THE CASE FOR ANIMAL RIGHTS

By Tom Regan
How to proceed? We eg!n y a"#!ng $ow t$e mora% "tat&" o' an!ma%" $a" een
&nder"tood y t$!n#er" w$o deny t$at an!ma%" $a(e r!g$t") T$en we te"t t$e mett%e o'
t$e!r !dea" y "ee!ng $ow we%% t$ey "tand &p &nder t$e $eat o' 'a!r cr!t!c!"m) I' we "tart
o&r t$!n#!ng !n t$!" way we "oon '!nd t$at "ome peop%e e%!e(e t$at we $a(e no d&t!e"
d!rect%y to an!ma%"* t$at we owe not$!ng to t$em t$at we can do not$!ng t$at wrong"
t$em) Rat$er we can do wrong act" t$at !n(o%(e an!ma%" and "o we $a(e d&t!e" regard!ng
t$em t$o&g$ none to t$em) S&c$ (!ew" may e ca%%ed indirect duty views. By way o'
!%%&"trat!on ++ "&ppo"e yo&r ne!g$or #!c#" yo&r dog) T$en yo&r ne!g$or $a" done
"omet$!ng wrong* &t not to yo&r dog) T$e wrong t$at $a" een done !" a wrong to yo&)
A'ter a%% !t !" wrong to &p"et peop%e and yo&r ne!g$or," #!c#!ng yo&r dog &p"et" yo& "o
yo& are t$e one w$o !" wronged not yo&r dog Or aga!n ++ y #!c#!ng yo&r dog yo&r
ne!g$or damage" yo&r property) And "!nce !t !" wrong to damage anot$er per"on,"
property* yo&r ne!g$or $a" done "omet$!ng wrong ++ to yo&* o' co&r"e* not to yo&r dog)
-o&r ne!g$or no more wrong" yo&r dog t$an yo&r car wo&%d e wronged !' t$e
w!nd"$!e%d were "ma"$ed) -o&r ne!g$or," d&t!e" !n(o%(!ng yo&r dog are !nd!rect d&t!e"
to yo&) More genera%%y* a%% o' o&r d&t!e" regard!ng an!ma%" are !nd!rect d&t!e" to one
anot$er ++ to $&man!ty)
How co&%d "omeone try to .&"t!'y "&c$ a (!ew? Someone m!g$t "ay t$at yo&r dog doe"n,t
'ee% anyt$!ng and "o !"n,t $&rt y yo&r ne!g$or," #!c#* doe"n,t care ao&t t$e pa!n "!nce
none !" 'e%t* !" a" &naware o' anyt$!ng a" !" yo&r w!nd"$!e%d) Someone m!g$t "ay t$!"* &t
no rat!ona% per"on w!%%* "!nce* among ot$er con"!derat!on"* "&c$ a (!ew w!%% comm!t
anyone w$o $o%d" !t to t$e po"!t!on t$at no $&man e!ng" 'ee% pa!n e!t$er / t$at $&man
e!ng" a%"o don,t care ao&t w$at $appen" to t$em) A "econd po""!!%!ty !" t$at t$o&g$
ot$ $&man" and yo&r dog are $&rt w$en #!c#ed* !t !" on%y $&man pa!n t$at matter") B&t*
aga!n* no rat!ona% per"on can e%!e(e t$!") 0a!n !" pa!n w$ere(er !t occ&r") I' yo&r
ne!g$or," ca&"!ng yo& pa!n !" wrong eca&"e o' t$e pa!n t$at !" ca&"ed* we cannot
rat!ona%%y !gnore or d!"m!"" t$e mora% re%e(ance o' t$e pa!n t$at yo&r dog 'ee%")
0$!%o"op$er" w$o $o%d !nd!rect d&ty (!ew" ++ and many "t!%% do ++ $a(e come to
&nder"tand t$at t$ey m&"t a(o!d t$e two de'ect" .&"t noted1 t$at !"* ot$ t$e (!ew t$at
an!ma%" don,t 'ee% anyt$!ng a" we%% a" t$e !dea t$at on%y $&man pa!n can e mora%%y
re%e(ant) Among "&c$ t$!n#er" t$e "ort o' (!ew now 'a(ored !" one or anot$er 'orm o'
w$at !" ca%%ed contractarianism.
