PID controller

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

A Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller or PID is a standard feedback

loop component in industrial control applications. It measures an "output" of a
process and controls an "input", with a goal of maintaining the output at a target
value, which is called the "setpoint". An example of a PID application is the control
of a process temperature, although it can be used to control any measurable variable
which can be affected by manipulating some other process variable. For example, it
can be used to control pressure, flow rate, chemical composition, force, speed or a
number of other variables. Automobile cruise control is an example of an
application area outside of the process industries.

The basic idea is that the controller reads a sensor. Then it subtracts the
measurement from a desired "setpoint" to determine an "error".

The error is then treated in three different ways simultaneously:

• Proportional - To handle the present,

the error is multiplied by a negative
proportional constant P, and sent to the
output. P represents the band over which a
controller's output is proportional to the error
of the system. E.g. for a heater, a controller
with a proportional band of 10 deg C and a
setpoint of 20 deg C would have an output of
100% at 10 deg C, 50% at 15 Deg C and 10%
at 19 deg C. Adding the change to the output
makes the output self-adjusting. For example,
if the burner were to get dirty, decreasing the
heater's efficiency, the baseline output would
just drift upwards a bit, and then restabilise.
• Integral - To handle the past, the error
is integrated (or averaged, or summed) over a
period of time, and then multiplied by a
constant I, and added to the proportional
output. I represents the steady state error of
the system. Using the Proportional term alone
it is not possible to reach a steady set point
temperature. Real world processes are not
perfect and are subject to a number of
environmental variables. As these variables
 are often constant they can be measured and
compensated for. Using the Proportional
example above; at 19.9 deg C the controller
output is 1%, at this temperature
environmental losses through heat
transmission are 3%. In this scenario the
system controller will never be able to reach
set point, however it can be corrected by
introducing an Integral term, which will
attempt to remove errors that last for some
time. In practice, the Integral term of a
controller only considers a relatively short
history of the controller.
• Derivative - To handle the future, the
first derivative of the error (its rate of change)
is calculated with respect to time, and
multiplied by another constant D, and
summed with the proportional and integral
terms. The derivative term is used to govern a
controller's response to a change in the
system. The larger the derivative term the
more rapidly the controller will respond to
changes in the process value. This is a good
thing to reduce when trying to dampen a
controller's response to short term changes.

The generic transfer function for a PID controller is

H(s)= ,

with C being a constant (typically .01 or .001).

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Tuning a PID loop

• 2 Problems
• 3 Theory
• 4 Nomenclature
 • 5 How to get one

• 6 External links
[edit]

Tuning a PID loop

There are several methods for tuning a PID loop. The choice of method will depend
largely on whether or not the loop can be taken "offline" for tuning, and the
response speed of the system. If the system can be taken offline, the best tuning
method often involves subjecting the system to a step change in input, measuring
the output as a function of time, and using this response to determine the control
parameters.

If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set the I and D
values to zero. Increase the P until the output of the loop oscillates. Then increase I
until oscillation stops. Finally, increase D until the loop is acceptably quick to reach
its setpoint. The best PID loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the set-
point more quickly, however some systems cannot accept overshoot.

Effects of changes in parameters

Parameter Rise Time Overshoot Settling Time S.S. Error
P Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
I Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
D Small Change Decrease Decrease Small Change

Another tuning method is formally known as the "Ziegler-Nichols method". It starts

in the same way as the method described before: first set the I and D gains to zero
and then increase the P gain until the output of the loop starts to oscillate. Write
down the critical gain (Kc) and the oscillation period of the output (Pc). Then
adjust the P, I and D controls as the table shows:

Ziegler-Nichols method
Control P Tr Td
P 0,5·Kc - -
PI 0,45·Kc Pc/1,2 -
PID 0,6·Kc Pc/2 Pc/8
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Problems
The PID controller algorithm itself has few problems. Most problems arise from
instrumentation connected to the controller.

One common problem is "integral windup." It might take too long for the output
value to ramp up to the necessary value when the loop first starts up. Sometimes
this can be fixed with a more aggressive differential term. Sometimes the loop has
to be "preloaded" with a starting output. Another option is to disable the integral
function until the measured variable has entered the proportional band.

