oI plant, CPF utilities locates to the south oI plant.
The appropriate site Ior the Vis-breaking unit is in a heavy crude oil CPF,
beIore the Iirst pump station, and Almoglad basin with its heavy crude oil is
a perIect site.
CPF unit is composed oI heat exchangers, diesel tanks, gas package
treatment system, light crude oil & natural gas treatment Iacilities, produced
51

water treatment system, Vis-breaking unit, pump station 1 and tanks. The
occupied area oI this plant is 120m94m11280 m
2
.
2.8.2 Climate and vegetation
The study area pass semi arid to semi tropical region in the south,
there are seasonal variation in the rain Ialls temperature and wind.
Generally the area is characterized by eight month oI dry weather in which
the wind blows Irom north east Iollowed by Iour month oI rainy season. The
ambient temperature Ior the region ranges between 18-23
o
c during
November-March and 34-37
o
c during hot net period oI April to September.
The majority oI rain Iall is during July, August and September.
2.8.3 Plant layout of Vis-breaker in Balila
From the Balila lay out location oI the oIIices, laboratory, control
room and rest room is down wind, and there is no Iire station but there is a
Iire Iighting system Ior each unit, there is no medical unit but there is a Iirst
aid unit in the oIIices.
Following Fig (2-3) shows Balila vis-breaking plant:









52


2.9 Economical analyses
2.9.1Transportation cost
2.9.1.1 Past transportation cost
The estimation oI transporting Ior Balila crude oil beIore established
the Vis-breaking plant depends on:
- Cost oI pipeline.
- Cost oI pump station
- Heat station and heat tracing.
- Cost oI chemical, but we dont have inIormation about the chemical
use or cost oI this operation. So is use chemical which cost 2.8$ per
liter and Ior every 1,000,000 bbl oI crude we need 1900 liter oI
chemical. For40000bpd need 76 liter oI chemical
Then the cost per year 76*44*4.546*2.8*365
15536264.13$
Labors cost per year:
Two operator in each heating station, the system its shiIt work
940*2*2*6*12
270720$
Then the total past cost per year 15806984.13$
Marshal& SwiIt Index value at 2004 1178.5
Marshal& SwiIt Index value at 2009 1489.6
53

Cost per year at 2009 15806984.13 *1489.6
1178.5
19979706.03$
2.9.2 Estimation of the benefit
Vis-breaking plant can be decrease the cost oI transportation by
elimination the cost oI chemical and thermal station& coil which use heat
tracing.
II we want estimate the beneIit must be calculate the total capital investment
TCI & production cost by year.
2.9.2.1 Estimation of capital investment
Total capital investment comprise direct and indirect cost, various
methods can be employed Ior estimating capital investment. The choice oI
any one depends upon the amount oI detailed inIormation available and
accuracy desired. One oI this method is the percentage method which based
on the delivered equipment cost, or we can use modiIy Irom the percentage
method, which based on type oI process plant gives rise to delivered
equipment ratio Iactor method DERE.
Based on DERE , that is by Iound purchased equipment, then the calculated
value oI the TCI in year 2008 its equal to 33.00732 M$
Marshal& SwiIt Index value at 2008 1438.5
Marshal& SwiIt Index value at 2009 1489.6
By using Marshal& SwiIt cost index as shown below:
Present cost (C
t
)
54

Original cost (C
0
)* index value at present year (Y
t
) |2-1|
Index value at original year (Y
0
)
Cost at 2009 33007320*1489.6
1438.5
34179843$
2.9.2.2Estimation of total production cost
The total production cost TPC involves the Iollowing;
3- ManuIacturing cost, comprise Iixed cost & variable cost.
4- General expense.
The calculated value oI the TPC in year 2009 its equal to
11901612$
2.9.2.3 Benefit by year
past transportation cost per year production cost per year
19979706.03 - 11901612
8078094.03$

Payback period for Vis-breaking investment plant
capital investment .. |2-2|
BeneIit per year
34179843
55

