of molar pregnancy Shigeru Sasaki * MD, PhD Associate Professor Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tama-Nagayama Hospital, Nippon Medical School, 1-7-1, Nagayama, Tama City, Tokyo 206-8512, Japan We can now detect molar pregnancy at a much earlier gestational age than before by using high resolution vaginal ultrasonography. As a result, the current clinical presentation of complete hydatidiform moles has clearly changed compared to that of the classic type of mole. The diagnosis of molar pregnancy is nearly always made by ultrasonography. Ultrasonography does not, however, always lead to diagnosis in the very early stages of gestation, before the chorionic villi have attained the characteristic vesicular pattern. Therefore, a histopathological examination of the products of conception should be required in all such cases. Hydatidiform moles should be treated by evacuating the uterus surgically as soon as possible after diagnosis. The patients must be followed up until their serial weekly serum human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) titre has fallen to an undetectable level. Key words: clinical presentation; hydatidiform mole; management of molar pregnancy. CLINICAL PRESENTATION OF HYDATIDIFORM MOLE The clinical presentation of complete hydatidiform moles (HMs) is well described in most obstetrics and gynaecology textbooks. 1,2 The classic presenting symptoms and ndings include vaginal bleeding, anaemia, excessive uterine enlargement, toxaemia of pregnancy, hyperemesis gravidarum, hyperthyroidism, trophoblastic emboli and theca lutein cysts associated with remarkably elevated human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) titres. 3 Since high resolution vaginal ultrasonography became available, clinical evaluation in early pregnancy has changed markedly. We can detect a blighted ovum at a much earlier gestational age than before, and almost all patients with molar pregnancy are diagnosed and treated before they develop the classic clinical presentation. As a result, we now see far fewer patients with the classic clinical signs and symptoms of molar pregnancy in daily clinical practice. Soto-Wright et al 4 from the New England Trophoblastic Disease Centre reported on 74 patients primarily managed at their centre from 1988 to 1993. According to their report, the mean maternal age of patients with complete moles was 27.7 years 1521-6934/03/$ - see front matter Q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 885892, 2003 doi:10.1016/S1521-6934(03)00072-5, www.elsevier.com/locate/jnlabr/ybeog * Tel.: 81-42-371-2111; Fax: 81-3-3921-2840. E-mail address: sasakimd@rr.iij4u.or.jp (range 1651) and the mean estimated gestational age at evaluation was 11.8 weeks (range 622). The mean uterine size at evaluation was 12.4 weeks (range 720) and the mean level of pre-evacuation hCG was 345 415 mIU/ml (range 8281 680 300). The most common presenting symptom was vaginal bleeding, occurring in 62 out of 74 (84%) patients. Uterine size greater than that for the expected date was observed in 21 out of 74 (28%), anaemia in 4 out of 74 (4%), pre-eclampsia in 1 (1.3%), hyperemesis in 6 (8%) and theca lutein cysts in 6 out of 69 (9%). Seven cases (9%) were asymptomatic. They noted that the presence of excessive uterine size, anaemia, pre-eclampsia, hyperemesis and hyperthyroidism was signicantly less common among current patients than in past cases at their centre. Gemer et al 5 from Israel have also reported the changing current clinical presentation of complete molar pregnancy in 41 patients. In their paper, the mean maternal age was 30.1 years and the mean gestational age at evacuation was 10 weeks with a range of 7 14 weeks. The mean uterine size was compatible with 10 weeks gestation. The mean pre-evacuation b-hCG was 275 901 IU/l (range 2011919 000). The most common presenting symptom was vaginal bleeding, occurring in 24 out of 41 (58%) patients. Excessive uterine size was observed in 18 (44%), anaemia in 1 (2%) and hyperemesis in 1 (2%). No pre-eclampsia or hyperthyroidism were observed. Although vaginal bleeding was the most common presenting symptom, 17 out of the 41 cases (41%) were asymptomatic. Furthermore, systemic manifestations such as hyperemesis, pre-eclampsia, clinical thyrotoxicosis and respiratory distress were exceedingly rare in this study. All ovarian cysts were small and were diagnosed only by ultrasonography. Lindholm and Flam 6 from Sweden have reported on 75 patients with complete moles and 60 with partial moles. In the complete mole group, the mean gestational age at the time of sonography was 12.4 weeks. Twelve patients had experienced no symptoms. The three most commonly occurring symptoms were vaginal bleeding (77%), abdominal pain (23%) and hyperemesis (19%). Some of the patients