Turbine Design Manual

AXIAL TURBINE DESIGN MANUAL
CHAPTER 4
PART 2
Dr K W RAMSDEN
DIRECTOR GAS TURBINE TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMMES
DEPARTMENT OF POWER AND PROPULSION
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
CRANFIELD, BEDFORD
MK43 0AL
DISCLAIMER
These notes have been prepared by Cranfield University for the personal use
of course delegates. Accordingly, they may not be communicated to a third
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The notes are intended to support the course in which they are to be
presented as defined by the lecture programme. However the content may
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addition, the notes may cover topics which are not presented in the
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Some of the data contained in the notes may have been obtained from public
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originators are in no way responsible for the accuracy of such material.
All the information provided has been judged in good faith as appropriate for
the course. However, Cranfield University accepts no liability resulting from
the use of such information.
SUMMARY
This document facilitates the aerodynamic design of both a low and high pressure
turbine allowing the user to work step by step through the calculation procedure.
The turbines are matched to a two spool compressor having an overall pressure ratio
of 16.
One of two alternative turbine entry temperatures may be chosen, namely, 1250K or
1650K representative of industrial and aeronautical technology, respectively.
The HP turbine RPM is chosen at 15000 whilst that of the LP is estimated by limiting
the LP compressor stage one rotor tip relative Mach number to 1.15.
In both cases, the turbines have a mean diameter of 0.45m.
The inlet Mach number to the HP turbine is 0.30 and the corresponding axial velocity
is maintained constant throughout.
A critical assessment is carried out in terms of likely performance and, where
appropriate, suggestions made for modifications taking into account the prescribed
application.
The results calculated by the user can be directely compared with the values
appended.
CONTENTS
PAGE
BACKGROUND NOTES
NOTATION AND UNITS 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 2A
TWO SHAFT ARRANGEMENT 2B
2.0 SPECIFICATION
2.1 THE COMPRESSOR SYSTEM 3
2.2 THE HP TURBINE SYSTEM 4
3.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN CONSTRAINTS 5
4.0 HP TURBINE ANNULUS DIAGRAM 5
5.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN TABULATION
5.1 OVERALL SPECIFICATION 6
5.2 INLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY 6
5.3 EFFICIENCY PREDICTION 6
5.4 OUTLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY 7
6.0 HP TURBINE FREE VORTEX DESIGN
6.1A DESIGN TABULATION - TET = 1250K 8A
6.1B VELOCITY TRIANGLES - TET = 1250K 8B
7.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT
7.1A DESIGN SUMMARY - TET = 1250K 10A
7.1B RECOMMENDATIONS - TET = 1250K 10B
8.1B RECOMMENDATIONS TET = 1650 K 11B
(CONTINUED)
CONTENTS ( CONTINUED )
PAGE
9.0 LOW PRESSURE TURBINE DESIGN
9.1 LP COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATION 12
9.2 LP COMPRESSOR DESIGN CONSTRAINTS 12
9.3 ESTIMATION OF LP COMPRESSOR ( LP TURBINE ) RPM 13
10.0 LP TURBINE OVERALL DESIGN
10.1 OVERALL SPECIFICATION 14
10.2 HP TURBINE EXIT ANNULUS GEOMOETRY 14
10.3 INTER-TURBINE ANNULUS GEOMETRY ESTIMATION 15
10.4 LP TURBINE EFFICIENCY PREDICTION 16
10.5 LP TURBINE OUTLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY 17
11.0 LP TURBINE FREE VORTEX DESIGN
11.1B VELOCITY TRIANGLES - TET =1250K 18B
12.0 LP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESMENT
( CONTINUED)
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
ANNEXES
ANNEX A
PAGE
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS A1
A 1.O HP TURBINE DESIGN TABULATION
A 1.1 OVERALL SPECIFICATION A2
A 1.2 INLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY A2
A 1.3 EFFICIENCY PREDICTION A2
A 1.4 OUTLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY A3
A 2.0 HP TURBINE FREE VORTEX DESIGN
A 2.11 DESIGN TABULATION - TET = 1250K A4A
A 2.1B VELOCITY TRIANGLES-TET = 1250K A4B
A 2.2A DESIGN TABULATION - TET = 1650K A5A
A 2.2B VELOCITY TRIANGLES- TET = 1650K A5B
A 3.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT
A3.1A DESIGN SUMMARY - TET = 1250K A6A
A 3.1B DESIGN SUMMARY - TET 1650K A6B
ANNEX B
B 1.0 GUIDNACE NOTES FOR CALCULATIONS B1
ANNEX C
GAMMA = 1.40 C1 AND C2
(CONTINUED)
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
ANNEXES
ANNEX D
PAGE
D 1.0 SMITH'S EFFICIENCY CORRELATION D1
ANNEX E
E1.0 LOW PRESSURE TURBINE DESIGN TABULATION
E1.1 ESTIMATION OF LP COMPRESSOR (LP TURBINE) RPM E1
E1.2 LP TURBINE INLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY E2
E1.3 LP TURBINE EFFICIENCY PREDICTION E2
E1.4 LP TURBINE OUTLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY E3
E2.0 LOW PRESSURE TURBINE FREE VORTEX DESIGN
E2.1A DESIGN TABULATION - TET = 1250K E4A
E2.1B DESIGN TABULATION - TET = 1650K E4B
E3.0 LOW PRESSURE TURBINE FREE VORTEX DESIGN
E3.1A DESIGN TABULATION - TET = 1250K E5A
E3.1B DESIGN TABULATION - TET = 1650K E5B
E4.0 LOW PRESSURE TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT
E4.1A DESIGN SUMMARY - TET = 1250K E6A
E4.1B DESIGN SUMMARY - TET = 1650K E6B
ANNEX F
F1.0 INTER-TURBINE ANNULUS GEOMETRY ESTIMATION F1
-1-
NOTATION AND UNITS
SYMBOLS UNITS
A Cross sectional area m
2
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure Joules / kg.K
D Diameter m
h Annulus height m
H Stagnation enthalpy Joules / kg
M Mach number
N Revs per minute min.
-1
p Static pressure n/m
2
P Stagnation pressure n/m
2
q Mass flow function (W\T /Ap ) 1/\( Joules kg/K )
Q Mass flow function (W\T /AP ) 1/\( Joules kg/K )
R Gas constant Joules/kg.K
Rc Compressor pressure ratio
Rov Overall pressure ratio
t Static temperature K
T Stagnation temperature K
U Blade speed m/sec
V Velocity m/sec
W Mass flow kg/sec
o Gas angle degrees
Ratio of specific heats
A Change in:
O Work done factor
ABBREVIATIONS SUFFICES
BMH Blade mid height a Axial
q
isent
Isentropic efficiency ann Annulus
q
poly
Polytropic efficiency in Stage inlet
FAR Fuel air ratio mean At mid height
HP High pressure out outlet
LP Low pressure R (or H) At the root (or hub)
NGV Nozzle guide vane T At the tip or casing
stoi. Stoichiometric w Whirl direction
TET Turbine entry temperature 0 Nozzle outlet (abs)
1 Rotor inlet (rel)
2 Rotor outlet (rel)
3 Rotor outlet (abs)
-2A-
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Document facilitates the aerodynamic design of both a low and high pressure turbine
allowing the user to work step by step through the calculation procedure.
The turbines are matched to a two spool compressor having an overall pressure ratio of 16.
One of two alternative turbine entry temperatures may be chosen, namely 1250K or 1650K,
representative of industrial and aeronautical technology, respectively.
The HP turbine RPM is chosen at 15000 whilst that of the LP is estimated by limiting the LP
compressor (stage one) rotor tip relative Mach number to 1.15.
In both cases, the turbines have a mean diameter of 0.45m.
The inlet Mach number to the HP turbine is 0.3 and the corresponding axial volocity is
maintained constant throughout.
A critical assessment is carried out in terms of likely performance and where appropriate,
suggestions made for improvements taking into account the prescribed application.
The results estimated by the user may be compared with values appended.
The following design constraints are imposed :-
Constant axial velocity
Constant mean diameter = 0.45m
RPM = 15000
50% reaction at blade mid height
Free vortex flow distribution
Axial HP inlet flow with a Mach number of 0.3
Straight sided annulus walls
2B
LPC HPC HPT LPT
TWO SHAFT TURBOJET (OR TURBOFAN CORE ENGINE)
FIGURE 1
SPECIFICATION
-3-
2.0 SPECIFICATION
2.1 THE COMPRESSOR SYSTEM.
The compressor system has the following specification :
Inlet temperature (T
1
) 300
Inlet pressure (P
1
) 101325
Overall pressure ratio (Rov) 16.0
LP pressure ratio (Rc) 3.56
HP pressure ratio (Rc) 4.494
HP RPM (N
hp
) 15000
Polytropic efficiency (q
poly
) ( both spools )
0.90
Mass flow (W) 40.0
With these data and the formulae below, the following can be calculated :
LP COMPRESSOR HP COMPRESSOR
Pressure ratio 3.560 4.494
q
isent
0.882 0.879
Inlet temperature 300 449
Temperature rise AT 149 274
Outlet temperature 449 723
Power = W. Cp. AT
(megawatts)
5.99 11.03
NOTE :
1 R
1 R
poly
1
c
1
c
isent
= q
q