8078094.03
4.23 year
Besides saving in the total transportation expense per year the Vis-
breaking process increase the value oI crude and the Iollowing discussion
show how to estimate this increase in value and Pricing oI the crude oil.
2.9.2.4 The differences of crude oil price are based upon
- API gravity diIIerentials.
- Freight rate diIIerential.
- Sulphur content diIIerential.
- Other disparities, e. g, pour point, wax content and metal content, etc.
The Iollowing table shows the diIIerence in properties beIore and aIter Vis-
breaking process and aIter blending. Tested and measured on Balila Iield lap
Ior Petro Energy Company.
Table 2-6 Difference in properties of crude before and after VBU







properties Density API Viscosity
stage g/cm m Pa.s
Feed from CPF 0.9468 17.8 8518
Blend Train 1&2 0.9376 19.2 1517
Final blend 0.9354 19.6 1950
56

2.11 Energy consumption for Vis-breaking plant
Each pipeline system requires very high investment should be used most
economical and eIIicient operation oI pipeline could reached by maintaining
a continuous constant Ilow rate without any interruption , also in respect oI
reliable and continuous supply to the reIineries , a steady state through put
and this is not endangered by weather conditions such as Iog.
2.10.1Pump ability characteristics of wax crude oil
In any pipeline system Ior transportation Ior waxy oils, we have to
ensure the Iollowing |4|:
3- Operating saIety, i.e. Protection pipeline against blockage by the setting
oI the Ilow oI oil into strong gel.
4- Operating economy, i.e. maintaining a reasonable Ilowing viscosity with
resulting economic level oI power consumption.
As already explained, the viscous crude oils show complex rheological
relationships. The pumping and restarting condition oI the pipeline require
physical properties oI the crude oil which represent the actual condition in
the pipeline, these properties should be easy to determine and have good
reproducibility.
2.10.2 Effective pipeline viscosity
For determining pressure gradients in the pipeline, eIIective pumping
viscosities have to be determined. Using these viscosities, the conventional
Iormulae can be use Ior calculation oI pressure drop.
The eIIective pipeline viscosity Ior calculating Irictional pressure drop at
various Ilow rates and temperature, and this is lead as to estimate the total
57

cost oI crude oil transportation due to determined cost oI energy
consumption oI the main part oI the transportation system. (5)
Main parts oI the transportation system are the pipeline and the pump
stations. II the oil is to transport to a place located at a relatively small
distance, then one pump station at the head end point may prove to be
suIIicient. II , however , the pipeline is long then the building oI several ,
so-called booster pump stations is required Iormerly, at the booster stations
, also cylindrical and vertical storage tanks oI atmospheric pressure were
used. The pump station in the head end oI pipeline section transported
crude to the tanks oI the tail end point, and Irom these tanks the pump oI
station sucked oil and transmitted into the next section.
2.10.3 Yield stress
It measures the ability oI Iluid to restart its Ilow aIter shutdown oI the
transportation system. The yield stress oI an oil, at given temperature is
deIined as the shear stress required to initiate Ilow. |4|
2.10.4 Rheological classification of fluid
There exists a rate oI shear and shear stress at each point in a Ilowing Iluid:
1 - Newtonian fluids
A Newtonian Iluid is one whose viscosity at given temperature is
independent oI the rate oI shear. There is a linear relationship between the
shear stress and the rate oI shear. |4|
2 Non-Newtonian fluid
Is one whose viscosity at given temperature is dependent on the
rate oI shear.
58

3 Pseudo-plastic fluid
In pseudo-plastic Iluids, the viscosity decreases with increase in the
rate oI shear, Iluid may be Newtonian.
4 - Dilatent fluids
In the dilatent Iluid, the viscosity increases with increase in the rate oI
shear.
5 - Bingham-plastic fluids
This Iluid yield stress below which no Ilow occurs, the behavior
close to that oI solid |7|, above classiIication is shown that in the
Iollowing Figure





Figure 2-4 Rheological classification of fluid
A-Newtonian, B-Pseudoplastic, C-Bingham plastic, D-Dilaten.
Any Ilow curve has diIIerent shapes but in its Rang according
to deIormation rang Irom high to low, Ior example:


59



Pseudoplastic Iluid Newtonian Iluid
2.10.5 Losses of energy in pipeline
Losses oI energy in a pipeline are due to:
A Shock Irom the disturbance oI normal Ilow due to bends or sudden
change oI section.
B - Frictional resistance to Ilow.
These losses are conventionally expressed as energy lost in N-m/N.
that is to say as the head lost in terms oI the pipe, and related to the velocity
head. (8)
II v velocity in the pipe, velocity head v
2
.. |2-3|
2g
And head lost K (v
2
/2g ) were k is a constant.
Losses oI energy in a pipeline ca not ignored. When the shock losses and
Iriction loss have been determined they are inserted in Bernoullis equation
in the usual way. (8)
Let the speciIic energy content oI the crude oil be W
1
(J/N) at the head end,
and W
L
(J/N) at a distance L m Irom the head end .the decrease in speciIic
energy content is equivalent to the Iriction loss, i.e. it is :
W
1
- W
L
(P
1
- P
L
) |2-4|
( g (v
1
2
- v
L
2
)/2g Z
1
- Z
L
)


In horizontal pipeline at steady Ilow
60

W
1
- W
L
(P
1
- P
L
) .|2-5|
g
2.10.6 Friction Loss in Pipe
Friction loss is caused by several Iactors, all oI which depend on the
Iluid viscosity and Ilow velocity generated by the pump. The major sources
oI Iriction loss are included:
1. Friction between the pumped liquid and the side walls oI the pipe.
2. Valves, elbows, and other mechanical Ilow restrictions.
3. Other Ilow restrictions, such as back-pressure created by the weight
oI the liquid in the delivery storage tank or resistance within the system
components. (11)
The Irictional resistance to which a Iluid is subjected as it Ilows along a
pipe results in a continuous loss oI energy or total head oI Iluid. It is
customary to reIer to the rate oI total head along the pipe by term hydraulic
gradient . (12)
i h . |2-5|
L
Where:
h: Total head loss in length L oI pipe.
Experiments show that Ior a given Iluid moving along a given pipe:

Ior turbulent Ilow
i v
n
|2-6|
Where:
v: is the average Iluid velocity.
n: An index which lies between (1.7 and 2.0) depending on the value oI
Reynolds number (Re) and roughness oI the wall oI the pipe.
In turbulent Ilow, the pressure drop (P) over length (L) is related to the wall
Shear stress (
w
) by the equation:
61



w
P*R P*D .. |2-7|
2L 4L
Where:
R and D: Are piped radius and diameter respectively.
The shear stress is related to the velocity pressure v
2
:
I
w
/ |(1/2)*v* | .. |2-8|
Where:
: is the Iluid density.
I: Ianning Iriction loss Iactor.

2.10.8 Determine the effective of the rheological parameters
Shear stress
Consider the steady Ilow oI Iluid in a horizontal pipe oI circular
cross-section.the Iluid Ilows with and an average velocity oI U in a pipe oI
inside diameter D. the pressure between two points 1 & 2 separated by a
distance oI l is (P
1
P
2
).
The decrease in pressure in the Iluid reIlects the applied Iorce causing
the Iluid to steady Ilow (no change in Ilow and hence velocity), this Iorce
must be counter-balanced by a shearing Iorce oI equal magnitude at the
wall oI the pipe .iI
w
is shear stress at the pipe wall, then Iorce acting on
the Iluid at the wall must be - DL
w
,

the negative sign indicates that this
Iorce acts in a direction opposite to the direction oI Ilow. The Iorce acting
upon the Iluid due to pressure diIIerence is the (D
2
/4) (P
1
P
2
).in steady
state (no acceleration), the sum oI these tow Iorces is zero. There Ior we
can write:
62

