Nota

Apakah itu Matematik Keputusan?

Sebelum ini anda sudah mengetahui serba sedikit kemahiran dan
pengetahuan dalam bidang perangkaan, perbezaan antara data selanjar dan
diskret. Data selanjar boleh mengambil apa-apa nilai dalam julat berangka:
ukuran ketinggian, berat dan masa semua menghasilkan data selanjar. Data
diskret hanya boleh mengambil nilai-nilai yang nombor pembilang: bilangan
kanak-kanak di dalam kelas atau bilangan perkataan dalam ayat adalah data
diskret yang mengambil hanya nilai-nilai keseluruhan nombor.
Dalam abad ke-17, Sir Isaac Newton dan lain-lain ahli matematik terkemuka
memulakan pembangunan kalkulus, yang memperkatakan secara khusus
tentang data yang selanjar, dan graf yang secara amnya berjalan lancar.
Matematik keputusan hanya berurusan dengan cabang matematik yang tidak
menggunakan kaedah selanjar kalkulus.
Walau bagaimanapun, perbezaan antara kaedah selanjar dan diskret kadang-
kadang menjadi kabur. Sebagai contoh, komputer asasnya berurusnya dalam
matematik diskret, kerana mereka menggunakan urutan nombor 1 dan 0, dan
hanya boleh menampung jumlah maklumat yang terhingga. Walau
bagaimanapun, komputer canggih boleh bekerja pada tahap ketepatan yang
sangat tinggi, dan boleh membuat anggaran yang sangat baik kepada
matematik selanjar. Mereka boleh memberi penyelesaian hamper kepada
persamaan yang sukar dan mungkin tidak boleh diselesaikan.
Sebahagian daripada bekerja dengan komputer adalah idea prosedur, atau
algoritma, untuk menyelesaikan masalah. Anda mungkin tahu algoritma yang
membolehkan anda menggunakan kaedah pendaraban panjang apabila anda
diminta mendarab dua nombor yang besar. Algoritma membentuk sebahagian
besar daripada mata pelajaran Matematik Keputusan. Dalam kursus ini,
kebanyakkan daripada algoritma akan menjadi topic-topik yang berkaitan
dengan penggunaan masa dan sumber yang terbaik. Ini mempunyai aplikasi
dalam industri, perniagaan, komputer, dan dalam hal-hal ketenteraan.

Alat-Alat dalam Matematik Keputusan
Matematik Keputusan, secara umum adalah aplikasi pemodelan matematik
untuk menyelesaikan masalah dunia sebenar, yang sring timbul daripada
kebimbangan menguruskan perdagangan dan perindustrian. Untuk
menggunakan matematik bagi menyelesaikan masalah, anda perlu untuk
menyelami intipati masalah dunia sebenar dalam bentuk matematik. Ini
bergerak dari dunia sebenar ke dalam dunia matematik yang dikenali sebagai
pemodelan matematik. Ia memerlukan andaian mudah supaya masalah
matematik yang diekstrak penurut.
Setelah diekstrak masalah matematik pada peringkat seterusnya adalah
untuk menggunakan teknik-teknik matematik untuk menyelesaikan masalah
tersebut. Masalah pengurusan biasanya memerlukan keputusan untuk dibuat,
dan lebih kerap daripada mereka tidak membawa kepada masalah matematik
bersifat diskret. Oleh itu, teknik-teknik matematik keputusan tidak selalunya
berasaskan kalkulus, tetapi melibatkan pendekatan algoritma cara-cara
berkesan untuk mencari yang terbaik daripada kemungkinan banyak
keputusan.
Tetapi ia tidak cukup menyelesaikan model matematik. Penyelesaian mestilah
ditafsirkan semula ke dalam dunia sebenar untuk melihat jika ia menjurus
kepada penyelesaian kepada masalah dunia sebenar yang asal. Pada
percubaan pertama, ia tidak mungkin andaian penting yang mudah yang
boleh menyebabkan masalah yang akhirnya tidak dapat diselesaikan dengan
matematik. Jika ini berlaku, maka gelung kedua di seluruh kitaran
pemodelan(lelaran) akan diperlukan. Di sini andaian dikaji semula dan diubah
suai, mengikut sebab dan akibatnya. Satu pertiga daripada kitaran keempat
mungkin diperlukan seberapa banyak yang dikehendaki sehingga satu
penyelesaian yang diterima dicapai.
Akhirnya, satu laporan siap. Adalah tidak mendatangkan manfaat untuk
bekerja melalui proses dan tiba pada kesimpulan yang memuaskan jika
pengurus yang mempunyai tanggungjawab untuk membuat keputusan itu
tidak yakin dengan kebolehpercayaan kerjanya, jadi tidak perlu untuk
berkomunikasi idea-idea yang kompleks dengan jelas, lagi teliti.
Antara alat-alat membuat keputusan adalah:
1) Algoritma
2) Graf
3) Pengaturcaraan Linear
4) Rangkaian
5) Analisis Laluan Kritikal(Critical Path Analysis)


