experienced several symptoms. Only one patient suffered from pre-eclampsia. The uterus was considered to be larger than expected for a date in 20%, equal in size expected for date in 27% and smaller in 53%. In the partial mole group, the mean gestational age at the time of sonography was 14.3 weeks. Vaginal bleeding was seen in 62% of the patients, abdominal pain in 15% and hyperemesis in 8%. As we can see from these reports, the current clinical presentation of complete HMs has clearly changed compared to that of the classic type of mole. The clinical presentation of partial moles usually includes no typical symptoms. Rather, the signs and symptoms are those of incomplete abortion or missed abortion. Practice points The current clinical presentation of hydatidiform mole includes: vaginal bleeding excessive uterine size hyperemesis abdominal pain sometimes, presentation is asymptomatic 886 S. Sasaki DIAGNOSIS OF MOLAR PREGNANCY The diagnosis of molar pregnancy is nearly always made by ultrasonography because the chorionic villi of typical complete HMs proliferate diffusely with hydropic swelling and produce a characteristic vesicular sonographical pattern around the 11th week of gestation or later. 7 Abdominal ultrasonography brought about a kind of revolution in pelvic examinations when it was rst introduced in this eld about three decades ago. It clearly showed a snowstorm pattern when applied to patients with complete moles. Since it was so impressive, many physicians may still today be under the impression that moles show this classic sonographical pattern. Diagnostic imaging equipment, including computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasonography, has made remarkable progress since then and is now widely used. In particular, today, vaginal ultrasonography, which is non-invasive, simple and reliable, is an essential routine examination associated with manual pelvic examination in the rst trimester of pregnancy. It is no exaggeration to say that almost every pelvic examination table has its own vaginal ultrasound machine, be it in any hospital or private physicians ofce in Japan. We can now point out to our patients the fetal heart beat at the end of the sixth week of gestation; if not, abnormal pregnancies are strongly indicated. Many molar pregnancies present with vaginal bleeding and are therefore often diagnosed during evaluation for normal and/or threatened spontaneous abortion. The latest high resolution ultrasonography can reveal a vesicular pattern of complete moles instead of the snow storm pattern. Benson et al 8 reported that the majority of rst trimester complete moles demonstrated a typical sonographical appearance of a complex, echogenic, intrauterine mass containing many small cystic spaces. Ultrasonography does not, however, always lead to diagnosis in the very early stages of gestation, before the chorionic villi have attained the characteristic vesicular pattern. Lindholm and Flam 6 investigated what percentage of molar tissues are missed in normal follow up after evacuation. Sonography was performed in 68 patients with complete moles and the correct diagnosis had been suspected in 84% of these cases with the aid of sonography and/or macroscopy. In 53 patients with partial moles, the correct diagnosis was suspected in only 30% of the cases. Their conclusion was that if all the aborted materials in early pregnancy are not examined by a pathologist, 16% of complete moles and 70% of partial moles will be missed in follow up. They concluded, especially as far as partial moles are concerned, that diagnosis was even more difcult to make with ultrasound and that this holds true even if examination is performed in the second trimester. Often there will be no symptoms and this, together with non-specic sonographical images, will make a diagnosis of missed abortion likely. If small vesicles are observed in the aborted material directly after evacuation with the naked eye, this supports a diagnosis of HM. Lazarus et al 9 reviewed the ultrasonographical reports and clinical data of 21 cases of histologically diagnosed complete molar pregnancies with a mean gestational age of 10.5 weeks at sonography. A diagnosis of molar pregnancy was made prospectively on ultrasonography in 12 out of the 21 (57%), one on differential diagnosis and 8 cases were not diagnosed as molar pregnancy. Five out of the ve (100%) molar pregnancies of 13 weeks or more were prospectively diagnosed, while only 8 cases out of 16 (50%) in earlier pregnancies were correctly diagnosed prospectively. Other diagnoses were spontaneous abortion, thickened endometrium and retained products of conception. No lutein cysts were identied prospectively. Clinical presentation and management of molar pregnancy 887 They encountered a spectrum of unusual