|
|
.
|
\
|
q
= A
1 R
T
T
1 -
c
isent
1
and
1
R
Cp

=
where: = 1.4 and R = 287
ie, Cp = 1005
-4-
2.0 SPECIFICATION
2.2 THE HP TURBINE SYSTEM
The hp turbine is required to supply only the hp compressor power since it is assumed that
there are no mechanical losses.
The turbine mass flow is the compressor flow plus the fuel flow. The latter is obtained by
calculating the fuel flow and hence the fuel/air ratio (FAR) required to raise the compressor
outlet temperature to the specified TET. This is calculated based on an enthalpy balance. The
corresponding values of FAR are shown in the table below assuming a combustor efficiency
of 100%.
The mean specific heat is calculated from values of Cp for both air as well as for the
combustion products. See for example Walsh and Fletcher.
Cp air = a
o
+ a
1
X+ a
2
X
2
+ a
3
X
3
+ a
4
X
4
...
Where X = (T/1000)
Cp kerosene = Cp f= b
o
+ b
1
X+ b
2
X
2
+ b
3
X
3
+ b
4
X
4
...
Cp comb_gas = Cp air+(FAR/(1+FAR))* Cp f
R=287.05-0.0099FAR+1e-7(FAR
2
)
A0 0.992313 B0 -0.71887
A1 0.236688 B1 8.747481
A2 -1.852150 B2 -15.8632
A3 6.083152 B3 17.2541
A4 -8.89393 B4 -10.2338
A5 7.097112 B5 3.081778
A6 -3.23473 B6 -0.36111
A7 0.794571 B7 -0.00392
A8 -0.08187 A8 -0.71887
Based on a similar, but slightly different, approach the following values are used here:
Compressor outlet temperature (K) 723 723
Turbine entry temperature (K) 1250 1650
Combustor temperature rise (K) 526.7 927
Fuel / Air Ratio (FAR) 0.0159 0.0289
Mass Flow (air +fuel) (Kg/s) 40.64 41.16
HP Turbine Power (megawatts)
(To drive hp compressor)
11.03 11.03
Mean specific heat - Cp (joules/Kg.K) 1184 1275.5
Inlet stagnation pressure - Pin (n/m
2
)
(Assumes 5% Combustor pressure loss)
1540140 1540140
Ratio of specific heats, = 1/(1-R/Cp) 1.32 1.29
NOTE: GAS CONSTANT - R = 287 joules/Kg K
HP TURBINE DESIGN
-5-
3.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN CONSTRAINTS.
The following design constraints are imposed :-
Axial inlet flow with a Mach number of 0.3
Constant axial velocity
Constant mean diameter
RPM = 15000
50% reaction at blade mid height
Free vortex flow distribution
Straight sided annulus walls
Constant mean diameter = 0.45m
The assumption of constant axial velocity would require an iteration on NGV exit gas angle, o
o
, so that mass flow continuity is satisfied.
The annulus area distribution would then be an automatic outcome of the calculations.
For simplicity, however, it is assumed that the annulus is straight sided (see the diagram
below). This introduces only a small error.
Additionally, it is assumed that the exit plane of the NGV is half way along the annulus. This
implies that the axial chord of the NGV is greater than that of the rotor which allows a
reasonable spacing between the blade rows.
4.0 HP TURBINE ANNULUS DIAGRAM.
The following general annulus configuration is used :-
AXIS
h out
h in
L / 2
L
NGV BLADE
D mean
-6-
5.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN TABULATION.
5.1 OVERALL SPECIFICATION.
TET 1250 1650
Mass flow W (Kg / s) 40.64 41.16
Power (megawatts) 11.03 11.03
Specific Heat Cp (and )
1184 (1.32) 1275.7 (1.290)
5.2 INLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY.
P = 16 x 101325 x 0.95
Inlet Mach Number 0.30 0.30
Q = W.\T / A.P
(See Tables - ANNEX C )
A = W.\T / Q.P
h = A / (t.Dmean)
D
tip
= Dmean + h
Dhub = Dmean - h
Hub/Tip Ratio = Dhub / Dtip
5.3 EFFICIENCY PREDICTION - (MEAN HEIGHT)
Temperature Drop AT = Power / W.Cp
Umean = U = RPM. t Dmean / 60
AH/U
2
= CpAT /U
2
Va / \Tin
( for Min = 0.3, See ANNEX C - use appropiate )
Va
Va / U
q
isent
(Smith's Chart value minus 2 %)
(See Annex D)
NOTE : SEE PAGE A2 FOR SOLUTIONS
-7-
5.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN TABULATION ( CONT. )
5.4 OUTLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY.
TET 1250 1650
Va
T
3
= Tin - AT
Work done factor O 0.98 0.98
AVw = (AH/U
2
) . U/O
Vw
3
= (AVw-Umean) /2
(50 % Reaction)
o
3
= tan
-1
(Vw
3
/Va)
V
3
= Va/Coso
3
V
3
/\T
3
M
3
(See ANNEX C, use appropiate )
Q
3
(See ANNEX C)
R = (1-AT/ (q
isent.
Tin))
/(-1)
P
3
= Pin x Rov (See note below)
A
3
= W.\T
3
/ P
3
.Q
3
Aann = A3 / Coso
3
h = Aann / (t Dmean)
Dtip = Dmean + h
Dhub = Dmean - h
Hub/Tip Ratio = Dhub/Dtip
NOTE: P
3
= Pout (In the direction of V
3
)
SEE PAGE A3 FOR SOLUTIONS
-8A-
6.0 HP TURBINE-FREE VORTEX DESIGN
6.1A DESIGN TABULATION - TET = 1250K
ROOT BMH TIP
D (NGV exit) = (Din + Dout) /2
D (Rotor exit) (See Table 5.4 - page 7)
Va (Constant radially)
Vw
3
mean (See Table 5.4 - Page 7)
Vw
o
mean = (AVw-Vw
3
) mean
(See Table 5.4)
Vw
o
= Vw
o
mean x Dmean/D
(D at NGV exit)
oo
= tan
-1
(Vw
o
/ Va)
Vw
3
= Vw
3mean
. Dmean/D
(D at rotor exit)
o3
= tan
-1
(Vw
3
/ Va)
U (For exit velocity triangles)
= Umean . D/Dmean (D at rotor exit)
V
o
= Va / Coso
o
Nozzle Acceleration, Vo / Vin (= Vo / Va)
V
1
= \(Va
2
+(Vwo-U)
2
)
o
1
= Cos
-1
(Va / V
1
)
V
2
= \(Va
2
+(U+Vw
3)
2
)
o
2
= Cos
-1
(Va / V
2
)
Rotor Acceleration, V
2
/ V
1
NOTE : SEE PAGE A4A FOR SOLUTIONS
-8B-
6.0 HP TURBINE-FREE VORTEX DESIGN (CONT)
6.1B VELOCITY TRIANGLES - TET = 1250 K
From the data provided on Page A4A, draw below the velocity triangles appropriate to the
stage at Root, Blade Mid Height and Tip.
NOTE: USE A SCALE OF 1cm = 100m/s
TIP
BMH
ROOT
NOTE: SEE PAGE A4B FOR SOLUTIONS
-9A-
6.0 HP TURBINE-FREE VORTEX DESIGN
ROOT BMH TIP
D (NGV exit) = (Din+Dout)/2
D (rotor exit) (See Table 5.4 - page7)
Va (Constant radially)
Vw
3
mean (See Table 5.4 - page
7)
Vw
o
mean = (AVw-Vw
3
)mean
(See Table 5.4)
Vw
o
= Vw
o
mean x
Dmean/D
(D at NGV exit)
o
o
= tan
-1
(Vw
o
/Va)
Vw
3
= Vw
3
mean x Dmean/D
(D at rotor exit)
o
3
= tan
-1
(Vw
3
/Va)
U (For exit velocity triangles)
= Umean x D/Dmean (D at rotor exit)
Vo = Va/Cosoo
Nozzle Acceleration, Vo/V
in
= Vo/Va
V
1
= \(Va
2
+(Vwo-U)
2
)
o
1
= Cos
-1
(Va/V
1
)
V
2
= \(Va
2
+(U+Vw
3
)
2
)
o
2
= Cos
-1
(Va/V
2
)
Rotor Acceleration, V
2
/V
1
NOTE : SEE PAGE A5A FOR SOLUTIONS
-9B-
6.0 HP TURBINE-FREE VORTEX DESIGN (CONT)
6.2b VELOCITY TRIANGLES - TET = 1650K
From the data provided on Page A5A, draw below the velocity triangles appropriate to the
TIP
BMH
ROOT
-10A-
7.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT.
7.1A DESIGN SUMMARY - TET = 1250K
NOTE: See ANNEX B for method of calculation.
AT BLADE MID HEIGHT NGV EXIT BLADE EXIT
Static temperature
Speed of sound
Absolute Mach number
Axial Mach number
DATA FROM PAGE A4A
HUB TO CASING ROOT BMH TIP
NGV Exit Gas Angle
o
o
Nozzle Deflection,
o
o+
o
in
Rotor Deflection,
o
1
+
o
2
Nozzle Acceleration
V
o
/ V
in
Rotor Acceleration V
2
/ V
1
Exit swirl, o
3
Reaction
STAGE OVERALL DATA
Inlet hub/tip ratio
(See Page A2)
Outlet hub/tip ratio
(See Page A3)
NOTE: SEE PAGE A6A FOR SOLUTIONS
-10B-
7.1B RECOMMENDATIONS - TET = 1250 K
(SEE PAGE A6A for data)
(A) ARE THE AXIAL MACH NUMBERS OK ?
(B) IS THE NGV LEAVING GAS ANGLE ACCEPTABLE ?
(C) IS THE ROTOR EXIT SWIRL ACCEPTABLE ?
(D) ARE THE GAS DEFLECTIONS OK ?
(E) IS THE ROTOR ROOT ACCELERATION OK ?
(F) IS THE NGV TIP ACCELERATION OK ?
(G) IS THE INLET HUB/TIP RATIO OK ?
-11A-
8.0 HP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT.
Static temperature
Speed of sound
Axial Mach number
DATA FROM PAGE A5A
NGV Exit Gas Angle
o
o
Nozzle Deflection
o
o+
o
in
Rotor Deflection
o
1+
o
2
Nozzle Acceleration Vo / Vin
2
/ V
1
Exit Swirl
o
3
Reaction
STAGE OVERALL
DATA
Inlet hub/tip ratio
(See Page A2)
(See Page A3)
-11B-
(SEE Page A6B for data)
(D) ARE THE GAS DEFLECTIONS OK?
LP TURBINE DESIGN
-12-
9.0 LOW PRESSURE TURBINE DESIGN
9.1 LOW PRESSURE COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATION
The low pressure compressor has the following specification (See Page 3)
Inlet temperature Tin 300
Inlet pressure Pin 101325
Mass flow W 40
Polytropic efficiency
q
poly 0.90
Isentropic efficiency
q
isent 0.88
Compressor power 5.99 megawatts
9.2 LOW PRESSURE COMPRESSOR DESIGN CONSTRAINTS
The following design assumptions are made:-
Axial inlet flow (no inlet guide vanes)
Inlet axial Mach number Ma = 0.5
Rotor tip relative Mach number M
1
= 1.15
Mean diameter Dmean = 0.45
The compressor RPM is limited to that value corresponding to a maximum rotor relative tip
Mach number of 1.15. Accordingly, the following velocity triangle applies at the tip of the first
stage rotor:-
M
U tip
Ma = 0.5 1
= 1.15
-13-
9.3 ESTIMATION OF LP COMPRESSOR (LP TURBINE) RPM
The following tabulation gives the sequence of calculations to estimate blade tip speed and
RPM.
(See also velocity triangle at the rotor tip shown on page 12).
Ma 0.5
Va /\Tin ( See ANNEX C, for = 1.4 )
Va
Qin = W.\Tin / Pin.Ain
Ain
hin = Ain/( t.Dmean )
Dtip = Dmean + hin
Dhub = Dmean - hin
Hub/Tip Ratio = Dhub / Dtip
Tin/tin (See ANNEX C, for = 1.4)
t in
V1 = M