Here* (ery cr&de%y* !" t$e root !dea1 mora%!ty con"!"t" o' a "et o' r&%e" t$at !nd!(!d&a%"
(o%&ntar!%y agree to a!de y* a" we do w$en we "!gn a contract 2$ence t$e name
contractar!an!"m3) T$o"e w$o &nder"tand and accept t$e term" o' t$e contract are co(ered
d!rect%y4 t$ey $a(e r!g$t" created and recogn!5ed y* and protected !n* t$e contract) And
t$e"e contractor" can a%"o $a(e protect!on "pe%%ed o&t 'or ot$er" w$o* t$o&g$ t$ey %ac#
t$e a!%!ty to &nder"tand mora%!ty and "o cannot "!gn t$e contract t$em"e%(e"* are %o(ed or
c$er!"$ed y t$o"e w$o can) T$&" yo&ng c$!%dren* 'or e6amp%e* are &na%e to "!gn
7
contract" and %ac# r!g$t") B&t t$ey are protected y t$e contract nonet$e%e"" eca&"e o'
t$e "ent!menta% !ntere"t" o' ot$er"* mo"t nota%y t$e!r parent") So we $a(e* t$en* d&t!e"
!n(o%(!ng t$e"e c$!%dren* d&t!e" regard!ng t$em* &t no d&t!e" to t$em) O&r d&t!e" !n t$e!r
ca"e are !nd!rect d&t!e" to ot$er $&man e!ng"* &"&a%%y t$e!r parent")
A" 'or an!ma%"* "!nce t$ey cannot &nder"tand contract"* t$ey o(!o&"%y Cannot "!gn4 and
"!nce t$ey cannot "!gn* t$ey $a(e no r!g$t") L!#e c$!%dren* $owe(er* "ome an!ma%" are t$e
o.ect o' t$e "ent!menta% !ntere"t o' ot$er") -o&* 'or e6amp%e* %o(e yo&r dog or cat) So
t$o"e an!ma%" t$at eno&g$ peop%e care ao&t 2compan!on an!ma%"* w$a%e"* ay "ea%"* t$e
Amer!can a%d eag%e3* t$o&g$ t$ey %ac# r!g$t" t$em"e%(e"* w!%% e protected eca&"e o' $e
"ent!menta% !ntere"t" o' peop%e) I $a(e* t$en* accord!ng to contractaran!"m* no d&ty
d!rect%y to yo&r dog or any ot$er an!ma%* not e(en t$e d&ty not to ca&"e t$em pa!n or
"&''er!ng4 my d&ty not to $&rt t$em !" a d&ty I $a(e to t$o"e peop%e w$o care ao&t w$at
$appen" to t$em) A" 'or ot$er an!ma%"* w$ere no or %!tt%e "ent!menta% !ntere"t !" pre"ent ++
!n t$e ca"e o' 'arm an!ma%"* 'or e6amp%e* or %aoratory rat" ++ w$at d&t!e" we $a(e grow
wea#er and wea#er* per$ap" to t$e (an!"$!ng po!nt) T$e pa!n and deat$ t$ey end&re*
t$o&g$ rea%* are not wrong !' no one care" ao&t t$em)
W$en !t come" to t$e mora% "tat&" o' an!ma%"* contractar!an!"m co&%d e a $ard (!ew to
re'&te !' !t were an ade8&ate t$eoret!ca% approac$ to t$e mora% "tat&" o' $&man e!ng") It
!" not ade8&ate !n t$!" %atter re"pect* $owe(er* w$!c$ ma#e" t$e 8&e"t!on o' !t" ade8&acy
!n t$e 'ormer ca"e* regard!ng an!ma%"* &tter%y moot) For con"!der1 mora%!ty* accord!ng to
t$e 2cr&de3 contractar!an po"!t!on e'ore &"* con"!"t" o' r&%e" t$at peop%e agree to a!de
y) W$at peop%e? We%%* eno&g$ to ma#e a d!''erence ++ eno&g$* t$at !"* collectively to
$a(e t$e power to en'orce t$e r&%e" t$at are drawn &p !n t$e contract) T$at !" (ery we%%
and good 'or t$e "!gnator!e" &t not "o good 'or anyone w$o !" not a"#ed to "!gn) And
t$ere !" not$!ng !n contractar!an!"m o' t$e "ort we are d!"c&""!ng t$at g&arantee" or
re8&!re" t$at e(eryone w!%% $a(e a c$ance to part!c!pate e8&a%%y !n 'ram!ng r&%e" o'
mora%!ty) T$e re"&%t !" t$at t$!" approac$ to et$!c" co&%d "anct!on t$e mo"t %atant 'orm"
o' "oc!a%* econom!c* mora%* and po%!t!ca% !n.&"t!ce* rang!ng 'rom a repre""!(e ca"te "y"tem
to "y"temat!c rac!a% or "e6&a% d!"cr!m!nat!on) M!g$t* accord!ng to t$!" t$eory* doe" ma#e
r!g$t) Let t$o"e w$o are t$e (!ct!m" o' !n.&"t!ce "&''er a" t$ey w!%%) It matter" not "o %ong
a" no one e%"e ++ no contractor* or too 'ew o' t$em ++ care" ao&t !t) S&c$ a t$eory ta#e"
one," mora% reat$ away ) ) ) a" !'* 'or e6amp%e* t$ere wo&%d e not$!ng wrong w!t$
apart$e!d !n So&t$ A'r!ca !' 'ew w$!te So&t$ A'r!can" were &p"et y !t) A t$eory w!t$ "o
%!tt%e to recommend !t at t$e %e(e% o' t$e et$!c" o' o&r treatment o' o&r 'e%%ow $&man"
cannot $a(e anyt$!ng more to recommend !t w$en !t come" to t$e et$!c" o' $ow we treat
o&r 'e%%ow an!ma%")
T$e (er"!on o' contractar!an!"m .&"t e6am!ned !"* a" I $a(e noted* a cr&de (ar!ety* and !n
'a!rne"" to t$o"e o' a contractar!an per"&a"!on* !t m&"t e noted t$at m&c$ more re'!ned*
"&t%e* and !ngen!o&" (ar!et!e" are po""!%e) For e6amp%e* 9o$n Raw%"* !n $!" A Theory of
Justice, "et" 'ort$ a (er"!on o' contractar!an!"m t$at 'orce" contractor" to !gnore t$e
acc!denta% 'eat&re" o' e!ng a $&man e!ng ++ 'or e6amp%e* w$et$er one !" w$!te or %ac#*
ma%e or 'ema%e* a gen!&" or o' mode"t !nte%%ect) On%y y !gnor!ng "&c$ 'eat&re"* Raw%"
e%!e(e"* can we en"&re t$at t$e pr!nc!p%e" o' .&"t!ce t$at contractor" wo&%d agree &pon
:
are not a"ed on !a" or pre.&d!ce) ;e"p!te t$e !mpro(ement a (!ew "&c$ a" Raw%","
repre"ent" o(er t$e cr&der 'orm" o' Contractar!an!"m* !t rema!n" de'!c!ent1 !t
"y"temat!ca%%y den!e" t$at we $a(e d!rect d&t!e" to t$o"e $&man e!ng" w$o do not $a(e a
"en"e o' .&"t!ce ++ yo&ng c$!%dren* 'or !n"tance* and many menta%%y retarded $&man") And
yet !t "eem" rea"ona%y certa!n t$at were we to tort&re a yo&ng c$!%d or a retarded e%der*
we wo&%d e do!ng "omet$!ng t$at wronged $!m or $er* not "omet$!ng t$at wo&%d e
wrong !' 2and on%y !'3 ot$er $&man" w!t$ a "en"e o' .&"t!ce were &p"et) And "!nce t$!" !"