WHAT IS DISCRETE MATHEMATICS?
Specifically, what content does discrete mathematics embody? What are some
meaningful applications to use at the secondary school level? The difficulty is
that discrete mathematics is an inclusive term; it embraces several topical
areas of mathematics, some of which go back to early stages of mathematical
development while others are more recent additions to the discipline.

Discrete mathematics includes sets, functions and relations, matrix algebra,
combinatorics and finite probability, graph theory, finite differences and
recurrence relations, logic, mathematical induction, and algorithmic thinking.
Other topics often considered part of discrete mathematics are Boolean algebra,
the mathematics of social choice, linear programming, and number theory.
Because of this diversity of topics, it is perhaps preferable to view discrete
mathematics simply as the mathematics that is necessary for decision making
in noncontinuous situations.


WHY SHOULD WE TEACH DISCRETE MATHEMATICS?
Discrete mathematics has evolved as the computer has evolved. Discrete
mathematics is the kind of mathematics one needs to know to communicate
with a computer as designer, programmer, or user. It is necessary for all
students, regardless of their choice of career path, to receive some instruction
in discrete mathematics so that they will be able to function as informed
citizens of an increasingly technological society.

In fact, discrete mathematics affords many students a new opportunity to
experience success and enjoyment in mathematics classes. Those who have
encountered numerous difficulties with computation and the complexities of
mathematics in the past can be reached with appealing problems from discrete
mathematics that have few formal skills as requisites. Other students who have
been discouraged by the routine aspects of learning mathematics can become
excited and challenged by the many intriguing problems that are typical of
discrete mathematics. Discrete mathematics can be used to illustrate and
emphasize effectively NCTM's four overall curriculum standards for all
students. That is, discrete mathematics problems- require that many problem-
solving strategies be applied to interesting real-world applications; lend
themselves well to situations in which students collaborate and develop verbal
and written skills in the process of solving the problem; demand the sustained
use of critical thinking and reasoning procedures in working toward a solution;
and promote making mathematical connections within and across disciplines
through a wide range of problem types. In addition, technology is typically
used to gather, process, or analyze the data integral to the problem.