1
\ ( R t
in
)
Utip = (V
1
2
- Va
2
)
RPM = 60.Utip/( tDtip )
NOTE: SEE PAGE E1 FOR SOLUTIONS
-14-
10.0 LP TURBINE OVERALL DESIGN
10.1 OVERALL SPECIFICATION.
LP TET 1021 1440
Mass flow 40.64 41.16
Power (megawatts) 5.99 5.99
Specific heat, Cp (and ) 1184 (1.32) 1275.7 (1.290)
RPM 10980 10980
Blade mid height reaction 50% 50%
10.2 HP TURBINE EXIT ANNULUS GEOMETRY
(SEE PAGE A3)
TET 1250 1650
Dmean 0.45 0.45
Dtip = Dmean + h 0.529 0.524
Dhub = Dmean - h 0.371 0.376
h = (Dtip-Dhub)/2 0.079 0.074
A = t.Dmean.h 0.112 0.105
Hub/Tip Ratio = Dhub / Dtip 0.702 0.718
Va 205.1 233.0
Vw
out
mean 215.4 210.5
-15-
10.3 INTER-TURBINE ANNULUS GEOMETRY ESTIMATION
The factors concerning selection of inter-turbine axial space and annulus flare angle are
considered in ANNEX F. Accordingly, an annulus flare of 30
0
( included angle ) is selected
with an axial space of 0.00635m. This is an example estimate for a closely spaced blade
rows. For your own designs select spacings based on the values of local upstream chord as
discussed in the lectures (e.g. St0.25Cax)
The lp inlet annulus area is then estimated using the hp exit values of Table 10.2 and the
inter-turbine data in table 10.3 below.
The inter-turbine geometry is shown diagramatically below :-
y
y
15
0.00635
D mean
AXIS
HP EXIT LP INLET
o
TABLE 10.3 LP TURBINE INLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY
LP TET. 1021 1440
LP Turbine inlet pressure ( See Table A1.4 ) 583713 768530
Dmean 0.45 0.45
Dtip = D
tip
(hp exit) + 2y ( See ANNEX F )
Dhub = D
hub
(hp exit) - 2y
h = (Dtip- Dhub)/2
A = t.Dmean . h
Hub / Tip Ratio = Dhub / Dtip
Va = Va(hp exit) x h(hp exit) / h(lp entry)
Vw
in
(mean) (As for HP exit) 215.4 210.5
NOTE : SEE PAGE E2 FOR SOLUTIONS
-16-
10.4 LP TURBINE EFFICIENCY PREDICTION
(SINGLE STAGE AT MID HEIGHT)
LP TET 1021 1440
Temperature Drop = Power / (W.Cp)
Blade Speed, Umean = U = RPM. t . D / 60
AH/U
2
= CpAT / U
2
(Single Stage)
Va (See Table 10.3 - Page 15)
Va / U
qisent (Smith's Chart Value minus 2 %)
THE ABOVE EFFICIENCY PREDICTION IS VALID FOR A SINGLE STAGE TURBINE.
THE DESIGNER CAN NOW SELECT A SINGLE OR TWO STAGE DESIGN.
For the low TET ( industrial ) case, a two stage design would probably be preferred to give a
high overall efficiency in favour of low weight. If then, the work is split equally, each stage
would have a AH/U
2
of 1.1015 and an efficiency of of approximately 91.5% (see Smith's Chart
- ANNEX D ).
It is probable that an equal work split would be chosen since both stages would discharge at
near axial leaving velocity.
IMPORTANT NOTE
THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN NOW CONTINUES ASSUMING A SINGLE STAGE
LP TURBINE IS FEASIBLE FOR BOTH TET CASES CONSIDERED.
THIS DECISION IS REVIEWED ON COMPLETION OF THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN
-17-
10.5 LP TURBINE OUTLET ANNULUS GEOMETRY.
LP TET 1021 1440
Va
T
3
= Tin - AT
Work Done Factor O 0.97 0.97
AVw = (AH/U
2
) . U/O
AVw = (AVw - Umean )/2
( 50% Reaction )
o
3
= tan
-1
(Vw
3
/Va)
V
3
= Va / Coso
3
V
3
/\T
3
M
3
(See ANNEX C, use Appropriate )
Q
3
( See Tables-ANNEX C )
Pressure Ratio R = ( 1 - AT/ ( q
isent
Tin ))
/ (-1)
P
3
= Pin x R (See note below)
A
3
= W \T
3
/ P
3
Q
3
Aann = A
3
/ Coso
3
h = Aann / (t Dmean)
Dtip = Dmean + h
Dhub = Dmean - h
Hub / Tip Ratio = Dhub/Dtip
NOTE : P
3
= Pout ( In the direction of V
3
)
-18A-
11.0 LP TURBINE-FREE VOTEX DESIGN
ROOT BMH TIP
D (NGV Exit) = (Din + Dout)/2
D (Rotor exit) (See Table 10.5 - Page 17 or Page E3)
Va (Table 10.3, Constant Radially)
Vw
3
mean (See Table 10.5 Page 17 or Page E3)
Vw
o
mean = (AVw - Vw
3
)mean
(See Table 10.5 Page 17 or Page E3)
Vw
o
= Vw
o
mean x Dmean / D
(D at NGV exit)
o
0
= tan
-1
(Vw
0
/Va)
Vw
3
= Vw
3
mean x Dmean / D
(D at Rotor exit)
o
3
= tan
-1
(Vw
3
/Va)
U for exit velocity triangles = Umean x D/Dmean
(D at Rotor exit, Umean Table 10.4)
V
0
= Va / Cos o
0
oin = tan
-1
(Vw
3hp
. out / Valp
in
)
(Vw
3hp. out
- Table 6.1A, Page 8A)
Vin = Valp
in
/ Cos oin)
Nozzle Acceleration = V
0
/V
in
V
1
= \(Va
2
+(Vw
o
-U)
2
)
o
1
= Cos
-1
(Va/V
1
)
V
2
= \(Va
2
+(U+Vw
3)
2
)
o
2
= Cos
-1
(Va/V
2
)
Rotor Acceleration = V
2
/V
1
NOTE : SEE PAGE E4A FOR SOLUTIONS
-18B-
11.0 LOW PRESSURE TURBINE - FREE VORTEX DESIGN
(MID HEIGHT REACTION = 50%)
From the data provided in Page E4A, draw below the velocity triangles appropriate to the
TIP
BMH
ROOT
NOTE: SEE PAGE E4B FOR SOLUTIONS
-19A-
11.0 LP TURBINE-FREE VORTEX DESIGN
ROOT BMH TIP
D (NGV exit) = (Din + Dout)/2
D (Rotor exit) (See Table 10.5 - Page 17 or Page E3)
Va (Table 10.3, Constant Radially)
Vw
3
mean (See Table 10.5 - Page 17 or Page E3)
Vw
o
mean = (AVw - Vw
3
)mean
(See Table 10.5 - Page 17 or Page E3)
Vw
o
= Vw
o
mean x Dmean / D
(D at NGV exit)
o
0
= tan
-1
(Vw
0
/Va)
Vw
3
= Vw
3
mean x Dmean/D
(D at Rotor exit)
o
3
= tan
-1
(Vw
3
/Va)
U (for exit velocity triangles) = Umean x D/Dmean
(D at Rotor exit, U
mean
Table 10.4)
V
0
= Va / Coso
0
o
in
= tan
-1
(Vw
3hp
.
out
/ Valp
.in
)
(Vw
3hp out
- Table 6.2A, Page 9A)
Vin = Va
lp. in
/Cos o
in
)
Nozzle Acceleration. V
0
/V
in
V
1
= \(Va
2
+[Vw
o
-U]
2
)
o
1
= Cos
-1
(Va/V
1
)
V
2
= \(Va
2
+[U+Vw
3
]
2
)
o
2
= Cos
-1
(Va/V
2
)
Rotor Acceleration. V
2
/V
1
NOTE : SEE PAGE E5A FOR SOLUTIONS
-19B-
11.0 LOW PRESSURE TURBINE - FREE VORTEX DESIGN
(MID HEIGHT REACTION = 50%)
From the data provided on Page E5A, draw below the velocity triangles appropriate to the
stage at root, blade mid height and tip.
USE A SCALE OF 1cm = 100m/s
TIP
BMH
ROOT
NOTE : SEE PAGE E5B FOR SOLUTIONS
-20A-
12.0 LP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT.
12.1A DESIGN SUMMARY - TET = 1250 K
Static temperature
Speed of sound
Axial Mach number
DATA FROM PAGE E4A
o
in
NGV Exit Gas Angle o
0
Nozzle Deflection o
0+
o
in
Rotor Deflection o
1+
o
2
Nozzle Accel. Vo/Vin
Rotor Accel. V
2
/V
1
Exit swirl o
3
Reaction
STAGE OVERALL DATA
Inlet hub/tip ratio
NOTE: SEE PAGE E6A FOR SOLUTIONS
-20B-
12.0 LP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT
(SEE PAGE E6A - DESIGN SUMMARY)
(G) IS THE INLET HUB / TIP RATIO OK ?
-21A-
12.0 LP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT.
NOTE : see ANNEX B for method of calculation.
Static temperature
Speed of sound
Axial Mach Number
DATA FROM PAGE E6B
o
in
NGV Exit Gas Angle o
0
Nozzle Deflection o
0
+o
in
Rotor Deflection o
1
+o
2
Nozzle Acceleration V
0
/V
in
2
/V
1
Exit Swirl o
3
Reaction
STAGE OVERALL DATA
Inlet hub/tip ratio
NOTE : SEE PAGE E6B FOR SOLUTIONS
-21B-
12.0 LP TURBINE DESIGN ASSESSMENT
(SEE PAGE E6B- DESIGN SUMMARY)
(C) IS THE ROTOR EXIT ACCEPTABLE ?
ANNEX A
HP TURBINE DESIGN RESULTS
-A1-
APPENDICES.
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS
ANNEX A
Presents the results of the high pressure turbine design.
Design tabulations and velocity triangles are included for free vortex flow distribution.
A critical assessment of the alternative designs is included.
ANNEX B
Presents additional guidance notes for calculations.
ANNEX C
Contains tables for the compressible flow of air for the three appropriate values of .
ANNEX D
Smith's Efficiency Prediction.
ANNEX E
Presents the results of the low pressure turbine design.
Design tabulations and velocity triangles are included for free vortex flow distribution.
A critical assessment of the alternative designs is included.
ANNEX F
Contains guidance notes for inter-turbine annulus area estimation.
ANNEX B
GUIDANCE NOTES FOR CALCULATIONS
-B1 and B2-
ANNEX B
B 1.0 GUIDANCE NOTES FOR CALCULATIONS.
These notes will assist in the calculations for tables 7.1A, 7.1B, (HP) and 12.1A, 12.1B (LP) of
the turbine design assessment.
V
V V
V
Vw Vw
V
1
0 2
3
3 0
Vw
a
A
The above diagram shows the velocity triangles for a stage. The following calculation
procedures are recommended:-
AXIAL MACH NUMBER AT NGV EXIT, Ma
Ma = Va / \ ( R t
o
)
Where t
o
= T
o
- (V
o
2
/ 2Cp) NOTE: T
o
= T
in
and from the geometry of the velocity triangles above:-
V
o
2
= V
a
2
+ Vw
o
2
AXIAL MACH NUMBER AT ROTOR EXIT, Ma
Ma = Va / \( R t
out)
Where: t
out
= t
3
= T
3
- (V
3
2
/ 2 Cp)
NOTE: T
3
= Tin - AT
Stage
and from the geometry of the velocity triangles above:-
V
3
2
= Vw
3
2
+ Va
2
ABSOLUTE MACH NUMBER AT NGV EXIT, M
o
M
o
= V
o
/ \( R t
o
)
Where: t
o
= T
o
- (V
o
2
/ 2Cp) NOTE: (T
o
= Tin and V
o
as above)
-B3 and B4-
ABSOLUTE MACH NUMBER AT ROTOR EXIT, M
3
M
3
from Table 5.4 (HP Turbine)
from Table 10.5(LP Turbine)
NGV ACCELERATION, Vo / Vin
V
o
as above
V
in
= Va at inlet to the HP turbine.
V
in
= V
3 hp exit
at inlet to the LP turbine.
ROTOR ACCELERATION, V
2
/ V
1
Where from the velocity triangles above:-
V
2
= Va / Coso
2
V
1
= Va / Coso
1
DEFLECTIONS:
Rotor deflection = o
1
+o
2
Where:
|
|
.
|
\
| +
= o