tr&e !n t$e ca"e o' t$e"e $&man"* we cannot rat!ona%%y deny t$e "ame !n t$e ca"e o'
an!ma%")
Ind!rect d&ty (!ew"* t$en* !nc%&d!ng t$e e"t among t$em* 'a!% to command o&r rat!ona%
a""ent) W$ate(er et$!ca% t$eory we "$o&%d accept rat!ona%%y* t$ere'ore* !t m&"t at %ea"t
recogn!5e t$at we $a(e "ome d&t!e" d!rect%y to an!ma%"* .&"t a" we $a(e "ome d&t!e"
d!rect%y to eac$ ot$er) T$e ne6t two t$eor!e" I,%% "#etc$ attempt to meet t$!" re8&!rement)
T$e '!r"t I ca%% t$e cr&e%ty+#!ndne"" (!ew) S!mp%y "tated* t$!" "ay" t$at we $a(e a d!rect
d&ty to e #!nd to an!ma%" and a d!rect d&ty not to e cr&e% to t$em) ;e"p!te t$e 'am!%!ar*
rea""&r!ng r!ng o' t$e"e !dea"* I do not e%!e(e t$at t$!" (!ew o''er" an ade8&ate t$eory)
To ma#e t$!" c%earer* con"!der #!ndne"") A #!nd per"on act" 'rom a certa!n type o' mot!(e
/compa""!on or concern* 'or e6amp%e) And t$at !" a (!rt&e) B&t t$ere !" no g&arantee t$at
a #!nd act !" a r!g$t act) I' I am a genero&" rac!"t* 'or e6amp%e* I w!%% e !nc%!ned to act
#!nd%y toward" memer" o' my own race* 'a(or!ng t$e!r !ntere"t" ao(e t$o"e o' ot$er")
My #!ndne"" wo&%d e rea% and* "o 'ar a" !t goe"* good) B&t I tr&"t !t !" too o(!o&" to
re8&!re arg&ment t$at my #!nd act" may not e ao(e mora% reproac$ ++ may* !n 'act* e
po"!t!(e%y wrong eca&"e rooted !n !n.&"t!ce) So #!ndne""* notw!t$"tand!ng !t" "tat&" a" a
(!rt&e to e enco&raged* "!mp%y w!%% not carry t$e we!g$t o' a t$eory o' r!g$t act!on)
Cr&e%ty 'are" no etter) 0eop%e or t$e!r act" are cr&e% !' t$ey d!"p%ay e!t$er a %ac# o'
"ympat$y 'or or* wor"e* t$e pre"ence o' en.oyment !n anot$er," "&''er!ng) Cr&e%ty !n a%% !t"
g&!"e" !" a ad t$!ng* a trag!c $&man 'a!%!ng) B&t .&"t a" a per"on," e!ng mot!(ated y
#!ndne"" doe" not g&arantee t$at $e or "$e doe" w$at !" r!g$t* "o t$e a"ence o' cr&e%ty
doe" not en"&re t$at $e or "$e a(o!d" do!ng w$at !" wrong) Many peop%e w$o per'orm
aort!on"* 'or e6amp%e* are not cr&e%* "ad!"t!c peop%e) B&t t$at 'act a%one doe" not "ett%e
t$e terr!%y d!''!c&%t 8&e"t!on o' t$e mora%!ty o' aort!on) T$e ca"e !" no d!''erent w$en
we e6am!ne t$e et$!c" o' o&r treatment o' an!ma%") So* ye"* %et &" e 'or #!ndne"" and
aga!n"t cr&e%ty) B&t %et &" not "&ppo"e t$at e!ng 'or t$e one and aga!n"t t$e ot$er
an"wer" 8&e"t!on" ao&t mora% r!g$t and wrong)
Some peop%e t$!n# t$at t$e t$eory we are %oo#!ng 'or !" utilitarianism. A &t!%!tar!an
accept" two mora% pr!nc!p%e") T$e '!r"t !" t$at o' e8&a%!ty1 e(eryone," !ntere"t" co&nt* and
"!m!%ar !ntere"t" m&"t e co&nted a" $a(!ng "!m!%ar we!g$t or !mportance) W$!te or %ac#*
Amer!can or Iran!an* $&man or an!ma% ++ e(eryone," pa!n or 'r&"trat!on matter"* and
matter" .&"t a" m&c$ a" t$e e8&!(a%ent pa!n or 'r&"trat!on o' anyone e%"e) T$e "econd
pr!nc!p%e a &t!%!tar!an accept" !" t$at o' &t!%!ty1 do t$e act t$at w!%% r!ng ao&t t$e e"t
a%ance etween "at!"'act!on and 'r&"trat!on 'or e(eryone a''ected y t$e o&tcome)
<
A" a &t!%!tar!an* t$en* $ere !" $ow I am to approac$ t$e ta"# o' dec!d!ng w$at I mora%%y
o&g$t to do1 I m&"t a"# w$o w!%% e a''ected !' I c$oo"e to do one t$!ng rat$er t$an
anot$er* $ow m&c$ eac$ !nd!(!d&a% w!%% e a''ected* and w$ere t$e e"t re"&%t" are mo"t
%!#e%y to %!e ++ w$!c$ opt!on* !n ot$er word"* !" mo"t %!#e%y to r!ng ao&t t$e e"t re"&%t"*
t$e e"t a%ance etween "at!"'act!on and 'r&"trat!on) T$at opt!on* w$ate(er !t may e* !"