sonographical appearances of complete moles including an intrauterine anechoic uid collection similar to a gestational sac, a uid collection with a complex echogenic mass similar to an oedematous placenta, a heterogeneously thickened endometrium and echogenic uiduid levels with the endometrium. hCG levels were not always elevated in the rst trimester. They also concluded that it is not always possible to make a diagnosis of early molar pregnancy by ultrasonography and that, therefore, histological examination of specimens remains important. Sebire et al 10 reported that of the 155 cases of histologically conrmed complete or partial HMs that they examined, only 53 (34%) were suspected as moles sonographically. They concluded that although molar pregnancy may be suspected on routine rst-trimester ultrasound examination, the majority of cases are sonographi- cally diagnosed as missed miscarriage and/or anembryonic pregnancy in routine practice, and that a histopathological examination of the products of conception is required in all such cases. From these reports, it can be seen that the application of high resolution ultrasonography in early abnormal pregnancies does not always give us an exact diagnosis. If the aborted material is not sent for microscopical examination, adequate follow ups of these patients will not be performed. Histopathological examinations should always be done as far as possible and samples should be kept for DNA analysis for a nal diagnosis when histology can not differentiate molar pregnancy from abortion. Genetic marker analysis is now quite useful and has become essential in diagnosis. Polymerase chain reaction may not only be rapid but also accurate in identifying and classifying complete and partial HMs. Another important characteristic of molar pregnancy is its ability to produce hCG due to trophoblastic proliferation. Without doubt, serum quantitative hCG provides very important information for deciding on the likelihood of a molar pregnancy. Romero et al 11 reported that serum hCG levels of greater than 92 000 mIU/ml associated with absent fetal heart beat indicate a diagnosis of complete hydatidiform moles. However, Lazaras et al 9 reported that there was no association between elevated b-hCG and the correct diagnosis of moles in either the prospective or retrospective review of their cases in early gestation. Serum hCG, on the other hand, should be examined consecutively when abnormal pregnancies are suspected through ultrasonography. hCG level decreases quickly if the patient has an abortion, but it does not in molar pregnancy. The measurement of serum hCG is denitely an important tool in reaching a diagnosis of molar pregnancy. Practice points The diagnosis of hydatidiform moles is established by: history clinical examination ultrasound examination serum hCG levels histopathological examination cytogenetic and molecular biological examination 888 S. Sasaki MANAGEMENT OF HYDATIDIFORM MOLES Evacuation HMs should be treated by evacuating the uterus surgically as soon as possible after diagnosis. Evacuation should be done by suction curettage with oxytocin or prostaglandin infusion. In our protocol (Figure 1) 12 , a second evacuation is done routinely 1 week after the rst evacuation to ensure no residual molar tissue in the uterine cavity. When evacuation is not carried out by an expert, as is sometimes the case, a persistently raised hCG level can occasionally be seen in the residual. From this point of view, the second evacuation is effective not only to protect against this risk, but also to educate non-experts. Although hysterectomy does not prevent trophoblastic sequelae, it may be performed with the mole in situ if the patient desires surgical sterilization. Chest X-rays are also used routinely to rule out pulmonary lesions. Partial moles should be treated and followed up in the same manner, because it is now well known that partial moles also develop trophoblastic sequelae. 13,14 Management post-evacuation Patients must be followed up until their serial weekly serum hCG titre has fallen to undetectable levels. Soto-Wright et al 4 found in their study that pre-evacuation serum hCG levels of greater than 200 000 mIU/ml were signicantly associated with the development of persistent gestational trophoblastic diseases. In Japan we have our own hCG regression curve post-evacuation calculated from collected data (Figure 2). 