Va
Vw U
tan
3 1
2
and: |
.
|
\
|
= o

Va
U Vw
tan
0
1
1
NGV deflection = o
o
+ o
in
Where: o
in
= 0 for HP turbine
and: o
in
= o
3 hp exit
for LP turbine
STAGE REACTION.
stage
rotor
stage
rotor
T
t
H
h
0 0
Reaction,
A
A
~
A
A
=
ANNEX C
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TABLES
GAMMA = 1.40 PAGE C1 AND C2
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
ANNEX D
EFFICIENCY CORRELATION
-D1-
ANNEX D
D1.0 EFFICIENCY CORRELATION
(SINGLE STAGE TURBINES)
REFERENCE: SMITH S F., "A SIMPLE CORRELATION OF TURBINE EFFICIENCY"
(Journal of The Royal Aeronautical Society. 69 (1969) 467)
ANNEX F
INTER - TURBINE ANNULUS GEOMETRY ESTIMATION
F1
ANNEX F
F1.0 INTER-TURBINE ANNULUS GEOMETRY ESTIMATION
This note explains the calculations necessary to complete Table 10.3, page 15.
TURBINE OVERALL ANNULUS GEOMETRY
AXIS
HP
NOZZLE
HP
BLADE
LP
NOZZLE
LP
BLADE
X
u/2
u/2
A finite distance, x, is required between the HP exit and LP entry. The value of x is, typically, approximately
25% of the previous blade row axial chord or 1/4 inch. (whichever is larger).
The value of annulus flare angle, u, usually limited to 30
o
(included), will depend on the magnitude of axial
chords chosen for each of the blade rows.
In any event, inter-turbine annulus flare will result in a reduction in the axial velocity between HP turbine exit
and LP turbine inlet.
The whirl component of velocity, Vw
3
, at HP exit will, however, remain unchanged in the inter-turbine space
since angular momentum will be conserved.
Since blading considerations are not covered in this design study, the axial distance, x, is assumed to be 1/4
inch. (0.000635m) and annulus flare angle is taken to be 30
o
(included).
If the annulus height increase between HP exit and LP inlet is 2y, the reduction of axial velocity can be
estimated, as follows:-
y = 0.00635 tan (u/2)
h
lp entry
= h
hp exit
+ 2y
Where:- h
hp exit
is the annulus height at hp exit.
(See Table 5.4 page 7 or Table A1.4 page A3)
Va
lp inlet
= Va
hp outlet.
h
hp exit
/ h
lp inlet
NOTE: Vw
3hp exit
= V
Win lp inlet
1
Dr. David MacManus , Dr. Ken Ramsden, Dr. Anthony Jackson
Gas Turbine Technology Programmes
DEPARTMENT OF POWERAND PROPULSION
CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER 4
AXIAL TURBINE
DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE
Presentation slides v2013-v1.1
1
Turbines - General Bibliography
1. Japikse, D., Introduction to turbomachinery, Oxford University Press, 1997.
2. Cohen, H., Rogers, G., and Saravanamuttoo, H., Gas turbine theory, Longman Scientific and
Technical, 3
rd
Edition, 1987.
3. The jet engine, Rolls-Royce plc, 5
th
Edition, 1996.
4. Cumpsty, N., Jet propulsion, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
5. Dixon, S., Fluid mechanics and thermodynamics of turbomachinery, Butterworth-Heinemann, 4
th
Edition, 1998.
6. Turton, R., Principals of turbomachinery, E.&F.N. Spon, 1984.
7. Lakshminarayana, B., Fluid dynamics and heat transfer of turbomachinery, John Wiley and Sons,
1996.
8. Van Wylen, G., Sonntag, R., Fundamentals of classical thermodynamics, John Wiley and Sons,
1985.
9. Wilson, D., Korakianitis, T., The design of high-efficiency turbomachinery and gas turbines, 2
nd
Edition, Prentice Hall, 1998.
11. Mattingley, J., et al.Aircraft engine design, AIAA education Series, 1987.
12. Kerrebrock, J., Aircraft engines and gas turbines, MIT Press, 1992.
13. Oates, G., Aerothermodynamics of aircraft engine components, AIAA education Series, 1985.
14. Aungier, R., Turbine aerodynamics, ASME Press, New York, 2006
15. Sieverding, C., Secondary and tip-clearance flows in axial turbines, Von Karman Institute, LS1997-1
16. Arts, T., Turbine blade tip design and tip clearance treatment, Von Karman Institute, LS2004-2
17. Booth, T., Tip clearance effects in axial turbo-machines , Von Karman Institute, LS1985-5
18. Sunden, B., Xie, G., Gas Turbine Blade Tip Heat Transfer and Cooling: A Literature Survey, Heat Transfer
Engineering, 31:7, 527-554, 2010.
2
2
DISCLAIMER
These notes/slides have been prepared by Cranfield University or its agents for the
personal use of course attendees. Accordingly, they may not be communicated to
a third party without the express permission of the author.
The notes/slides are intended to support the course in which they are to be
presented as defined by the lecture programme. However the content may be
more comprehensive than the presentations they are supporting. In addition, the
notes may cover topics which are not included in the presentations.
Some of the data contained in the notes/slides may have been obtained from public
literature. However, in such cases, the corresponding manufacturers or originators
are in no way responsible for the accuracy of such material.
All the information provided has been judged in good faith as appropriate for the
course. However, Cranfield University accepts no liability resulting from the use of
such information.
3
Turbine aerodynamics - programme
Part A: Turbine aerodynamics
Introduction to aero design
Arrangements, architectures, characteristics
Work
Frame of reference and parameters
Introduction to turbine aerodynamic features
Introduction to turbine aerodynamic design
Turbine annulus design
Turbine stage aerodynamics
Loading, flow, coefficient, specific work and reaction
Designing for high power
4
3
Turbine aerodynamics - programme
Turbine efficiency
Turbine blading
Three-dimensional aerodynamics
Streamline curvature and secondary flows
Unsteady aerodynamics
Introduction to cooling
Part B: Axial turbine design exercise
HP and LP designs
Specification, constraints
Effect of TET
Design summary , assessment and recommendations
5
Preliminary design
6
4
Gas turbine applications
This image cannot currently be displayed.
Industrial Power generation
Siemens 340 megawatts (MW) SGT5-
8000H gas turbine.
Marine
e.g. MT30
marinized version of
an aero GT. 40MW
range
Oil and gas
7
http://www.siemens.co.in/
Rolls-royce.com
7
Gas turbine applications
Propulsion
8
airbus.com
Boeing.com
Lockheed.com
8
5
Turbine design drivers
Preliminary design stage considerations
How much do you need to know..and when?
What is the application?
Propulsion or power
Civil
Military
Short duration? Disposable?
How does this affect the design approach ?
Time to market
Market size and duration
Preliminary design fidelity
Evolution or revolution
9
What are the design aspects for consideration ?
Specific fuel consumption (and/or block fuel burn)
Temperature
Pressure
BPR
Component efficiency
Emissions
Weight
Size
Embedded configurations (civil or military)
Life
10
6
Reliability
Risk/benefit trade off
E.g. tip gap, TBC, cooling strategy, stress margins
Noise
Turbine noise
Effect of LPC noise on turbine design
Time to manufacture
Robustness
Change in operations
Change in future processes
Growth potential
Cost
Manufacture
Ownership
Replacement parts
Power/thrust supply (risk ownership)
Maintanence
11
Turbine design disciplines
Aerodynamics
Cooling and thermal management
Mechanical design
Stress
Lifing
Costs
Weights
Manufacturing
Logistics
Purchasing
12
7
Possible output from a turbine preliminary design
Number of stages
Work split for multi-stage turbines
Aerodynamic conditions
Annulus shape and dimensions
Blade and vane aspect ratio
Blade and vane space/chord ratio
Blade and vane airfoil numbers
Radial work distribution
Inter-row axial spacing
13
Design process and considerations
Stage 0
Preliminary evaluations
Stage 1
Preliminary design
Stage 2
Full concept definition
Stage 3
Product realisation
Stage 4
Development and
production
Stage 5
In service
Stage 6
Disposal
Main focus for
turbine aerodynamic
design work
2,3 and 4D
aerodynamic
design
1D, 2D and maybe 3D
aerodynamic design
1D and maybe 2D
aerodynamic design
14
8
The importance of preliminary design
Jones 2002
Knowledge of
the design
15
16
Basic turbine performance
9
activity) (molecular t
p
C W
(kinetic)
2
2
W.V
COMPRESSORINLET TURBINEINLET
TEMPERATUREK 300 1600
SOUNDSPEEDm/ s 350 780
MACHNUMBER 0.5 0.5
VELOCITYm/ s 175 390
FUNDAMENTAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
ENERGY
TEMPERATURE t , T (static molecular; total plus kinetic)
PRESSURE p , P (static - molecular bombardment; total - adds kinetic term)
POWER W Cp T (total energy change per second; molecular plus kinetic)
SPEED OF SOUND Rt a =
(sound transmitted by molecular collision)
MACH NUMBER
a
V
M= (better to use than velocity)
EXAMPLE:
17
18
COMPRESSOR
POWER
TURBINE
POWER
COMBUSTOR
ENERGY INPUT
USEFUL POWER
ENERGY
ENTROPY
P
2
P
1
= Turbine Power Compressor Power
THERMAL
EFFICIENCY
Input Energy Combustion
Power Useful
=
USEFUL POWER AND THERMAL EFFICIENCY
10
19
DESIGNERS SOLUTIONS FOR HIGHEST USEFUL POWER
DESIGN FOR HIGH TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE
Red MINUS blue (PT-PC)
equals output power
Largest when
Highest pressure ratio
and or
Highest TET
T
S
PT
PC
20
T
s
EFFICIENCY OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES
IDEAL
COMPRESSOR
WORK
ACTUAL
COMPRESSOR
WORK
COMBUSTOR
ENERGY
INPUT
IDEAL
TURBINE
WORK
ACTUAL
TURBINE
WORK
1
2
3
4
4
2
P
1
P
2
Compressor Isentropic Efficiency
) T T (
) T ' T (
c
1 2
1 2
= q
W.Cp.(T
2
-T
1
) = ideal
compressor work
W.Cp.(T
2
-T
1
) = actual
compressor work
) ' T T (
) T T (
T
4 3
4 3
= q
W.Cp.(T
3
- T
4
) = actual turbine work
W.Cp.(T
3
T
4
) = ideal turbine work
Turbine Isentropic Efficiency
) T T (
) T T (
THERMAL
2 3
1 4
1
= q
Thermal Efficiency =
(Useful Work/Combustor
Energy Input)
Where:
Useful work = turbine work - compressor work
= W.Cp.(T
3
-T
4
) - W.Cp.(T
2
-T
1
)
Combustor Energy Input = W.Cp.(T
3
- T
2
)
11
Basic arrangements
21
22
Engine architectures and gas path
Images from Rolls Royce
22
12
23
Single spool axial flow turbojet
23
24
24
13
25
Idealised gas path conditions
TEMPERATURE
VELOCITY
PRESSURE
25
IMAGE COURTESY ROLLS ROYCE
GAS GENERATOR TURBINES
POWERTURBINE
26
14
TRENT AERO ENGINE IMAGE COURTESY OF ROLLS-ROYCE
TURBINES
27
Rolls Royce T900
Specifications:
BPR 8
OPR 41
Stages 1LPC, 8IPC, 6HPC,
1HPT, 1IPT, 5 LPT
Fan diameter 116 inches
Thrust 76,500lb
Aircraft A380
A MILITARY LOW BYPASS RATIO TURBOFAN
Specifications:
BPR 0.4
OPR 25
Stages 3LPC, 5HPC
1HPT, 1LPT
Fan diameter 29 inches
Thrust 20,000lb
Aircraft Typhoon
EJ200
28
15
Turbine designs
29
Shrouded HP
turbine
Unshrouded HP turbine
HIGH BYPASS RATIO TURBOFANS
30
16
HIGH BYPASS RATIO TURBOFANS
31
T800
~GE90
TURBINE TECHNOLOGY IMPROVEMENTS HISTORY
1950 NOW
TIPSPEEDm/ s 250 350 +
STAGE
TEMPERATURE
DROP, K
150 250 +
EXPANSION
RATIO
2 2.5 +
STAGE
POLYTROPIC
EFFICIENCY%
86 92 +
TURBINEENTRY
TEMPERATUREK
1200K 1800K+
32
17
TERMINOLOGY
FUEL / AIR RATIO FAR
STOICHIOMETRIC ALL OXYGEN USED
(COMPLETE COMBUSTION)
OUTLET TEMPERATURE PROFILE TTQ
PRESSURE LOSS FACTOR 2
V
2
1
Po A
COMBUSTOR GAS FLOW FEATURES
LINER
FLAME TUBE DILUTION HOLES
(BURNER)
SWIRLER
FUEL SPRAY NOZZLE
PRIMARY
ZONE
SECONDARY
ZONE
SECONDARY AIR
LINER
TURBINE NEEDS GOOD
TEMPERATURE TRAVERSE QUALITY
33
Combustor exit profile
He 2004
He 2004
Povey 2009
T/Tmean
34
18
35
Conventional multi-stage turbine
U
1
U
2
U
2
U
1
U
1
Relative
Absolute
Typical conventional arrangement
Vanes turn and accelerate flow for next blade row.
Controlled work split between the HP and IP systems
36
Contra-rotation multi-stage turbine
U
1
U
2
U
1
U
1
U
2
Relative
Absolute
Reversal of the HP shaft rotation relative to the IP (LP) shaft
IP NGV required to get the correct flow angle and velocity into the IP rotor
Reduced turning on and reduced secondary flows on the IP NGV
Increased IP NGV efficiency
Controlled work split between HP and IP.
19
37
Statorless contra-rotation multi-stage turbine
U
1
U
2
U
1
U
1
U
2
Relative IP
Absolute
Relative HP
IP NGV is removed.
Reduced length, weight, cost
Eliminated IP NGV loss
Closely coupled HP-IP rotors
can result in unsteady
interactions -> reduced
efficiency and possible
vibration.
The inlet conditions to the IP rotor are limited by the exit conditions from the HP rotor. i.e. the
absence of the IP NGV means that the flow cannot be pre-conditioned as in a conventional
arrangement. The HP rotor exit swirl is limited by the HP rotor turning and the whirl velocity is
limited by the rotor exit Mach number.
A consequence of this is that the work split is uneven. The HP stage typically has a much higher
work level than the IP (LP).
Eulers work equation
38
20
Steady Flow Energy Equation
For each kilogram of fluid entering the control
volume at position 1, the total energy is:
Similarly at point 2:
Q is the heat addition (positive into the system)
and W is the work (positive when done by the
fluid)
The energy balance equation then becomes:
z
1
z
2
h
1,
, V
1 h
2,
, V
2
Q
W
System
g z V h E
tot 1
2
1 1 1
2 + + =
g z V h E
tot 2
2
2 2 2
2 + + =
( ) ( ) g z V h g z V h W Q
1
2
1 1 2
2
2 2
2 2 + + + + =
This is known as the Steady Flow Energy Equation.
For an axial turbomachine it reduces to:
For an ideal gas h = C
p
t and the total enthalpy is
Also recall,
2
2
2 0 0
V t C T C H
p p
+ = =
2
2
2
1
1
,
1
that Remember .
2
1
M
t
T
a
V
M Rt a and
R
C
tC
V
t
T
p
p
+ =
= =
= + =
( ) ( )
0 02 01
2
2 2
2
1 1
2 2 T C H H V h V h W
p
A = = + + =
39
Compressible Form of Bernoullis Equation
If there is no heat transfer to or from the gas the flow is ADIABATIC. Hence
conservation of energy tells us that the Total Energy (usually called the Total
Enthalpy) is conserved i.e. h
o
= constant.
Considering a perfect gas:
p = RT Equation of State
h= specific enthalpy= C
p
T Calorifically perfect gas
h
o
=specific total enthalpy = CpT
0
The specific* enthalpy is defined as h = e + P/ and the specific internal energy
e = C
v
T.
*The word specific means per unit mass flow and is often omitted.
40
21
Compressible Form of Bernoullis Equation (continued)
The energy equation for an adiabatic, steady flow is given by:
Therefore:
Pressure
Energy
Internal
Energy
Kinetic
Energy
all per unit mass flow
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
V p
e
V p
e + + = + +