Some PID loops control a valve or similar mechanical device. Wear of the valve or
device can be a major maintenance cost. In these cases, the PID loop may have a
"deadband." The calculated output must leave the deadband before the actual
output will change. Then, a new deadband will be established around the new
output value.

Another problem with the differential term is that small amounts of noise can cause
large amounts of change in the output. Sometimes it's helpful to filter the
measurements, with a running average, or a low-pass filter. However, low-pass
filtering and derivative control cancel each other out, so reducing noise by
instrumentation means is a much better choice. Alternatively, the differential band
can be turned off in most systems with little loss of control.

The proportional and differential terms can also produce undesirable results in
systems subjected to instantaneous "step" inputs (such as when a computer changes
the setpoint). To avoid this, some PID algorithms incorporate setpoint weighting
where the setpoint and the process output are treated separately. Setpoint weighting
introduces two parameters that are used to multiply the error entering the
proportional and derivative terms to change the response to setpoint changes. The
error in the integral term must be the true control error to avoid steady-state control
errors. It should be noted that these parameters do not affect the response to load
disturbances and measurement noise.

In practice, PID controllers are usually used as PI controllers, especially when

dealing with measurements involving significant noise or delay (e.g. chemical
composition, temperature). Many industrial PID systems actually measure the
differential of the output quantity, which is always continuous (i.e., never has a step
function), and usually moves in the same direction as the error.

[edit]

Theory
Development of PID control originated from the observation that a proportional-
only control can only eliminate the error between setpoint and process variable at
one particular setpoint. At any other setting, there would be an offset between the
setpoint and the true process value. Metaphorically, an operator could reset the
controller setpoint by hand, until the actual process eventually stabilized at the
desired value. In older control literature this is referred to "reset" action as a result.
The derivative term reflects the ability to observe the rate of change of the process
variable and again adjust the setpoint in anticipation of the final value. Again, an
older term for this action is "rate".

A PID loop can be mathematically characterized as a filter applied to a frequency-

domain system. Mathematical PID loop tuning induces an impulse in the system,
and then uses the controlled system's frequency response to design the PID loop
values. In loops with response times of several minutes, mathematical loop tuning
is recommended, because trial and error can literally take days just to find a stable
set of loop values. Optimal values are harder, and yet can save a company huge
amounts of money. Commercial software is available from several sources, and can
easily pay for itself if a PID loop runs a large, or expensive process. Some digital
loop controllers offer a self-tuning feature in which very small setpoint changes are
sent to the process, allowing the controller itself to calculate optimal tuning values.

[edit]

Nomenclature
• Proportional Band is sometimes
referred to as Gain
• Integral Band is sometimes referred to
as Reset
• Derivative Band is sometimes referred
to as Rate

Gain and proportional band are related but inverse quantities. A controller setting
of 100% proportional band means that a 100% change of the error signal (setpoint-
process variable) will result in 100% change of the output, which is a gain of 1.0. A
20% proportional band indicates that 20% change in error gives a 100% output
change, which is a gain of 5.

There are three different forms of the PID controller. They are the standard or "non-
interacting" form, the series or "interacting" form and the parallel form. The
standard form is the ideal form where the terms are noninteracting in the time
domain. The series or "interacting" algorithm applies the gain term to both integral
and derivative terms (think of a PD and PI controller in series); this is effectively
how older pneumatic and some analog controllers worked. It is the most restricted
form of the three. The parallel form is the most general, "mathematician's" form
and is the most flexible of the three. However, it is also the form where the
parameters have little physical interpretation. It is mostly used when tuning the PID
algorithm mathematically.

The series form is said to be the most intuitive to tune and is the classical form. The
standard form admits complex zeros, which is useful when controlling oscillatory
systems. Furthermore, the parallel form allows for pure proportional or integral
action.

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How to get one

PID controller functionality is a common feature of programmable logic controllers
(PLC). They can also be implemented with any physical system that can produce
ratiometric behavior and integration. Mechanical systems (usually the cheapest) can
use a lever, spring and a mass. Pneumatic controllers were once common, but have
been largely replaced by digital electronic controllers. Electronic systems are very
cheap, and can be made by using an amplifier, a capacitor and a resistance.
Software PID loops are the most stable, because they do not wear out, and their
high expense has been decreasing.