*D*L *
w
(D
2
/4) (P
1
P
2
) 0 |2-9|

w
D (P
1
P
2
) ...|2-10|
4L
Where:
L: pipeline length
P
1
: initial pressure
P
2
: pressure aIter length L
D: internal diameter oI pipeline.
Above equation merely shows that the shear stress at the pipeline wall
is just another means oI expression oI Iriction loss such as pressure Iriction
loss, it Iollows that available shear stress Ior a particular pipeline depends
on the length oI the pipeline between tow pump station and the pressure
diIIerence.
Viscosity
The viscosity also can be deIined as the ratio oI shear stress to the rate oI
shear (4).

w
.. |2-11|
(du / dr)
For the Ilow in pipe, the Iriction loss is given by
(P
1
P
2
) 32 U |2-12|
L D
Where:
: viscosity oI Iluid
63

U: Iluid velocity
D (P
1
P
2
)/4L} |2-13|
(8U/D)

w
|2-14|
(8U/D)
Then the relation between viscosity & shear stress:

w
|2-15|
(8U/D)
Rate of shear ()
(8U/D) |2-16|

w
. |2-17|














64

Chapter Three


Material
And
Method









3. Material and Method
65

In this study evaluates and analyses sample collected from petro-
energy Company before and after the Vis-breaking plant, through
measurement of physical and rheological properties. And the general
parameters of the pump stations, to study; Did the Vis-breaking plant
contribute in power saving and minimize the power consumption?,
through conditioning the crude oil according to the pipeline
transportation requirement, due to effect of friction loss , shear stress as
a function of viscosity.
3.1 Chemicals
The chemicals should be subjected to the analyses are:
1- Balila crude oil high viscosity, beIore VBU.
2- Vis-broken crude oil low viscosity, aIter VBU.
3.2 Apparatus
3.2.1 Viscosity apparatus
Front view
1-Temperature adjust knob
2-temprature display
3-press to adjust button
4-locking screw
5-holes Ior viscometers
6-heating element
7-stirrer
66

Rear view
8-thermometer
9-jar glass
10-power out let 220 volt
11-thermometer holder
12-lever oI security
13-test button security
14-lever oI main switch
15-U tube
16-stop watch
17-Pipette Iilter
18-beaker
3.2.2 Density apparatus
- cylinder 100 ml
- hydrometer
- stirrer
- beakers
- digital thermometers
- burette
- pipette
67

3.2.3Velocity
- Pipeline with inside diameter and outside diameter
- Carriers
- Lamp
- Stop watch
3.3 Procedure for chemical and physical analysis
The Iollowing procedures were to determine the properties the sample.
3.3.1 Viscosity
The viscosity oI oil is a measure oI its resistance to internal Ilow and its
an indication oI its oiliness in lubrication oI surIace, in the centimeter-gram.
Second (cm. g/s), the unit oI viscosity is the poise or centipoises.
The viscosity is determined by measuring the time it takes Ior crude to Ilow
through a capillary tube oI a given length at a precise temperature .this is
called the kinematic viscosity, expressed in mm
2
/s. it is deIined by standards
American Society Ior testing and measuring (ASTM D-445).Viscosity can
also be determined by measuring oI time it takes Ior the oil to Ilow through
calibrated oriIice, standard ASTM D-88. It is expressed in say bolt second.
Some conversion tables Ior the diIIerent units are used and standardized
(ASTM D-2161, 1999).
3.3.2 Density &specific gravity
Density is the mass oI liquid per unit volume at 15
o
c;and the speciIic
gravity is the same as the relative density.
68

In the most commonly used method (ASTM D-1298, 1999), the sample
is brought to the prescribed temperature and transIerred to cylinder at
approximately the same temperature. The appropriate Hydrometer is
lowered into the sample and allowed to settle, and, aIter temperature
equilibrium has been reached, the Hydrometer is read and the temperature oI
the sample is noted.
Another test determines density and speciIic gravity by means oI a digital
dens-meter (ASTM D-4052). In the test, a small volume (approximately .8
ml) oI liquid sample is introduced into an oscillating Irequency caused by
the change in mass oI the tube is used in conjunction with calibration data to
determine the density oI the sample. This test is usually applied to the crude
oil petroleum, petroleum distillates and petroleum products.
API gravity is a measure oI the lightness or heaviness oI petroleum that is
related to density and speciIic gravity by the Iollowing equation:
API (141.5/sp.gr 60
o
F) 131.5

3.3.3 Velocity v:
Distance per time.
II:
Q is the pipeline discharge and A across sectional area.
V Q /A
4*Q /*d
2

Where: d is internal diameter.
3.4 Calculation data
69

The Iollowing Tables shows parameters Ior Balila crude oil was
tested and measured Irom crude beIore VBU and aIter VBU at Iirst pump
station.