Recall that specific enthalpy is defined as h =e+pv = e+p/ (v is specific
volume).
enthalpy) (total tan
0
2
2
2
2
1
1
2 2
h t cons
V
h
V
h = = + = +
For a calorifically perfect gas h=C
p
T and similarly h
0
=C
p
T
0
e) temperatur total is ( tan
0 0
2
2
2
2
1
1
2 2
T T C t cons
V
T C
V
T C
p p p
= = + = +
T
1
0
2
0
2
2 2
T
T C
V
T C
V
T C
p
p p
= + = + Eqn 1.7
41
Compressible Form of Bernoullis Equation (continued)
Recalling: ,
|
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
0
2
1
1 M
a
a
T
T
o

So far the ONLY assumptions have been a Perfect gas and ADIABATIC FLOW.
If the flow is also ISENTROPIC (i.e. the entropy is constant no shock present and
outside viscous layers like the boundary layer) then:
p = k
=RT and hence

RT
V
a
V
M
= =
( ) ( )
2
2 2
0
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
M
RT
RT M
T C
V T
p
+ =
+ = + =

1
T
1
=
R
C
p and
0
2 2 2
0
2
1
RT V a a
+ =
1
2
1
o o o
M
2
1
1
T
T
p
p

|
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
=
42
22
A-A
x
r
x
q
V
x
V
q
Rotation W
Rotor
Streamtube
r
2
r
1
Centreline
A-A
Figure 1.1
43
One of the most fundamental aspects of turbomachinery aerodynamics is the process
of work input (compressors) and the work extraction (turbines) processes. The same
model is adopted for both compressors and turbines as outlined below.
The work extraction and addition process is performed by rotation. It is the rotating
components that transfer work. The fixed components, or stators, are not explicity
involved.
Figure 1.1 shows the flow field through a generic rotor passage for an axial-type
machine but including a change in mean radius. Consider the flow along a streamtube
that enters at radius r
1
and exits at radius r
2
.
The shaft is rotating with an angular velocity W (rad/s) and is producing a torque T.
Torque is the rate of change of angular momentum and if the massflow is steady, then
the change in angular momentum in a time Dt is give by:
) (
2 2 1 1 u u
u
u
V r V r m T
rV
t
m
T
t mrV T
=
A
A
A
=
A A =
Rotation O
Rotor
Streamtube
r
2
r
1
Centreline
A-A
Rotation O
Rotor
Streamtube
r
2
r
1
Centreline
A-A
44
23
The rate of change of angular momentum equals the torque:
Power is defined as
Work per unit mass of flow therefore is:
Rotor blade speed at radius r is defined as U=Wr
Therefore.
This is known as Eulers work equation.
It applies to all types of turbomachines. It shows that all transfer of work processes
(either in or out) are reflected in a change in angular momentum via a rotating blade row.
This is principally done using the pressure forces which act in the circumerential direction
upon rows of rotating aerofoils.
Recall:
( ) ( )
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 u u u u
o
o
V r V r m V r V r
t
m
T = =

( )
2 2 1 1 u u
V r V r m T P O = O =

( )
2 2 1 1
/ ,
u u
V r V r m P W Work
k
O = =

2 2 1 1 u u
V U V U W
k
=
45
( )
u
UV T C W
T C m P
p k
p
A = A =
A =
0
0
ork, Specific w
Power,

Frame of reference
46
24
U
NGV
ROTOR
TURBINE STAGE
47
Frame of reference
For an axial machine the following co-ordinate system is defined:
x is axial
r is radial
q is circumferential
x
Rotation W
q
V
x
V
r
V
q
r
Please note:
This nomenclature is for this section only
which applies to compressors and turbines
alike. Subsequent sections use individual
notation for turbines based on axial station
numbers.
48
25
Frame of reference
The absolute and relative frame of reference velocities are therefore
(please note the changes in nomenclature from this section)
Both axial and radial velocities are independent of frame of reference i.e. V
x
=W
x
and V
r
=W
r
. For the tangential velocities: V
q
= W
q
+Wr = W
q
+U
Notice that V
q
and W
q
are positive in the direction of rotation. U is Blade
speed.
Absolute Relative
V
x
Axial velocity W
x
V
r
Radial velocity W
r
V
q
Circumferential velocity
(tangential, whirl or swirl
velocity)
W
q
Total velocity 2 2 2
u
V V V V
r x
+ + =
2 2 2
u
W W W W
r x
+ + =
49
Frame of reference
An important concept is the distinction
between absolute and relative frames
of reference. For the rotor shown, the
inlet stationary frame velocity is V. It
has two components and an absolute
swirl angle of a
1
. By subtracting the
blade speed term, U, the relative
velocity vector is obtained.
This is the effective velocity seen by the
rotor. A similar analysis at the exit plane
transforms from the relative to absolute
frame of reference. Conventional
turbomachinery notation uses positive
velocities and angles in the direction of
rotation.
Blade speed = Wr, where W is rotational speed and r is the local radius.
Axial velocity is independent of frame of reference and relative whirl velocity is obtained
from W
q
= V
q
-U
For example, from a given inlet absolute velocity, flow angle and blade speed, all other
vectors can be determined.
x
q
Rotors
Relative
whirl velocity W
q
Absolute
whirl velocity V
q
Axial
velocity V
x
= W
x
a
1
50
Blade speed U
26
Frame of reference
a
1
51
b
1
a
1 b
1
Relative
velocity W
b
1
a
1
Effect of NGV exit angle (fixed Va)
Effect of blade speed (fixed Va)
Effect of NGV exit velocity
Blade speed U
Static, stagnation and relative properties
Following on from the absolute and relative velocities there are also the equivalent
relative and absolute stagnation (or total) properties.
For example, for an incompressible flow, the absolute total pressure is:
However, in the rotating frame of reference, the total pressure seen by the rotor is:
Static quantities are unchanged by frame of reference.
Stagnation properties are dependent on the frame of reference.
For compressible flows:
2
2
1
0
V p P + =
2
2
1
0
W p P
REL
+ =
_
reference of frame Relative
2
reference of frame Absolute
2
1
0 0
2
0
1
0 0
2
0
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
T
T
P
P
and
C
W
T T
T
T
P
P
and
C
V
T T
rel rel
p
rel
p
52
27
Energy equation and rotating blade rows
For a rotor the Euler work equation applies:
For a compressor work is done on the fluid (W
k
is negative) so stagnation
enthalpy rises (h02 > h01).
For a turbine work is done by the fluid (W
k
is positive) so stagnation enthalpy
decreases.
By rearranging this equation:
Which states that h
0
-UV
q
is constant across a rotor blade row. This quantity is
referred to a ROTHAPLY and is denoted by I.
02 01
h h W
k
=
02 01 2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
h h V U V U W
V U V U W
k
k
= =
=
u u
u u
2 2 02 1 1 01 u u
V U h V U h =
2 2 02 1 1 01 u u
V U h V U h I = =
53
Rothalpy and Frame of Reference
Rothalpy in the absolute frame of reference is defined as :
Looking at the change of reference frame:
Therefore rothalpy in the rotating frame is given by:
u u
UV V h UV H I
o
+ = =
2
2
1
( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
2
U UV W V
U UW W V
U W W W V
V V V V
r x
r x
+ =
+ + =
+ + + =
+ + =
u
u
u
u
2 2
2
1
2
1
U W h I + =
U W V W V W V
r r x x
+ = = =
u u
, ,
54
28
Rothalpy and Frame of Reference
Total enthalpy in absolute frame (absolute total enthalpy):
Total enthalpy in relative frame of reference (relative total enthalpy):
Rothalpy can be expressed as:
2
0
2
1
V h h + =
2
0
0
2
1
U h I
UV h I
rel
=
=
u
Rothalpy along a streamline is conserved across any blade row either
moving or stationary. It applies along an arbitrary streamline for an
adiabatic flow and in the absence of gravity and it is invariant. For axial
machines with no change in radius the U
2
term cancels and changes in
relative stagnation enthalpy and rothalpy are the same.
2
0
2
1
W h h
rel
+ =
55
Rotary stagnation temperature
2
0
0
2
1
U h I
UV h I
rel
=
=
u
Rothalpy along a streamline is conserved across any blade row
Where T
0e
is the rotary stagnation temperature.
( )
p
rel
p p
p p p p
C
r
T T
r W
C
t
C
I
T
C
U
C
W
C
H
C
I
T
2
2
1
2 2
2 2
0 0
2 2 2
0
2 2
0
0
e
e
e
e
e
=
+ = =
+ = =
e 0
0 0
T C I
T C
p
p
=
=
Rothalpy,
H , Enthalpy Total
p p p p
C
rV
T
C
UV
C
H
C
I
T
u u
e
e
= = =
0
0
0
Relative
Absolute
For axial machines with constant radius the changes in relative stagnation temperature
and rotary stagnation temperature are the same.
56
29
Change of Frame of Reference
Relative Stagnation
p
0rel
, T
orel
What a rotor mounted probe sees
Rotary Stagnation
p
0w
, T
ow
Equivalent of stagnation in a rotor
Stagnation State
p
0
, T
o
What a stationary probe sees
1
0 0
2
0
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ =
T
T
p
p
C
V
T T
p
1
0 0
2
0
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ =
T
T
p
p
C
W
T T
r r
p
r
Static State
p, T
what the gas sees
( )
1
0
0
0
0
2 2
0 0
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ =
T
T
p
p
C
V W
T T
r r
p
r
( )
1
0 0
2 2 2
0
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ =
e e
e
e
T
T
p
p
C
r W
T T
p
1
0
0
0
0
2 2
0 0
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
e e
e
e
r r
p
r
T
T
p
p
C
r
T T
1
0
0
0
0
0 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
e e
u
e
e
T
T
p
p
C
rV
T T
p
57
I Rothalpy = C
p
T
0w
M. Rose - 1998
Frame of Reference - notes
Rothalpy, I = C
p
T
0w
, is conserved along a streamline.
For isentropic flow the rotary stagnation pressure, p
0w
, is also conserved
along a streamline.
For an adiabatic rotor and with a thermally perfect gas the rotary stagnation
temperature is constant. This is true even for a change in radius, viscosity
and effects of friction. If the flow is also reversible, then the rotary stagnation
pressure (P
ow
) is also constant.
All relationships between the different states are isentropic compressible flow.
Nomenclature (for this section only) Subscripts
I Rothalpy = C
p
T
0w
r relative state
P pressure w rotary state
r radius 0 stagnation state
T temperature q whirl component
V absolute velocity
w rotational speed
W relative velocity
58
30
Frame of Reference
Relative total pressure is defined as
Absolute and relative Mach numbers:
1
0 0