t$e one I o&g$t to c$oo"e) T$at !" w$ere my mora% d&ty %!e")
T$e great appea% o' &t!%!tar!an!"m re"t" w!t$ !t" &ncomprom!"!ng egalitarianism:
e(eryone," !ntere"t" co&nt and co&nt a" m&c$ a" t$e %!#e !ntere"t" o' e(eryone e%"e) T$e
#!nd o' od!o&" d!"cr!m!nat!on t$at "ome 'orm" o' contractar!an!"m can .&"t!'y ++
d!"cr!m!nat!on a"ed on race or "e6* 'or e6amp%e ++ "eem" d!"a%%owed !n pr!nc!p%e y
&t!%!tar!an!"m* a" !" "pec!e"!"m* "y"temat!c d!"cr!m!nat!on a"ed on "pec!e" memer"$!p)
T$e e8&a%!ty we '!nd !n &t!%!tar!an!"m* $owe(er* !" not t$e "ort an ad(ocate o' an!ma% or
$&man r!g$t" "$o&%d $a(e !n m!nd) =t!%!tar!an!"m $a" no room 'or t$e e8&a% r!g$t" o'
d!''erent !nd!(!d&a%" eca&"e !t $a" no room 'or t$e!r e8&a% !n$erent (a%&e or wort$) W$at
$a" (a%&e 'or t$e &t!%!tar!an !" t$e "at!"'act!on o' an !nd!(!d&a%," !ntere"t"* not t$e
!nd!(!d&a% w$o"e !ntere"t" t$ey are) A &n!(er"e !n w$!c$ yo& "at!"'y yo&r de"!re 'or water*
'ood* and warmt$ !"* ot$er t$!ng" e!ng e8&a%* etter t$an a &n!(er"e !n w$!c$ t$e"e
de"!re" are 'r&"trated) And t$e "ame !" tr&e !n t$e ca"e o' an an!ma% w!t$ "!m!%ar de"!re")
B&t ne!t$er yo& nor t$e an!ma% $a(e any (a%&e !n yo&r own r!g$t) On%y yo&r 'ee%!ng" do)
Here !" an ana%ogy to $e%p ma#e t$e p$!%o"op$!ca% po!nt c%earer1 a c&p conta!n" d!''erent
%!8&!d"* "omet!me" "weet* "omet!me" !tter* "omet!me" a m!6t&re o' t$e two) W$at $a"
(a%&e are t$e %!8&!d"1 t$e "weeter t$e etter* t$e !tterer t$e wor"e) T$e c&p* t$e conta!ner*
$a" no (a%&e) It !" w$at goe" !nto !t* not w$at t$ey go !nto* t$at $a" (a%&e) For t$e
&t!%!tar!an* yo& and I are %!#e t$e c&p4 we $a(e no (a%&e a" !nd!(!d&a%" and t$&" no e8&a%
(a%&e) W$at $a" (a%&e !" w$at goe" !nto &"* w$at we "er(e a" receptac%e" 'or4 o&r 'ee%!ng"
o' "at!"'act!on $a(e po"!t!(e (a%&e* o&r 'ee%!ng" o' 'r&"trat!on negat!(e (a%&e)
Ser!o&" pro%em" ar!"e 'or &t!%!tar!an!"m w$en we rem!nd o&r"e%(e" t$at !t en.o!n" &" to
r!ng ao&t t$e e"t con"e8&ence") W$at doe" t$!" mean? It doe"n,t mean t$e e"t
con"e8&ence" 'or me a%one* or 'or my 'am!%y or 'r!end"* or any ot$er per"on ta#en
!nd!(!d&a%%y) No* w$at we m&"t do !"* ro&g$%y* a" 'o%%ow"1 we m&"t add &p 2"ome$ow>3
t$e "eparate "at!"'act!on" and 'r&"trat!on" o' e(eryone %!#e%y to e a''ected y o&r c$o!ce*
t$e "at!"'act!on" !n one co%&mn* t$e 'r&"trat!on" !n t$e ot$er) We m&"t tota% eac$ co%&mn
'or eac$ o' t$e opt!on" e'ore &") T$at !" w$at !t mean" to "ay t$e t$eory !" aggregat!(e)
And t$en we m&"t c$oo"e t$at opt!on w$!c$ !" mo"t %!#e%y to r!ng ao&t t$e e"t a%ance
o' tota%%ed "at!"'act!on" o(er tota%%ed 'r&"trat!on") W$ate(er act wo&%d %ead to t$!"