Table 3.1 Field data collected from Balila before VBP















Balila Crude Oil

before VBU

No Temp
Flow
rate Viscosity

O
C m
3
/h mPa.s
1
71.3 282 464
2
72.1 260 469
3
72.5 278 461.2
4
72.6 272 459
5
72.9 270 452
6
73 267 447
7
73.1 266 440
8
73.3 265 439
9
73.5 263 428.8
10
73.7 259 418.2
11
74.2 257 409.7
12
75.8 254 392.5
70



Table 3.2 Field data collected from Balila after VBP

















Vis-broken Crude

after VBU

No Temp Flow rate Viscosity

O
C m
3
/h mPa.s
1
77 254 51
2
76.9 269 53
3
76.8 260 57.1
4
76.6 262 60.7
5
76.5 270 67
6
76.4 263 62
7
76.3 265 64
8
76.2 268 68.4
9
76.1 271 71.5
10
75.8 273 74.3
11
75.7 275 77.6
12
75.6 265 82
71

3.5 Calculation Procedure
Used an excel program as the soItware, that by inter above value oI data
insisted variable and inter mathematical models insisted empty cells at
diIIerent columns.
Plotting procedure:
3.5.1 Plotting with MATLAB
MATLAB; Iormerly used by specialists in signal processing and
numerical analysis. MATLAB in recent years has chived wide-spread and
acceptance throughout the Engineering community.
MATLAB contains many powerIul Iunctions Ior easily creating plots oI
several diIIerent types, such as rectilinear, logarithmic, surIace and counter
plots. MATLAB has other useIul Iunction are title, grid and etc. MATLAB
can create Iigures that contain an array oI plots, called subplots. These are
useIul when we want to compare the same data plotted with diIIerent axis,
can use the subplot command to obtain several smaller subplots in the same
Iigure.






72







Chapter four

Result
And
Discussion









73



4. 1.Results
The Iollowing tables had shown the calculation result Ior rheological
characteristics oI Balila Crude oil beIore and aIter VBU.

Table 4.1 calculation sheet before VBU
Balila Crude Oil before VBU




Flow
rate Viscosity
Flow
rate Area Velocity
shear
rate
Shear
stress
m
3
/h mPa.s m
3
/s m
2
m/s 1/s pa
282 464 0.07833 0.29172 0.26853 3.52397 1.63512
260 469 0.07222 0.29172 0.24758 3.24905 1.5238
278 461.2 0.07722 0.29172 0.26472 3.47398 1.6022
272 459 0.07556 0.29172 0.259 3.39901 1.56014
270 452 0.075 0.29172 0.2571 3.37401 1.52505
267 447 0.07417 0.29172 0.25424 3.33652 1.49143
266 440 0.07389 0.29172 0.25329 3.32403 1.46257
265 439 0.07361 0.29172 0.25234 3.31153 1.45376
263 428.8 0.07306 0.29172 0.25043 3.28654 1.40927
259 418.2 0.07194 0.29172 0.24663 3.23655 1.35353
257 409.7 0.07139 0.29172 0.24472 3.21156 1.31578
254 392.5 0.07056 0.29172 0.24186 3.17407 1.24582