|
|
.
|
\
|
=

T
T
p
p
r r
1
2 0
2 0
2
1
1
2
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =
M
P
P
M
T
T
1
2
0
2
0
2
1
1
2
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =
rel
r
rel
r
M
P
P
M
T
T
Absolute Relative
59
Introduction to turbines
60
31
Turbine Aerodynamics
Introduction:
The design of a turbine system requires the careful
integration of a range of technologies including
aerodynamics, cooling, materials, sealing, transmissions
etc.. It is a complicated task, but still at the heart of the
design is the aerodynamics of the turbomachinery which
tends to drive the system requirements and push the
limitations of the other technologies.
The detailed flow field inside a turbine is extremely
complicated where there are shock waves, unsteady
features, secondary flows, interactions, rotating flows,
wakes, tip leakage vortices, cooling air, annulus leakage
etc. However, a very simplified analysis based on steady
conditions along a (2-D) mean line flow path provides a
reasonable insight into the fundamental workings of the
turbine. This approach is frequently used by industry as
a preliminary design method.
Shrouded HP Turbine blade
IMAGE COURTESY OF ROLLS-ROYCE
61
The High Pressure (HP) turbine of a modern aero engine can produce in the order of
49,000 HP (36.5MW) at take-off.
One turbine rotor blade produces in the order of 700 HP which is the power output of
about 9 Ford Fiestas.
The peak gas temperature in the HP turbine is in the order of 400 degrees hotter than
the melting point of the blade material.
The tip speed of the HP rotor is over 1000 mph.
HP Turbine Trivia
LPT
IPT
HPT
Combustor
62
32
Harsh environment &
a demanding job:
Peak gas temperature 2000K
Melting temperature ~1400K
Cooling air ~15% flow @ 900K
Shrouded High Pressure Turbine
Metal Temp DT strong effect
on blade life
Blade experiences > 65000g
Life required for a civil aero
engine
6 years @14hrs/day
63
High Pressure Turbine
HPT stage cooling
HPT blade cooling arrangements
64
33
65
Turbine Aerodynamic Features
Snap shot of a predicted HP turbine flow field
Entropy Static Pressure
66 66
34
Turbine blade aerodynamic features
67
67
Turbine Aerodynamic Features
Transonic HPT aerodynamics
Mach Number
Richardson (2009)
Schlieren
M
2
_is = 1.2
68
68
35
69
Turbine aerodynamics
DLR Turbine cascade flow:
Increasing Mach number
visualization of density
gradients:
pressure waves, von Karman
vortices, wakes and shocks
70
Turbine aerodynamics
M
EX
~0.85
M
EX
~ 0.98
M
EX
~ 1.2
M
EX
~ 1.5
36
Turbine Aerodynamic Aspects
HP Turbine
HGV, Re = 1.5E6
Rotor, Re = 6.0E5
LP Turbine
Stage 1
NGV, Re = 4.0E5
Rotor, Re =2.0E5
IP Turbine
HGV, Re = 1.2E6
Rotor, Re = 2.6E5
HP NGV
Turbulent Flow from LE
Primarily Due to Film Cooling
HP Rotor
Turbulent Flow from LE
Primarily Due to Film Cooling,
Strong Wake and Potential Interaction
IP NGV
Complex 3D Flow
with Transition
IP Rotor
Unsteady, Strong Wake and
Potential Interaction
with Transition
LP Vane/Blades
Unsteady Transitional
Separation Bubbles,
Becalmed Regions, etc
Primary gas path turbine flow regimes
LP Turbine
Stage 5
NGV, Re = 1.0E5
Rotor, Re = 1.4E5
71
M. Taylor 2003
Turbine overtip leakage
(section 4.7.7)
72
37
Tip clearance and leakage
Tip clearance is the distance between the tip of a rotating airfoil and stationary part.
Fluid leakage occurs over the blade tip due to the pressure difference
Overtip Leakage Loss
Clearance x Exchange Rate
Clearance Gap: Mechanical design
of turbine and control of casing and
rotor thermal transients
Exchange Rate: Predominantly
influenced by choice of blade tip style
e.g. Shrouded, shroudless
Arts 2004-2
73
Flow over a Shroudless blade
Arts VKI LS2004-2
74
38
3-Dimentional Flow Features in a Axial -Turbine Rotor Passage
Arts VKI LS2004-2
75
76
Impact of overtip leakage:
Reduction in massflow through the blade passage
Reduction in work done by the fluid on the blade
Flow ejecting from tip gap mixes with passage flow
Heat transfer effects e.g. Tip Burnout, blade damage.
The main factors influencing the tip leakage loss are the following
Clearance gap size
Design style
The pressure difference between the pressure and suction surface.
39
How to Minimise losses at a given clearance level
Reduce the section lift at the tip through selection of the velocity diagrams
Reduce the pressure drop across the blade (reaction, overall blade loading)
Increase the blade height in the gas path (for a given tip clearance)
Impede leakage across tip (Viscous Mechanism)
77
Effect of tip clearance on the efficiency of
single stage shroudless turbines
For a shroudless stage : Tip size equal to 1% of blade span cause 2% drop
in stage efficiency. ( Hourmouziadis and Albrecht 1987)
Arts VKI LS2004-2
78
40
Tip clearance exchange rate for different turbine reactions as a function of gap-
to-blade height ratio.
Booth VKI_LS1985-5
79
Blade tip styles: Shrouded and Shroud
+ Measurable gain in stage efficiency
+ Improved fatigue strength
- Difficulty to cool the shrouded area
- Larger cooling flow budget
- Higher blade and disk centrifugal
forces/stresses
-cost increase particularly for
internally cooled blades
Shrouded blade
Arts VKI LS2004-2
80
41
Shrouded Blade geometry
Arts VKI LS2004-2
Fences
Fins
81
Ratio of clearance area to throat area ( Ac/Ath)
Comparison of OTL loss exchange rates for shrouded and unshrouded HP
Turbines
Arts VKI LS2004-2
82
42
Over tip leakage heat transfer effects
Leakage flow entering the main stream on suction side also causes large
increases of heat transfer near the tip
High heat transfer rates near the pressure edge of the tip are related to
reattachment of the flow separation
The acceleration of leakage flow into the clearance gap and thinning of boundary
layer enhances the heat transfer on the airfoil pressure surface
High heat transfer rates on the blade tip, Cause Tip Burnout
83
Blade damage in the tip region
Distress to HP Rotor Tip after in service operation
Sunden and Xie, 2010
Tip clearance Heat Transfer Effects - blade
84
43
Introduction to turbine design
85
86
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO TURBINE DESIGN
The design of axial flow turbines is a complex compromise
between the conflicting requirements:
o aerodynamics
o thermodynamics
o mechanical integrity
o materials technology
This is especially true for aircraft engines with:
stringent demands for:
o low weight
o high strength
o extended life.
CHAPTER 4 PART 1 PAGE 4.01
44
4.2 THE COMPROMISES BETWEEN AERODYNAMIC, COOLING AND
MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS
Any preliminary design procedure must include an estimation of at least the following:
o Number of stages
o Annulus shape and dimensions (hub, mean or tip diameter)
o Blade and vane aspect ratio
o Blade and N.G.V space/chord ratios
o Profiles of nozzle guide vanes and rotor blades
o Axial spacing between blade rows
o Work split for multi-stage turbines
o Radial distribution of work
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
87
To meet these requirements the turbine design team has to take account
several factors, for example:
o Blade centrifugal stress levels
o Disc centrifugal stress levels
o Maximum installation diameter
o N.G.V and blade cooling requirements
o Overall weight limitations
88
45
MECHANICAL INTEGRITY LIMITATIONS TO TURBINE POWER
Blade shape
Simple for manufacture - complex for good aerodynamics
Stress Blade centrifugal stress proportional to A x N
2
For a given shaft speed this sets the upper annulus area limit
Depends on material and component: range 20-50x10
6
rpm
2
m
2
Disk stress gives a limit on rim speed ~ 400m/s
Rpm (N) Chosen to match the compressor needs
A Keep as small as possible to also reduce weight
One approach is to put the blades at highest diameter. This reduces blade height for a
given AN
2
However:
This also increases the blade speed and turbine power increases with U
The blade mass reduces and the blade cooling requirement reduces
NB: Hub tip ratio not greater than 0.9 for low overtip leakage loss
89
4.3 TURBINE DESIGN SPECIFICATION
4.3.1 TURBINE DESIGN CRITERIA
The overall cycle calculations undertaken within the performance
department will lead to a specification for the turbine component as follows:
o W Mass flow
o P
3
Turbine inlet pressure
o T
3
Turbine entry temperature
o Power Requirement
o Pressure ratio split
90
46
Turbine Design Aspects
Successfully turbine design requires close co-operation between the aerodynamic,
cooling, mechanical, stress and design disciplines. Final designs usually demand a
certain amount of compromise between aerodynamics and mechanical constraints:
Parameter Aerodynamic objectives Mechanical objectives
No. of stages Large: to reduce loading and Mach
numbers
Small: Reduce weight, length &cost
Mean
diameter
Large: to give high blade speed, low
loading, high efficiency
Small: reduce weight and cost
Minimise blade and disc stresses
Annulus area Large: enough for optimum Va/U Small: blade stresses are proportional
to Area x rpm
2
Rotor and
NGV aspect
ratios
High: reduce wetted area, secondary
losses and heat load
Low: to mimimize deflections and
vibration. Must enable cooling.
1<AR<5.5
Rotor and
NGV Profiles
Optimized for best performance. Sufficient cross sectional area for
cooling passages. Large enough LE, TE
and wedge angles for manufacturing,
stress and cooling requirements
91
V
OUT
V
IN
4.4 THE PROCESS OF EXPANSION
DESIGN CRITERIA
15 . 1
V
V
IN
OUT
>
o FLOW TOACCELERATEAS FARAS POSSIBLE
o TURNING LIMITED TO 130
0
o CAN DRIVE 5 STAGES OF COMPRESSOR WITH ONE TURBINE STAGE
o HIGHEST TEMPERATUREAT LEADINGAND TRAILING EDGES
o MASS FLOW LIMITED BY CHOKING
A
out
< A
in
V
out
> V
in
p
OUT
< p
IN
A
OUT
A
IN
92
47
THE PROCESS OF EXPANSION
93
Static pressure Total pressure
Mach number
Turbine annulus design
94
48
4.5 TURBINE ANNULUS DIAGRAMS
4.5.1 CHOICE OF ANNULUS DIAGRAM
CHAPTER 4 PART 1
PAGES 4.04 4.06
95
General arrangement of HP and IP turbines
A RISING LINE ANNULUS DIAGRAM
Figure 4.03
Typical HP/LP
Annulus Geometry
96
DISC
DISC
49
97
HP-IP-LP turbine arrangement
Aeroengine
Aggressive turbine ducts
Marn Graz (2008)
100
50
o constant Va
o falling Va
o rising Va
4.5.2 CHOICE OF AXIAL VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
Figure 4.04
CHAPTER 4 PART 1 PAGE 4.06 4.07
101
CHOICE OF V
ax
DISTRIBUTION
CHAPTER PART 1 PAGE 4.07
DESIGN FOR RISING Va - HP TURBINES
Compared with constant Va, the outcomes of this choice are:
o higher blade friction losses
o lower efficiency
but:
o lower blade height
o lower stress for a given RPM
o lower rim load (AN
2
) for given RPM
o less cooling air requirement for cooled stages.
102
51
DESIGN FOR RISING Va - LP TURBINES
o higher blade friction losses, lower efficiency
o higher exhaust losses through higher Va
o longer exhaust diffuser
But:
o lower exit blade height and mass
o lower rim load (AN
2
) for given RPM
o lower blade stress for a given RPM
o less cooling air requirement (if cooled)
CHOICE OF V
ax
DISTRIBUTION
103
CHOICE OF V
ax
DISTRIBUTION
DESIGN FOR FALLING Va - HP TURBINES
o lower blade friction losses
o higher efficiency
But:
o higher blade height and higher mass
o higher stress for a given RPM
o higher rim load (AN
2
) for given RPM
o more cooling air requirement for cooled stages.
104
52
DESIGN FOR FALLING Va - LP TURBINES
o lower blade friction losses, higher efficiency
o lower exhaust losses through lower Va out
o shorter exhaust diffuser
But:
o higher exit blade height and increased mass
o higher rim load (AN
2
) for given RPM
o higher blade stress for a given RPM
CHOICE OF V
ax
DISTRIBUTION
105
CHOICE OF V
ax
DISTRIBUTION
PRELIMINARY DESIGN CHOICE
At the preliminary design stage:
o details of blades and vanes are unknown
o therefore assume constant axial velocity
throughout the turbine.
106
53
Velocity triangles
Stage loading
Flow Coefficient
Reaction
107
Turbine Stage Aerodynamics
The turbine stage is typically able to turn the flow more than in a compressor
stage. This is because the flow is exposed to a favourable pressure gradient.
The flow is expanding and the pressure is reducing across the stage. The axial
Mach number is kept reasonably constant through the turbomachinery at around
0.4 0.5. Consequently the annulus area increases through the turbine to
accommodate the change in density as the flow expands.
The general purpose of expansion through a blade row is to increase the velocity
and therefore have a reduction in the cross-sectional area.
The expansion from the combustion region to the atmosphere is accomplished
through a number of separate turbine stages. This enables the Mach numbers to
be controlled as well as facilitating the incorporation of multiple shafts for the
benefit of the compressor system.
Each blade row, either stationary or rotating, turns the flow and usually accelerates
it in its own frame of reference. The continuing changing of frame of reference is
what enables the Mach numbers to be controlled.
108
54
ABSOLUTE GAS CONDITIONS - STATION REFERENCES
IN 0 3
THE CONSTANT MEAN DIAMETER TURBINE STAGE
MEAN
STREAMLINE
BLADE
NGV
AXIS
r
A
A
109
CHAPTER 4 PART 1 PAGE 4.09 to 4.12
THE CONSTANT MEAN DIAMETER VELOCITY TRIANGLES
Vi n
Va
NGV
Vw in
o0
V0
Va
U
V1
V3
V2
ROTOR
U
Va
o3
Vw3
Vw0
U
THERMODYNAMICS
AE
STAGE
= C
P
(T
O
T
3
) = AH
Specific power
= U (Vw
0
- Vw
3
)
FINALLY AH = U AV w
A A H
U
=
Vw
U
2
blade abs rel
U V V