o&tcome !" t$e one we o&g$t mora%%y to per'orm ++ !t !" w$ere o&r mora% d&ty %!e") And
t$ar act 8&!te c%ear%y m!g$t not e t$e "ame one t$at wo&%d r!ng ao&t t$e e"t re"&%t" 'or
me per"ona%%y* or 'or my 'am!%y or 'r!end"* or 'or a %a an!ma%) T$e e"t aggregated
con"e8&ence" 'or e(eryone concerned are not nece""ar!%y t$e e"t 'or eac$ !nd!(!d&a%)
T$at &t!%!tar!an!"m !" an aggregat!(e t$eory ++ d!''erent !nd!(!d&a%", "at!"'act!on" or
'r&"trat!on" are added* or "&mmed* or tota%%ed ++ !" t$e #ey o.ect!on to t$!" t$eory) My
?
A&nt Bea !" o%d* !nact!(e* a cran#y* "o&r per"on* t$o&g$ not p$y"!ca%%y !%%) S$e pre'er" to
go on %!(!ng) S$e !" a%"o rat$er r!c$* I co&%d ma#e a 'ort&ne !' I co&%d get my $and" on $er
money* money "$e !ntend" to g!(e me !n any e(ent* a'ter "$e d!e"* &t w$!c$ "$e re'&"e"
to g!(e me now) In order to a(o!d a $&ge ta6 !te* I p%an to donate a $and"ome "&m o' my
pro'!t" to a %oca% c$!%dren," $o"p!ta%) Many* many c$!%dren w!%% ene'!t 'rom my
genero"!ty* and m&c$ .oy w!%% e ro&g$t to t$e!r parent"* re%at!(e"* and 'r!end") I' I don,t
get t$e money rat$er "oon* a%% t$e"e am!t!on" w!%% come to na&g$t) T$e once+!n+a+
%!'et!me opport&n!ty to ma#e a rea% #!%%!ng w!%% e gone) W$y* t$en* not #!%% my A&nt
Bea? O$* o' co&r"e I might get ca&g$t) B&t I,m no 'oo% and* e"!de"* $er doctor can e
co&nted on to cooperate 2$e $a" an eye 'or t$e "ame !n(e"tment and I $appen to #now a
good dea% ao&t $!" "$ady pa"t3) T$e deed can e done ) ) ) pro'e""!ona%%y* "$a%% we "ay)
T$ere !" (ery %!tt%e c$ance o' gett!ng ca&g$t) And a" 'or my con"c!ence e!ng g&!%t r!dden*
I am a re"o&rce'&% "ort o' 'e%%ow and w!%% ta#e more t$an "&''!c!ent com'ort ++ a" I %!e on
t$e eac$ at Acap&%co ++ !n contemp%at!ng t$e .oy and $ea%t$ I $a(e ro&g$t to "o many
ot$er")
S&ppo"e A&nt Bea !" #!%%ed and t$e re"t o' t$e "tory come" o&t a" to%d) Wo&%d I $a(e done
anyt$!ng wrong? Anyt$!ng !mmora%? One wo&%d $a(e t$o&g$t t$at I $ad) Not accord!ng
to &t!%!tar!an!"m) S!nce w$at I $a(e done $a" ro&g$t ao&t t$e e"t a%ance etween
tota%%ed "at!"'act!on and 'r&"trat!on 'or a%% t$o"e a''ected y t$e o&tcome* my act!on !" not
wrong) Indeed* !n #!%%!ng A&nt Bea t$e p$y"!c!an and I d!d w$at d&ty re8&!red)
T$!" "ame #!nd o' arg&ment can e repeated !n a%% "ort" o' ca"e"* !%%&"trat!ng* t!me a'ter
t!me* $ow t$e &t!%!tar!an," po"!t!on %ead" to re"&%t" t$at !mpart!a% peop%e '!nd mora%%y
ca%%o&") It !" wrong to #!%% my A&nt Bea !n t$e name o' r!ng!ng ao&t t$e e"t re"&%t" 'or
ot$er") A good end doe" not .&"t!'y an e(!% mean") Any ade8&ate mora% t$eory w!%% $a(e
to e6p%a!n w$y t$!" !" "o) =t!%!tar!an!"m 'a!%" !n t$!" re"pect and "o cannot e t$e t$eory
we "ee#)
W$at to do? W$ere to eg!n anew? T$e p%ace to eg!n* I t$!n#* !" w!t$ t$e &t!%!tar!an,"
(!ew o' t$e (a%&e o' t$e !nd!(!d&a% ++ or* rat$er* t$e %ac# o' (a%&e) In !t" p%ace* "&ppo"e we
con"!der t$at yo& and I* 'or e6amp%e* do $a(e (a%&e a" !nd!(!d&a%" ++ w$at we,%% ca%%
inherent value. To "ay we $a(e "&c$ (a%&e !" to "ay t$at we are "omet$!ng more t$an*
"omet$!ng d!''erent 'rom* mere receptac%e") Moreo(er* to en"&re t$at we do not pa(e t$e
way 'or "&c$ !n.&"t!ce" a" "%a(ery or "e6&a% d!"cr!m!nat!on* we m&"t e%!e(e t$at a%% w$o
$a(e !n$erent (a%&e $a(e !t e8&a%%y* regard%e"" o' t$e!r "e6* race* re%!g!on* !rt$p%ace* and