15 The collected data show that the hCG titre generally falls to below 1000 mIU/ml within 5 weeks of the rst evacuation in spontaneous resolution. Most of the patients whose hCG titres are more than 1000 mIU/ml at the 5th week after the rst evacuation suffer subsequently from persistent trophoblastic disease. In more than 90% of If patient desires Hysterectomy First time evacuation Second time evacuation Weekly serum hCG Spontaneous resolution Persistent trophoblastic disease hCG regression curve post-evacuation Second follow-up Treatment MOLE Figure 1. Algorithm for the management of hydatidiform moles. hCG, human chorionic gonadotrophin. Clinical presentation and management of molar pregnancy 889 the spontaneous resolution cases, their hCG titres decreased to under 100 mIU/ml at the 8th week. In some patients with persistent trophoblastic disease, their hCG titres decreased at one point to undetectable levels and then rose again by the 20th week. These ndings indicate that the hCG titres at the 5th, 8th and 20th weeks after the rst evacuation are crucial for predicting persistent trophoblastic disease. From these observations, we conclude that when the serial hCG titre is always below this discrimination line and reaches an undetectable level by the 20th week, resolution is spontaneous. If the hCG titre shows a plateau for 3 weeks or rises for 2 weeks and then crosses this discrimination line at any point during the follow up as far as the 20th week, trophoblastic sequelae, i.e. persistent trophoblastic disease, arise in the patient. Recently, an international consensus has been reached that it is acceptable to wait to observe hCG regression to undetectable levels for up to 6 months (24 weeks) after molar evacuation (data from the IXth World Congress on Gestational Trophoblastic Diseases, Jerusalem, 1998 and the Xth World Congress on Gestational Trophoblastic Diseases, Tbilishi, 2000). Management of spontaneous resolution After spontaneous resolution, the patient is subsequently seen monthly for 6 months, then at 3-monthly intervals for a further 2 years and then at least once a year for as long as possible for the early detection of any recurrence of gestational trophoblastic disease and to ensure that hCG levels remain undetectable. If patients want to conceive, they are generally advised not to become pregnant again until after the rst 6 months of follow up and are given reliable contraception, preferably in the form of the pill. Oral contraceptives do not appear to increase the risk of post-molar trophoblastic tumours andmay, therefore, be safely prescribedafter molar evacuation during the entire interval of hCG monitoring. 16 A Gynecologic Oncology Group (GOG) study 17 also 20 weeks 1st evacuation 10 6 10 5 10 4 10 3 10 2 0.5 2nd evacuation h C G
( m I U / m l ) 5 8 Figure 2. Serum human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) level regression curve post-evacuation (discrimination line). Reprinted, with permission, from The Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the Japanese Pathological Society 15 , p. 12. 890 S. Sasaki supported the idea that oral contraceptives are the preferred method of contraception after evacuation of HMs, while the Charing Cross group recommended the use of oral contraceptives after biochemical remission. 18 Palmer 19 reported that the relative risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic tumours was increased by long-term oral contra- ceptive use before conception, although his nding was not statistically signicant. Further study is needed on this point. SUMMARY Blighted ova can be detected at a much earlier gestational age than before and almost all patients with molar pregnancy are diagnosed and treated before they develop the classic clinical presentation. As a result, the current clinical presentation of complete hydatidiform moles (HMs) has clearly changed compared to that of the classic type of mole. The clinical presentation of partial moles usually includes no typical symptoms. Rather, the signs and symptoms are those of incomplete abortion or missed abortion. The latest high resolution ultrasonography can reveal a vesicular pattern of complete moles instead of the snow storm pattern. Ultrasonography does not, however, always lead to diagnosis in the very early stages of gestation, before the chorionic villi have attained the characteristic vesicular pattern. If all the aborted materials in early pregnancy are not examined by a pathologist, 16% of complete moles and 70% of partial moles will be missed in follow up. Histopathological examinations should always be done as far as possible. Samples should be kept for DNA analysis for a nal diagnosis when histology cannot differentiate molar pregnancy from abortion. The measurement of serum human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) is denitely an important tool for reaching a diagnosis of molar pregnancy. HMs should be treated by evacuating the uterus surgically as soon as possible after diagnosis. The patients must be followed up until their serial weekly serum hCG titre has fallen to undetectable levels. In cases where the serial hCG reaches an undetectable level by the 24th week after