=
110
Power = rate of work
Circ. force on the rotor per unit mass
= rate of change of momentum = Vw
Work = Force x distance
= Vw x distance
Power per unit mass
= Vw x distance / time
= Vw x U
55
COMBINED VELOCITY TRIANGLES
V
0
V
3 V
1
V
Vw
U
NGV
ROTOR
Vw
0
Vw3
Va
V
IN
2
a
o
a
3
a
1
a
2
111
CONSTANT V a
CONSTANT U
U
Vw
=
U
H
2
A A
LOADING
STAGE LOADING COEFFICIENT. It is a measure of the
energy exchange, per unit massflow, for a given blade speed.
High stage loading implies a large static pressure drop. It is
limited by the aerodynamics of the blade rows to efficiently
deliver the required expansion.
FLOW COEFFICIENT =
The parameter is referred to as the flow
coefficient. It is a measure of turbine massflow at a
given rotor speed.
U V
a
Va
U
112
CONSTANT V
a
and U
( )
( )
2 1 2
3 0 2
tan tan
tan tan
o o
o o
=
A
=
A
=
A
=
A
U
V
U
V
U
H
U
V
U
V
U
H
a w
a w
ROTOR
( )
( )
2 1
3 0
tan tan
tan tan
o o
o o
= A
= A
a w
a w
V V
V V
NGV
( )
( )
( )
2 3
1 0
1 0
tan tan
tan tan
tan tan
o o
o o
o o
=
=
=
a
a
a a
V
U
V
U
V V U
a
w
V
V
0
0
tan = o
a
w
V
V
1
1
tan = o
1 0
- U
w w
V V =
56
For the case where there is no change in radius across the rotor the velocity triangles can be
placed on a common base of blade speed, U:
The specific stage work output is
the product of the base vector, U,
and the apex vector, DV
w
.
The stage loading is the ratio of
the apex, DV
w
, to the base, U.
The flow coefficient is the ratio of
the side vector, V
a
, to the base, U.
These types of velocity triangles
are routinely used in the design
process to graphically represent
the turbine aerodynamics.
113
Some Turbine Design Parameters
Specific Work
Stage Reaction (more on this later!)
T
T C
P
A
03 o1
3 2
T - T
t - t
T
U
T
N
&
Engine & Turbine
Semi-dimensional Speeds
Introduce these parameters
2
P
2
T
U
T
T C
U
H
|
.
|
\
| A
=
A
Stage Loading
Flow Coefficient
U
V
A
2
U
H A
114
57
Typical turbine stage loadings are:
HP Turbine 1.5-2.0
IP Turbine 1.5-2.0
LP Turbine 2.0-3.0
High stage loading leads to higher turning and a modest increase in Mach Number,
however there is more work per stage which can lead to fewer stages.
Low stage loading leads to lower turning and a modest decrease in Mach Number,
however you are not getting the best out of the turbine.
Turbine Stage Loading
Low Stage Loading
High Stage Loading
NGV ROTOR NGV
ROTOR
Vw
Va = constant
115
Turbine Flow Coefficient
Same mean radius and blade speed
NGV
Rotor
NGV
Rotor
Low V
a
/U High V
a
/U
NGV
ROTOR
Vw = constant
116
58
Turbine Flow Coefficient
Reduced flow coefficient, V
a
/U, leads to reduced Mach Numbers, increased exit
angles and turning in both the vane and rotor, and a larger annulus height. This will
result in reduced aerofoil cord and/or numbers off (reduced trailing edge loss) to
achieve the required work (sail area) and reduced cost.
In addition the aspect ratio of the aerofoils will be increased, resulting in reduced
secondary loss. However, the turbine is larger and heavier and the blade stress will
be increased.
As the hub diameter will be reduced, there is the potential for reduced leakage loss
due to the reduced area of the seals. At the casing the overall result depends on two
opposing effects, as the area of the seals is increased there is the potential for
increased leakage, however, assuming the tip gap is fixed, the tip gap to height ratio
of the rotor will be reduced, providing the potential for reduced tip leakage flow per
unit area.
Due to the civil aircraft markets desire to minimise the aircraft's fuel consumption and
maximise profits, a civil engine design is primary driven on the requirement to
minimise the specific fuel consumption (SFC), i.e., maximum the efficiency. However,
although a low V
a
/U design can result in reduced cost, the corresponding increase in
weight and size has to be balanced in order to achieve the optimum design for a
particular airframe and mission requirement.
Typical values : Va/U = 0.4 - 0.6
117
4.6.9 TURBINE STAGE REACTION
Turbine stage reaction is formally defined as the ratio of static enthalpy change across
the rotor to the total enthalpy drop across the stage:
A simplified definition of reaction for explanatory purposes is:
stage
rotor
p
p
A
A
=
stage
rotor
stage
rotor
T
t
H
h
A
A
~
A
A
= Reaction,
118
3 1
3 2
H H
H H
= For a repeating stage where V

1
= V
3
then
59
Turbine Reaction
Zero Reaction (Impulse) Turbine: No overall static pressure drop across
the rotor. Constant flow area across the rotor passage. Work is done purely
by the change in tangential momentum only with turning up to 150.
V
1
= V
2
Large suction and pressure surface diffusions,
Flow separation leading to increased loss, enhanced heat transfer at re-
attachment points. Very sensitive to inlet conditions.
Diffusion on suction surface limits amount of available lift, i.e., low lift
coefficient leads to high number of aerofoils and/or blade chord,
Large surface
diffusions.
Possibility of
separated
flows.
Mn
Cax
Inlet Exit
V
0
V
3
V
1
V
2
NGV ROTOR
Relative
Absolute
119
4.6.9 CHOICE OF STAGE REACTION
ZERO REACTION (IMPULSE ROTOR)
No overall static pressure change across rotor.
o rotor relative velocities are equal
o low stage leaving gas angles
o Large PS and SS surface diffusion limits the lift coefficient
o Potential for flow separation - > inc. loss, heat transfer hot spots
In practice:
o ensure V
2
/ V
1
> 1.15
o good for power turbines
(most of the available stage inlet energy can be converted into shaft
power)
o high total to static efficiency
V0
V
3
V1
V2
NGV
ROTOR
120
60
100% REACTION
No overall static pressure change across nozzle.
o NGV velocities are equal
o No acceleration across the stator (ensure V
0
= V
3
)
o high stage leaving gas angles
o High bearing loads
o Increased over tip leakage
o high rotor Mach Numbers
In practice:
o ensure V
0
/ V
3
> 1.15
o only the tip conditions
of free vortex turbines are of high reaction
V
0
V
1
V
3
V
2
NGV
ROTOR
121
50% REACTION
o The power is achieved partly through momentum change, partly
through pressure change
o 2D loss (Mach number
)2,
therefore from the velocity triangles you might
expect that minimum loss will occur when the triangles are symmetrical
(V0=V2)
o Delivers a good balance between peak Mach numbers, diffusion coefficients,
over-tip leakage reduction and bearing loads.
In practice:
o popular for gas generator turbines
since high kinetic energy flow remains
for subsequent stage(s)
o Relative to a high reaction, it has reduced inlet Mach number and angle at
rotor inlet. Offset by increased NGV exit angle to deliver the same work.
V
0
V
1
V
3
V
2
.
122
61
.
123
Mn
Inlet Mn
Reduced
Exit Mn
Increased
Cax
Reaction
blading shape
Impulse
blading shape
Turbine reaction summary
For a given stage loading and flow coefficient, the shape of the velocity triangles
reflects the turbine reaction.
U
0% Reaction (Impulse) 100% Reaction
50% Reaction
In all cases, UDV
u
,
and V
a
/U are the
same.
DVw
V
0
V
3
V
1
V
2
U
V
0
V
1
V
3
V
2
NGV
ROTOR
DVw
DVw
124
62
REACTION
V
0
V
1
V
3
V
2
.
125
stage
rotor
stage
rotor
T
t
H
h
0 0
A
A
~
A
A
= Reaction,
stageout stagein
rotorout rotorin
H H
H h
=
For a repeating stage where V NGV out
= V
NGV
in then
a
o
a
3
a
1
a
2
U
w
V A
out in out in
0out 0in 0stage
H H H H
H H H
= + + =
= = A
2 2
2 2
out in
V V
( )
1 2
2
o o Tan Tan
U
V
a
+ =
( )
( )
( )
2 3
1 0
1 0
tan tan
tan tan
tan tan
o o
o o
o o
=
=
=
a
a
a a
V
U
V
U
V V U
a
w
V
V
0
0
tan = o
a
w
V
V
1
1
tan = o
1 0
- U
w w
V V =
REACTION
V
0
V
1
V
3
V
2
.
126
a
o
a
3
a
1
a
2
U
2 / V
w
A
( )
1 2
2
o o Tan Tan
U
V
a
+ =
2 / V
w
A
a
a
w
V
V
2
2
tan = o
a
w
V
V
1
1
tan = o
( )
2 1 w
Tan - Tan V o o
a
V = A
( )
( )
1 2
1 2 1 1
w
Tan Tan
2
a
Tan Tan Tan
2
Tan
2
V
a
o o
o o o o
+ =
=
A
=
a
a
a
a
V
V
V
V
( )
U
a
Tan Tan
U
V
a
= + =
1 2
2
o o ( )
1 2
2
1
w w
V V
U
+ =
V
w1
V
w2
63
50% REACTION
V
0
V
1
V
3
V
2
.
127
a
o
a
3
a
1
a
2
U
w
V A
( )
1 2
2
o o Tan Tan
U
V
a
+ =
( )
1 2
2
5 . 0 if o o Tan Tan
U
V
a
+ = =
( )
( )
2 3
1 0
tan tan
tan tan
o o
o o
=
=
a
a
V
U
V
U
( ) ( )
1 0 1 2
o o o o Tan Tan Tan Tan
V
U
a
= =
0 2
o o =
( ) ( )
2 3 1 2
o o o o Tan Tan Tan Tan
V
U
a
= =
3 1
o o =
Symmetric stage vel. triangles
2 2
3
U V
V
w
w