"o on) S!m!%ar%y to e d!"carded a" !rre%e(ant are one," ta%ent" or "#!%%"* !nte%%!gence and
wea%t$* per"ona%!ty or pat$o%ogy* w$et$er one !" %o(ed and adm!red or de"p!"ed and
%oat$ed) T$e gen!&" and t$e retarded c$!%d* t$e pr!nce and t$e pa&per* t$e ra!n "&rgeon
and t$e 'r&!t (endor* Mot$er Tere"a and t$e mo"t &n"cr&p&%o&" &"ed+car "a%e"man ++ a%%
$a(e !n$erent (a%&e* a%% po""e"" !t e8&a%%y* and a%% $a(e an e8&a% r!g$t to e treated w!t$
re"pect* to e treated !n way" t$at do not red&ce t$em to t$e "tat&" o' t$!ng"* a" !' t$ey
e6!"ted a" re"o&rce" 'or ot$er") My (a%&e a" an !nd!(!d&a% !" !ndependent o' my
&"e'&%ne"" to yo&) -o&r" !" not dependent on yo&r &"e'&%ne"" to me) For e!t$er o' &" to
treat t$e ot$er !n way" t$at 'a!% to "$ow re"pect 'or t$e ot$er," !ndependent (a%&e !" to act
!mmora%%y* to (!o%ate t$e !nd!(!d&a%," r!g$t")
@
Some o' t$e rat!ona% (!rt&e" o' t$!" (!ew ++ w$at I ca%% t$e rights view ++ "$o&%d e
e(!dent) =n%!#e 2cr&de3 contractar!an!"m* 'or e6amp%e* t$e r!g$t" (!ew !n principle den!e"
t$e mora% to%era!%!ty o' any and a%% 'orm" o' rac!a%* "e6&a%* or "oc!a% d!"cr!m!nat!on4 and
&n%!#e &t!%!tar!an!"m* t$e (!ew !n principle den!e" t$at we can .&"t!'y good re"&%t" y
&"!ng e(!% mean" t$at (!o%ate an !nd!(!d&a%," r!g$t" ++ den!e"* 'or e6amp%e* t$at !t co&%d e
mora% to #!%% my A&nt Bea to $ar(e"t ene'!c!a% con"e8&ence" 'or ot$er") T$at wo&%d e
to "anct!on t$e d!"re"pect'&% treatment o' t$e !nd!(!d&a% !n t$e name o' t$e "oc!a% good*
"omet$!ng t$e r!g$t" (!ew w!%% not ++ categor!ca%%y w!%% not ++ e(er a%%ow)
T$e r!g$t" (!ew* I e%!e(e* !" rat!ona%%y t$e mo"t "at!"'actory mora% t$eory) It "&rpa""e" a%%
ot$er t$eor!e" !n t$e degree to w$!c$ !t !%%&m!nate" and e6p%a!n" t$e 'o&ndat!on o' o&r
d&t!e" to one anot$er ++ t$e doma!n o' $&man mora%!ty) On t$!" "core !t $a" t$e e"t
rea"on"* t$e e"t arg&ment" on !t" "!de) O' co&r"e* !' !t were po""!%e to "$ow t$at on%y
$&man e!ng" are !nc%&ded w!t$!n !t" "cope* t$en a per"on %!#e my"e%'* w$o e%!e(e" !n
an!ma% r!g$t"* wo&%d e o%!ged to %oo# e%"ew$ere)
B&t attempt" to %!m!t !t" "cope to $&man" on%y can e "$own to e rat!ona%%y de'ect!(e)
An!ma%"* !t !" tr&e* %ac# many o' t$e a!%!t!e" $&man" po""e"") T$e can,t read* do $!g$er
mat$emat!c"* &!%d a oo#ca"e* or ma#e baba ghanoush. Ne!t$er can many $&man
e!ng"* $owe(er* and yet we don,t 2and "$o&%dn,t3 "ay t$at t$ey 2t$e"e $&man"3 t$ere'ore
$a(e %e"" !n$erent (a%&e* %e"" o' a r!g$t to e treated w!t$ re"pect* t$an do ot$er") It !" t$e
similarities etween t$o"e $&man e!ng" w$o mo"t c%ear%y* mo"t noncontro(er"!a%%y $a(e
"&c$ (a%&e 2t$e peop%e read!ng t$!"* 'or e6amp%e3* not o&r d!''erence"* t$at matter mo"t)
And t$e rea%%y cr&c!a%* t$e a"!c "!m!%ar!ty !t "!mp%y t$!"1 we are eac$ o' &" t$e
e6per!enc!ng "&.ect o' a %!'e* a con"c!o&" creat&re $a(!ng an !nd!(!d&a% we%'are t$at $a"
!mportance to &" w$ate(er o&r &"e'&%ne"" to ot$er") We want and pre'er t$!ng"* e%!e(e
and 'ee t$!ng"* reca%% and e6pect t$!ng") And a%% t$e"e d!men"!on" o' o&r %!'e !nc%&d!ng
o&r p%ea"&re and pa!n* o&r en.oyment and "&''er!ng* o&r "at!"'act!on and 'r&"trat!on* o&r
cont!n&ed e6!"tence or o&r &nt!me%y deat$ ++ a%% ma#e a d!''erence to t$e 8&a%!ty o' o&r
%!'e a" %!(ed* a" e6per!enced* y &" a" !nd!(!d&a%") A" t$e "ame !" tr&e o' t$o"e an!ma%"
t$at concern &" 2t$e one" t$at are eaten and trapped* 'or e6amp%e3* t$ey too m&"t e