molar evacuation, resolution is spontaneous. Patients are generally advised not to become pregnant again until after the rst 6 months of follow up and are given reliable contraception, preferably in the form of the pill. Practice points Required investigations for patients with hydatidiform moles include: clinical examination chest X-ray blood cell count with platelet, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine and liver function tests on admission blood group thyroid function tests if necessary Prothrombin time (PT), partial thromboplastin time(PTT), prothrombin and brinogen, if clinically indicated serum human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) immunoassay: a specimen of serum for hCG should be obtained prior to and one day after the evacuation digital oximetry, blood gases and lung scan if necessary Clinical presentation and management of molar pregnancy 891 REFERENCES 1. Berkowitz RS & Goldstein DP. Gestational trophoblastic disease. In Breck JS, Adashi EY & Hillard PA (eds) Novaks Gynecology, 12th edn. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1996, pp 12611282. 2. Cunningham FG, Gant NF, Leveno KJ et al. Gestational trophoblastic disease, In Williams Obstetrics, 21st edn. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. pp. 835849. 3. Goldstein DP & Berkowitz RS. Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasms, Clinical Principles of Diagnosis and Management. Major Problems in Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 14. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co, 1982. pp. 145154. * 4. Soto-Wright V, Bernstein M, Goldstein DP & Berkowitz RS. The changing clinical presentation of complete molar pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology 1995; 86: 775779. * 5. Gemer O, Segal S, Kopmar A & Sassoon E. The current clinical presentation of complete molar pregnancy. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 2000; 264: 3334. * 6. Lindholm H & Flam F. The diagnosis of molar pregnancy by sonography and gross morphology. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 1999; 78: 69. * 7. Jauniaux E & Nicholaides KH. Early ultrasound diagnosis and follow-up of molar pregnancy. Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology 1997; 9: 1721. * 8. Benson CB, Genest DR, Bernstein MR et al. Sonographic appearance of rst trimester complete hydatidiform moles. Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology 2000; 16: 188191. * 9. Lazarus E, Hulka CA, Siewert B & Levine D. Sonographic appearance of early complete molar pregnancies. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine 1999; 18: 589593. * 10. Sebire NJ, Rees H, Paradinas F et al. The diagnostic implications of routine ultrasound examination in histologically conrmed early molar pregnancies. Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology 2001; 18: 662665. * 11. Romero R, Horgan JG, Kohorn EI et al. New criteria for the diagnosis of gestational trophoblastic disease. Obstetrics and Gynecology 1985; 66: 533538. * 12. Sasaki S. The management of gestational trophoblastic diseases in Japana review. Placenta 2003; 24(Suppl. A): S28S32. 13. Matsui H, Iizuka Y & Sekiya S. Incidence of invasive mole and choriocarcinoma following partial hydatidiform mole. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 1996; 53: 6364. (Letter). 14. Seckl MJ, Fisher RA, Salerno G et al. Choriocarcinoma and partial hydatidiform moles. Lancet 2000; 356: 3639. 15. The Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and The Japanese Pathologocal Society, The General Rules for Clinical and Pathological Management of Trophoblastic Disease, 2nd edn. Tokyo: Igaku-shoin, 1995. 16. Berkowitz RS, Goldstein DP, Marean AR & Bernstein M. Oral contraceptives and postmolar trophoblastic disease. Obstetrics and Gynecology 1981; 58: 474477. 17. Curry SL, Schlaerth JB, Kohorn EL et al. Hormonal contraception and trophoblastic sequelae after hydatidiform mole. (A Gynecologic Oncology Group study). American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1989; 160: 805811. * 18. Newlands ES. Presentation and management of persistent trophoblastic disease and gestational trophoblastic tumours in the UK. In Hancock BW, Newlands ES & Berkowitz RS (eds) Gestational Trophoblastic Diseases. London: Chapman and Hall, 1997, pp 143156. 19. Palmer JR. Oral contraceptive use and gestational choriocarcinoma. Cancer Detection and Prevention 1991; 15: 4548. Research agenda further study on the effect of long-term oral contraceptive use on the relative risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic disease is needed 892 S. Sasaki
Atlas of Hybrid Imaging Sectional Anatomy for PET/CT, PET/MRI and SPECT/CT Vol. 2: Thorax Abdomen and Pelvis: Sectional Anatomy for PET/CT, PET/MRI and SPECT/CT