74


Table 4.2 calculation sheet after VBU
Vis-broken Crude Oil after VBU



Flow
rate Viscosity
Flow
rate Area Velocity
shear
rate
Shear
stress
m
3
/h mpa.s m
3
/s m
2
m/s 1/s pa
254 51 0.07056 0.29172 0.24186 3.17407 0.16188
269 53 0.07472 0.29172 0.25615 3.36152 0.17816
260 57.1 0.07222 0.29172 0.24758 3.24905 0.18552
262 60.7 0.07278 0.29172 0.24948 3.27404 0.19873
270 67 0.075 0.29172 0.2571 3.37401 0.22606
263 62 0.07306 0.29172 0.25043 3.28654 0.20377
265 64 0.07361 0.29172 0.25234 3.31153 0.21194
268 68.4 0.07444 0.29172 0.2552 3.34902 0.22907
271 71.5 0.07528 0.29172 0.25805 3.38651 0.24214
273 74.3 0.07583 0.29172 0.25996 3.4115 0.25347
275 77.6 0.07639 0.29172 0.26186 3.43649 0.26667
265 82 0.07361 0.29172 0.25234 3.31153 0.27155


The Iollowing Figures had shown the results oI plotting with Matlab
Irom above calculation sheets
Figure 4.1 plot oI shear rate verse shear stress Ior Crude beIore VBU
Figure 4.2 plot oI shear rate verse shear stress Ior Crude aIter VBU
Sample oI plotting with MATLAB
75





76





4.2 Discussion
4.2.1For Study area
From Balila lay out the location oI the oIIices, laboratory, control
room and rest room are down wind and that is against Iire prevention and
saIety. Thats recently shown by the operators complains.


77

4.2.2 For Cost study
The number 4.23 indicate that the benefit of the Vis-breaking plant
should be shown to as after four years and three month. And this
explained that the plant meet the expectations by making balance
between cost minimization and process optimization, but its need more
parameters adjustment for coming expansion.
4.2.3 For Energy consumption
Rheological properties Balila crude oil are calculated and plotted in
Iigs (1) through (2).Iigure1 shows that its bulked Iluid although its
heated by exchanged with Vis-broken oil, Iigure2 shows that the shear
stress increases with viscosity as the shear rate increases or temperature
decreases. And the Vis-broken crude was Iound to be as the Newtonian
Iluid behavior at the test temperatures.
These Iigs explained that the pressure required to pumps such crude
decrease as the oil viscosity decrease or temperature increase, due to their
diIIerences in shear stress.










78










Chapter Five

Conclusion
And
Recommendations






79


5.1 Conclusion
The Vis-breaking treating at the present study led to signiIicant
improvement in the rheological properties oI the blends, including lower
dynamic viscosity, pour point and yield stress Ior viscous crude, in order
to prevent transportation pipeline cannot be re-stared within the pump
capacity and minimize the wax deposition on the wall oI pipeline.
Technical study showed that, the capacity oI Vis-breaking plant may be
increased to cover more than transportation requirement; however there
is possibility oI producing diesel and gasoline Ior local consumption.
5.2 Recommendation
1 - Any work must be subjected to the cost study and process
optimization and to make the competition between deIerence methods
beIore constructions and not vice versa; to reach to the power saving.
2 - SaIety and environmental impact assessment should be considerate
more and more to prevent the community and its environment to keep the
natural resource clean Ior coming generation.







80



References

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Fracture, J. Pet. Technology.
2. Vis-breaking plant operating manual; Petro Energy Oil Company; (2006)
3. Nenniger, J. and Nenniger, (1990).SPE Paper CIM/SPE 90-57
Optimizing Hot Oiling /Watering Jobs to Minimize Formation Damage,
presented at the International Technical Meeting in Calgary,
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prepared Ior presentation at the (47 May 1998) OIIshore Technology
ConIerence held in Houston, Texas.
6. Dr. IItikhar A Crude evaluation Ior pricing (1990); JOWFE oil technology
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second edition, part A. OxIord, Amsterdam.
8. Liods. Marks, Editor; (1951) late Gordon Mc kay; Standard Hand Book
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Amesterdam- Newyourk.
81

11. Caslon, JF Richardson and Harker and Backhurst, (1996); Chemical
Engineering, Volume1.IiIth edition; Great Britain.
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Thanks