(!ewed a" t$e e6per!enc!ng "&.ect" o' a %!'e* w!t$ !n$erent (a%&e o' t$e!r own)
Some t$ere are w$o re"!"t t$e !dea t$at an!ma%" $a(e !n$erent (a%&e) AOn%y $&man" $a(e
"&c$ (a%&e*A t$ey pro'e"") How m!g$t t$!" narrow (!ew e de'ended? S$a%% we "ay t$at
on%y $&man" $a(e t$e re8&!"!te !nte%%!gence* or a&tonomy* or rea"on? B&t t$ere are many*
many $&man" w$o 'a!% to meet t$e"e "tandard" and yet are rea"ona%y (!ewed a" $a(!ng
(a%&e ao(e and eyond t$e!r &"e'&%ne"" to ot$er") S$a%% we c%a!m t$at on%y $&man"
e%ong to t$e r!g$t "pec!e"* t$e "pec!e" Homo sapiens? B&t t$!" !" %atant "pec!e"!"m) W!%%
!t e "a!d* t$en* t$at a%% ++ and on%y ++ $&man" $a(e !mmorta% "o&%"? T$en o&r opponent"
$a(e t$e!r wor# c&t o&t 'or t$em) I am my"e%' not !%%+d!"po"ed to t$e propo"!t!on t$at t$ere
are !mmorta% "o&%") 0er"ona%%y* I pro'o&nd%y $ope I $a(e one) B&t I wo&%d not want to
re"t my po"!t!on on a contro(er"!a% et$!ca% !""&e on t$e e(en more contro(er"!a% 8&e"t!on
ao&t w$o or w$at $a" an !mmorta% "o&%) T$at !" to d!g one," $o%e deeper* not to c%!m
o&t) Rat!ona%%y* !t !" etter to re"o%(e mora% !""&e" w!t$o&t ma#!ng more contro(er"!a%
a""&mpt!on" t$an are needed) T$e 8&e"t!on o' w$o $a" !n$erent (a%&e !" "&c$ a 8&e"t!on*
B
one t$at !" re"o%(ed more rat!ona%%y w!t$o&t t$e !ntrod&ct!on o' t$e !dea o' !mmorta% "o&%"
t$an y !t" &"e)
We%%* per$ap" "ome w!%% "ay t$at an!ma%" $a(e "ome !n$erent (a%&e* on%y %e"" t$an we
$a(e) Once aga!n* $owe(er* attempt" to de'end t$!" (!ew can e "$own to %ac# rat!ona%
.&"t!'!cat!on) W$at co&%d e t$e a"!" o' o&r $a(!ng more !n$erent (a%&e t$an an!ma%"?
T$e!r %ac# o' rea"on* or a&tonomy* or !nte%%ect? On%y !' we are w!%%!ng to ma#e t$e "ame
.&dgment !n t$e ca"e o' $&man" w$o are "!m!%ar%y de'!c!ent) B&t !t !" not tr&e t$at "&c$
$&man"/t$e retarded c$!%d* 'or e6amp%e* or t$e menta%%y deranged ++ $a(e %e"" !n$erent
(a%&e t$an yo& or 7) Ne!t$er* t$en* can we rat!ona%%y "&"ta!n t$e (!ew t$at an!ma%" %!#e
t$em !n e!ng t$e e6per!enc!ng "&.ect" o' a %!'e $a(e %e"" !n$erent (a%&e) All w$o $a(e
!n$erent (a%&e $a(e !t equally, w$et$er t$ey e $&man an!ma%" or not)
In$erent (a%&e* t$en* e%ong" e8&a%%y to t$o"e w$o are t$e e6per!enc!ng "&.ect" o' a %!'e)
W$et$er !t e%ong" to ot$er" ++ to roc#" and r!(er"* tree" and g%ac!er"* 'or e6amp%e ++ we
do not #now and may ne(er #now) B&t ne!t$er do we need to #now* !' we are to ma#e t$e
ca"e 'or an!ma% r!g$t") We do not need to #now* 'or e6amp%e* $ow many peop%e are
e%!g!%e to (ote !n t$e ne6t pre"!dent!a% e%ect!on e'ore we can #now w$et$er I am)
S!m!%ar%y* we do not need to #now $ow many !nd!(!d&a%" $a(e !n$erent (a%&e e'ore we
can #now t$at "ome do) W$en !t come" to t$e ca"e 'or an!ma% r!g$t"* t$en* w$at we need
to #now !" w$et$er t$e an!ma%" t$at* !n o&r c&%t&re* are ro&t!ne%y eaten* $&nted* and &"ed
!n o&r %aorator!e"* 'or e6amp%e* are %!#e &" !n e!ng "&.ect" o' a %!'e) And we do #now
t$!") We do #now t$at many ++ %!tera%%y* !%%!on" and !%%!on" ++ o' t$e"e an!ma%" are t$e go
"&.ect" o' a %!'e !n t$e "en"e e6p%a!ned and "o $a(e !n$erent (a%&e !' we do) And "!nce* !n
order to arr!(e at t$e e"t t$eory o' o&r d&t!e" to one anot$er* we m&"t recogn!5e o&r
e8&a% !n$erent (a%&e a" !nd!(!d&a%"* rea"on ++ not "ent!ment* not emot!on ++ rea"on
compe%" &" to recogn!5e t$e e8&a% !n$erent (a%&e o' t$e"e an!ma%" and* w!t$ t$!"* t$e!r