FITTING DISCRETE MATHEMATICS INTO THE CURRICULUM:
Discrete mathematics can fit into many places in the curriculum, and several
possible strategies can be recommended for its implementation.
1. Emphasize discrete mathematics topics that are already part of the
curriculum. For example, matrices, counting, induction, sequences,
sets, and logic are discrete-mathematics topics that are already in the
curriculum.
2. Take a "discrete" approach to old topics. For example, use matrices to
solve systems of linear equations and to represent geometric
transformations, or represent relations using graphs and matrices, or
use recursive formulas for sequences.
3. Teach short (two- to ten-day) units on "new'" discrete-mathematics
topics. Materials are rapidly becoming available for topics like graph
theory, difference equations, game theory, and linear programming.
But do we have room? Yes! Many teachers are already teaching such
units without eliminating other topics by teaching the units during
"slack" times, such as just before and after vacation breaks. Also, one
can make room in the curriculum by reducing the time spent on such
topics as factoring and two column proofs, as recommended in the
Standards.
4. Teach a full-semester course on discrete mathematics. Numerous high
schools around the country are already starting to take this approach.
At present such a course is most commonly viewed as a senior
mathematics course for better students. But a discrete-mathematics
course could fit into the curriculum. In particular, discrete mathematics
topics are well suited to the "core curriculum" recommendation of the
Standards (see Hirsch and Schoen [1989]). That is, the same topics can
be taught at different levels and with different applications. Thus, a
discrete-mathematics course could be appropriate for students who
now take "general math," for students who have completed first-year
algebra or geometry but are not quite ready for second-year algebra, or
for students who need a course to follow or replace calculus.
5. Weave in discrete mathematics. Many discrete mathematics topics can
be woven into the existing curriculum, as discussed in categories 1, 2,
and 3 and also by using discrete-mathematics topics as examples and
applications within the existing curriculum. For instance, a game-
theory example, like finding the optimum percentage of fast balls that a
pitcher should throw in the game of baseball, can be presented as an
application of solving systems of linear equations or an apportionment
example, like apportioning seats in a state legislature, can be presented
as an application within a unit on fractions. A good resource that
discusses these examples and also offers instructive and motivating
videotapes is Garfunkel (1988). Thus, many strategies can be found for
fitting discrete mathematics into the secondary school curriculum.



DISCRETE MATHEMATICS IN GRADES 7 AND 8:
Although the Standards does not contain a specific recommendation
concerning discrete mathematics in grades 7 and 8, some discrete-mathematics
topics can easily be taught in these grades, and doing so will address many of
the middle school standards. For example, the global standards of problem
solving, communications, reasoning, and connections can all be addressed by
teaching discrete mathematics, as can the standards on number and number
relationships, patterns and functions, algebra, and geometry. We shall give
examples of three discrete-mathematics topics appropriate for middle school
students.

CONCLUSION:
Discrete mathematics is vital, exciting, and useful mathematics that should be
taught in grades 7-12. Many topics can be taught, and they can be fit into the
curriculum in a variety of ways. Some teacher retraining is necessary, but the
small investment of time and effort needed to begin teaching discrete
mathematics has substantial payoffs in terms of a richer curriculum and better-
prepared students.

Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally
discrete rather than continuous. In contrast to real numbers that have the property of
varying "smoothly", the objects studied in discrete mathematics such as integers,
graphs, and statements in logic
[1]
do not vary smoothly in this way, but have distinct,
separated values.
[2]
Discrete mathematics therefore excludes topics in "continuous
mathematics" such as calculus and analysis. Discrete objects can often be enumerated
by integers. More formally, discrete mathematics has been characterized as the branch
of mathematics dealing with countable sets
[3]
(sets that have the same cardinality as
subsets of the natural numbers, including rational numbers but not real numbers).
However, there is no exact, universally agreed, definition of the term "discrete
mathematics."
[4]
Indeed, discrete mathematics is described less by what is included
than by what is excluded: continuously varying quantities and related notions.
The set of objects studied in discrete mathematics can be finite or infinite. The term
finite mathematics is sometimes applied to parts of the field of discrete mathematics
that deals with finite sets, particularly those areas relevant to business.
Research in discrete mathematics increased in the latter half of the twentieth century
partly due to the development of digital computers which operate in discrete steps and
store data in discrete bits. Concepts and notations from discrete mathematics are
useful in studying and describing objects and problems in branches of computer
science, such as computer algorithms, programming languages, cryptography,
automated theorem proving, and software development. Conversely, computer
implementations are significant in applying ideas from discrete mathematics to real-
world problems, such as in operations research.
Although the main objects of study in discrete mathematics are discrete objects,
analytic methods from continuous mathematics are often employed as well.