e8&a% r!g$t to e treated w!t$ re"pect)
T$at* (ery ro&g$%y* !" t$e "$ape and 'ee% o' t$e ca"e 'or an!ma% r!g$t") Mo"t o' t$e deta!%"
o' t$e "&pport!ng arg&ment are m!""!ng) T$ey are to e 'o&nd !n t$e oo# t$at ear" t$e
"ame t!t%e a" t$!" e""ay)C Here* t$e deta!%" go egg!ng* and I m&"t* !n c%o"!ng* %!m!t my"e%'
to two '!na% po!nt")
T$e '!r"t !" $ow t$e t$eory t$at &nder%!e" t$e ca"e 'or an!ma% r!g$t" "$ow" t$at t$e an!ma%
r!g$t" mo(ement !" a part o'* not antagon!"t!c to* t$e $&man r!g$t" mo(ement) T$e t$eory
t$at rat!ona%%y gro&nd" t$e r!g$t" o' an!ma%" a%"o gro&nd" t$e r!g$t" o' $&man") T$&"
t$o"e !n(o%(ed !n t$e an!ma% r!g$t" mo(ement are partner" !n t$e "tr&gg%e to "ec&re
re"pect 'or $&man r!g$t" ++ t$e r!g$t" o' women* 'or e6amp%e* or m!nor!t!e"* or wor#er")
T$e an!ma% r!g$t" mo(ement !" c&t 'rom t$e "ame mora% c%ot$ a" t$e"e)
Second* $a(!ng "et o&t t$e road o&t%!ne" o' t$e r!g$t" (!ew* I can now "ay w$y !t"
!mp%!cat!on" 'or 'arm!ng and "c!ence* among ot$er '!e%d"* are ot$ c%ear and
&ncomprom!"!ng) In t$e ca"e o' t$e &"e o' an!ma%" !n "c!ence* t$e r!g$t" (!ew !"
categor!ca%%y ao%!t!on!"t) La an!ma%" are not o&r ta"ter"4 we are not t$e!r #!ng") Beca&"e
t$e"e an!ma%" are treated ro&t!ne%y* "y"temat!ca%%y a" !' t$e!r (a%&e were red&c!%e to t$e!r
D
&"e'&%ne"" to ot$er"* t$ey are ro&t!ne%y* "y"temat!ca%%y treated w!t$ a %ac# o' re"pect* and
t$&" are E t$e!r r!g$t" ro&t!ne%y* "y"temat!ca%%y (!o%ated) T$!" !" .&"t a" tr&e w$en t$ey are
&"ed !n tr!(!a%* d&p%!cat!(e* &nnece""ary or &nw!"e re"earc$ a" !t !" w$en t$ey are &"ed !n
"t&d!e" t$at $o%d o&t rea% prom!"e o' $&man ene'!t") We can,t .&"t!'y $arm!ng or #!%%!ng a
$&man e!ng 2my A&nt Bea* 'or e6amp%e3 .&"t 'or t$e"e "ort" o' rea"on) Ne!t$er can we
do "o e(en !n t$e ca"e o' "o %ow%y a creat&re a" a %aoratory rat) It !" not .&"t re'!nement
or red&ct!on t$at !" ca%%ed 'or* not .&"t %arger* c%eaner cage"* not .&"t more genero&" &"e o'
ane"t$e"!a or t$e e%!m!nat!on o' m&%t!p%e "&rgery* not .&"t t!dy!ng &p t$e "y"tem) It !"
comp%ete rep%acement) T$e e"t we can do w$en !t come" to &"!ng an!ma%" !n "c!ence !" ++
not to &"e t$em) T$at !" w$ere o&r d&ty %!e"* accord!ng to t$e r!g$t" (!ew)
A" 'or commerc!a% an!ma% agr!c&%t&re* t$e r!g$t" (!ew ta#e" a "!m!%ar ao%!t!on!"t po"!t!on)
T$e '&ndamenta% mora% wrong $ere !" not t$at an!ma%" are #ept !n "tre""'&% c%o"e
con'!nement or !n !"o%at!on* or t$at t$e!r pa!n and "&''er!ng* t$e!r need" and pre'erence"
are !gnored or d!"co&nted) A%% t$e"e are wrong* o' co&r"e* &t t$ey are not t$e
'&ndamenta% wrong) T$ey are "ymptom" and e''ect" o' t$e deeper* "y"temat!c wrong t$at
a%%ow" E t$e"e an!ma%" to e (!ewed and treated a" %ac#!ng !ndependent (a%&e* a" re"o&rce"
'or &" ++ a"* !ndeed* a renewa%e re"o&rce) G!(!ng 'arm an!ma%" more "pace* more nat&ra%
en(!ronment"* more compan!on" doe" not r!g$t t$e '&ndamenta% wrong* any more t$an
g!(!ng %a an!ma%" more ane"t$e"!a or !gger* c%eaner cage" wo&%d r!g$t t$e '&ndamenta%
wrong !n t$e!r ca"e) Not$!ng %e"" t$an t$e tota% d!""o%&t!on o' commerc!a% an!ma%
agr!c&%t&re w!%% do t$!"* .&"t a"* 'or "!m!%ar rea"on" I won,t de(e%op at %engt$ $ere*
mora%!ty re8&!re" not$!ng %e"" t$an t$e tota% e%!m!nat!on o' $&nt!ng and trapp!ng 'or
commerc!a% and "port!ng end") T$e r!g$t" (!ew," !mp%!cat!on"* t$en* a" I $a(e "a!d* are
c%ear and &ncomprom!"!ng)
F