A
=
The effects of increasing turbine reaction:
Small changes in reaction is typically achieved by opening up the NGV
throat area and closing down rotor throat area. This then results in the
following changes:
Reduced area contraction and velocity ratio over
NGV.
Reduced NGV exit Mach number.but increased
lift coefficient (NGV).
Reduced rotor inlet Mach number leading to
negative incidence onto the rotor.
Increased RELATIVE total temperature at inlet to
rotor
Increased Dp across rotor. So tip leakage
increases.
Increased rotor exit gas tangential whirl.
Increased rotor exit Mach numberbut
decreased lift coefficient (Rotor).
Increased back surface deflection on rotor.
NGV leading edge skew
increased throat area
128
64
Turbine design for high power
129
4.6.7 STAGE DESIGN FOR HIGHEST POWER
TURBINE POWER IS LIMITED BY:
O Aerodynamic factors
o Thermodynamic (cooling) factors
o Mechanical integrity factors
IN GENERAL
POWER = W . U . A V
W
AERODYNAMIC LIMITATIONS:-
Gas turning
Mach number (losses)
Loading (H/U
2
)
MECHANICAL INTEGRITY LIMITATIONS:-
Radial stress
Blade speed
Material properties
130
65
4.6.7 INCREASE STAGE POWER BY INCREASING FLOW
CONSTANT =
P * A
T W
IN
IN IN
HIGHEST FLOW WHEN NOZZLE GUIDE VANES ARE CHOKED
when M
throat
= 1
For specified T
IN
, P
IN
and A*
POWER = W . U . A V
W
In general the turbine designer is not free to change the massflow. It is
inherently tied to the overall cycle and performance through thrust, BPR, TET,
OPR etc. This effectively sets Va.A.
131
O REDUCE NUMBER OF N G Vs
O COOLING AIR REQUIRED IS REDUCED
but O N G Vs move apart and reduces overlap
and effectiveness
GOOD VALUE OF S/C0.7 (see later)
O NGV aerodynamic loading increases and the
aerodynamics get more challenging.
INCREASE STAGE POWER BY INCREASING NGV THROAT AREA
POWER = W . U . A V
W
CONSTANT =
P * A
T W
IN
IN IN
132
66
ENGINE UP-RATING TO HIGHER POWER
TURBINE DESIGN FOR HIGHEST POWER
o Increase pressure ratio add zero compressor stage
SINCE:
CONSTANT =
P * A
T W
IN
IN IN
o Increase nozzle throat area to
accommodate for choked flow
Best to increase TET
and pressure ratio together FIXED TET
INCREASED TET T
S
133
4.6.7 INCREASE STAGE POWER BY INCREASING AV w
For a given W and U this can be achieved in two ways:
Increase Vw
0
i.e. o
0
Increase Vw
3
i.e. o
3
POWER = W . U . A V
W
134
67
4.6.7 INCREASE DESIGN POWER BY INCREASING o
0
V0
V3
V1
V2
U
INCREASED o
0
For cooled stages:
trailing edge of the high o
0
NGV needs to be thinner for the same
boundary layer wake thickness.
difficult to engineer trailing edge cooling passages into the profile.
Avoid excessive wall scrubbing in high Mach number flows
typically, the limit occurs when o
0
= 70 - 72
135
4.6.7 INCREASE DESIGN POWER BY INCREASING o
3
For cooled stages:
o for the final stages of an LP turbine outlet swirl into jet pipe
is high increase gas path and jet pipe loss.
o reheat gutters (if fitted) difficult to align with the flow
if o
3
> 15.
V0
V
3 V
1
V
2
U
INCREASED o
3
136
68
V0
V3 V1
V2
U
INCREASED U
4.6.7 INCREASE DESIGN
POWER BY INCREASING U
o If RPM is fixed by the device the turbine is driving
therefore increase U only by increasing the turbine diameter
o Otherwise stresses increase ( o o AN
2
)
but o annulus height reduced for a given massflow will require
result less cooling air since blades are radially shorter.
and o increased blade speed, means o
0
and o
3
fall relieving both
cooling problems (high o
0
) and downstream loss (high o
3
)
POWER = W . U . A V
W
137
138
A simple overall turbine aero design sequence (1/2)
Requirements from cycle
inlet and outlet p and t
mass flow in
power required e.g. to drive compressor
rotational speed, n, e.g. from compressor
choose mean diameter
calculate mean blade speed; check < 350m/s
calculate loading h/u
2
calculate number of stages;
h/u
2
<2.5 per stage
h/u
2
<1.8 for last lp stage
select best outlet v
a
/u from smith chart
calculate exit v
a
and area
Check AN
2
limits
select outlet hub/tip ratio (>0.5)
continued
69
139
A simple overall turbine aero design sequence (2/2)
select axial velocity at inlet (= outlet velocity?)
calculate inlet area
start sketching annulus shape
does it fit therest of the engine?
Iterate design choices to give best annulus shape
select reaction
calculate velocity triangles at mean radius
select radial equilibrium type
calculate tip and root velocity triangles
check limits reaction, turning
choose aspect ratios
calculate blade and vane numbers
proceed to blade shape design if required
Turbine efficiency
140
70
T
P
out
P
in
ACTUAL
TURBINE
WORK
OUTPUT
T
in
= TET
T
out
T
out
IDEAL
TURBINE
WORK
OUTPUT
ENTROPY S
4.7.1 ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY DEFINITION
) ' T T (
) T T (
out in
out in
= q
t
)
T
' T
1 ( T
) T (
in
out
in

A
= q
t
4.7 AXIAL TURBINE EFFICIENCY

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
in
out
in
out
P
P
T
' T
141
Turbine loss mechanisms
Overtip leakage
Profile losses
Endwall scrubbing
Disk windage
Unsteady
interactions
Cooling air mixing
Trailing edge
losses
Shock
losses
NGV
Rotor
Secondary flows
142
71
MECHANISM CAUSE
Profile loss: boundary layer growth over blade surfaces
Annulus loss: turning of the boundary layer on the end walls,
with associated flow separation
Secondary loss: interaction of end wall and profile boundary layers
Tip clearance tip leakage of flow from pressure to suction surface
Shock loss: supersonic flow over back surfaces
Cooling loss: mixing of discharged cooling air with main flow.
Trailing edge loss: wake growth due to increased trailing edge thickness
4.7.2 TURBINE LOSS MECHANISMS
143
Turbine losses
0
1
2
3
Secondary Trailing Edge Prof ile Over Tip
Leakage
Windage Wetted Area Annulus &
Stacking
Approximate efficiency
loss breakdown Aq
st
144
72
Turbine efficiency
A common approach for preliminary design
purposes is to use an efficiency correlation
chart to examine the effects of flow
coefficient (V
a
/U) and stage loading (DH/U
2)
on he expected turbine efficiency.
The data was assembled from over 70
cold-flow rig tests where the reaction varied
from 20-60% with blade aspect ratios of
about 3-4. The effect of tip leakage has
been removed and the efficiencies are
therefore higher than achievable in
practice.
Overall, the chart shows a clear ridge of
peak efficiency as well as the benefits of
keeping the flow coefficient and loading as
low as possible.
Mach numbers were predominately sub
and transonic. Therefore the data will only
include modest effects of shock losses.
From Japikse Introduction to turbomachinery.
145
Va/U
H/U
2
Ideal turbine stage characteristic
U
V
U
H
W
A
=
A
2
We have seen that the specific work of a turbine stage is given by: AH = U AVw
And therefore the loading and turning are related as
V
0
V
3 V
1
V
Vw
U
NGV
ROTOR
Vw
0
Vw3
Va
2
a
o
a
3
a
1
a
2
( ) ( )
( )
( ) 1
2 0 2
2 0
2 0 2 0 3 0
=
A
=
A
= A
= + = = A
o o
o o
Tan Tan
Tan Tan
U
V
U
V
U
H
U V V
U V V U V V V V V
a w
a w
w w w w w w w
Since o
O
and o
2
remain substantially constant away
from design. This is affected by deviation from the exit
metal angle which is generally small.
146
73
Ideal turbine stage characteristic
( ) 1
2 0 2
=
A
=
A
o o Tan Tan
U
V
U
V
U
H
a w
the characteristic for a stage is a straight line with slope (tan o
O
- tan o
2
)
AVw = 2U
U
o0
o2
AVw = U
U
o0 o2
A
B
U
Va
2
U
H A
2.0
1.0
e.g. o
O
= -o
2
= 60
147
Turbine characteristics
This figure shows how the rotor
inlet (a
1
) and exit (a
2
) relative
flow angles can be
superimposed on the efficiency
map.
This example is for a 50%
reaction turbine.
Highest loading occurs when the
inlet relative whirl angle (a
1
) is
about +40 combined with a
relative exit whirl angle (a
2
) of
between -60 and -70. This
gives a rotor turning of up to
110.
For a 50% reaction turbine the
ridge of maximum efficiency is
along the line where rotor exit
relative angle is about 62.
Japikse
Va/U
H/U
2
a
2
a
1
148
74
FIGURE 4.11
SMITHS
EFFICIENCY CHART
HP
TURBINES
LP
TURBINES
LINE OF BEST
EFFICIENCY
|
.
|
\
| A
2
U
H
U
Va
|
.
|
\
|
= 6.5 - 2.9
STAGE DESIGN FOR BEST EFFICIENCY
CHAPTER 4 PART 1 PAGE 4.27 4.28
A
B C
149
BEST EFFICIENCY HIGH PRESSURE TURBINES
Line B shown on Figure 4.11 can represent a design target for HP turbines and
can be described in terms of the following:
H/U
2
= 8.3 Va/U 2.78
or
IS
= 0.98 0.048 . H/U
2
(corrected by 2% for over-tip leakage)
BEST EFFICIENCY LOW PRESSURE TURBINES
Line C shown on Figure 4.11 can represent a design target for LP turbines and
can be described in terms of the following:
H/U
2
= 2.84 Va/U 0.96
or
IS
= 0.98 0.058* H/U
2
(corrected by 2% for over-tip leakage)
STAGE DESIGN FOR BEST EFFICIENCY
CHAPTER 4 PART 1 PAGE 4.27 4.28 150
75
Turbine Characteristics
The turbine characteristics are usually plotted in terms of semi-
dimensional parameters.
01
01
AP
T m
% 100 =
T
N
% 60 =
T
N
% 80 =
T
N
Pressure ratio: P
02
/P
01
which is
usually expressed as a specific work:
Corrected flow (capacity):
Corrected speed:
Once the NGV is choked, the turbine
capacity does not increase further
with increasing specific work.
Beyond the design point and with
increasing work, the turbine efficiency
drops sharply as it begins to
encounter limiting output.
01
01
AP
T m
1
T
N
01
T
T C
p
A
01
T
T C
p
A
Choking point
% 100 =
T
N
% 60 =
T
N
% 80 =
T
N
stage
q
Design point
Turbine chics - choked NGV
151
Introduction to
turbine loss models
152
76
The geometric description of the flow regions includes
many parameters having different length scales.
Radial distribution of stagger angle,
Camber and thickness,
Lean, twist, sweep, skew & flare
Aspect ratio
Hub/tip ratio
Tip clearance
Endwall curvature
Flow path area change
Axial spacing between blade rows
Radial distribution of cooling holes.
Associated with the flow path are
Stagger angle
Blade camber
Chord
Blade spacing
Maximum thickness
Thickness distribution
Leading and trailing edge radius
Surface roughness and cooling hole
distribution
Associated with the blade profile are
Loss Mechanisms in Axial Turbines
Three-dimensionality and vortical flows
Large pressure gradients in all directions
Rotation
Curvature
The flow contains various complex features which depend on the details of
the design
Shock waves
Shock wave-boundary layer interaction
Interacting boundary layers and wakes
and heat transfer
153
154
Axial Turbine cascade loss
Turbine cascade loss data total
pressure loss
Reaction and impulse blading
Reaction blades have an overall
flow acceleration
Reaction blade better
performance over wider incidence
Relatively constant exit angle
77
155
Turbine loss correlation
There are many correlations published to provide estimates of turbine blade row loss.
The aim is to provide a method of estimating the turbine row and stage efficiency
during the design stage. Despite the advances in computational methods, these types
of techniques are still heavily relied upon to provide efficiency estimates. These
preliminary estimates can have a notable effect of the overall design strategy.
These models can include aspects
of total pressure loss such as:
Profile loss
Trailing edges
Tip leakage
Secondary flows
Annulus loss
Disk windage
The example is a simple model is Soderbergs (1949!):
Easy to use
within ~3% for turbine efficiency
Design point
Some take into account:
Reynolds number effects
Mach number range
Design point
Off-design effect of incidence
156
Soderberg (1949) Loss Model
Correlation aims takes into account profile loss and secondary flow loss. The effect of
tip leakage can be added for rotors separately.
The correlation parameters are:
Blade aspect ratio (H/C
x
)
Thickness to chord ratio (t
max
/l)
Space chord ratio (s/C
x
)
Reynolds number (Re)
The loss parameter is based on the incompressible energy loss coefficient:
If Zweifels criteria for s/c
x
is adopted (discussed later) , then Soderberg proposed a
Nominal loss coefficient:
This applies for an aspect ratio H/C
x
of 3, t
max
/l =0.2 and Re = 10
5
2
*
100
06 . 0 04 . 0 |
.
|
\
|
+ =
c
,
2
2
2
2
2
2
is
is
V
V V
= ,
2 1
where o o c + =
78
157
Soderbergs Loss Model
Dixon, S. L. 2005
2 1
o o c + = (Fluid Deflection Angle) = Thickness-to-chord-ratio
Aspect ratio H/C
x
of 3, and Re = 10
5
0.2 /l for t
100
06 . 0 04 . 0
max
2
*
= |
.
|
\
|
+ ~
c
,
158
For aspect ratios other than 3 (but still at a Reynolds number of 10
5
), the correlation
is extended based on the nominal loss coefficient, *:
( )( )
( )( ) rotors / . .
nozzles / . .
*
*
H c
H c
x
x
075 0 975 0 1 1
021 0 993 0 1 1
1
1
+ + = +
+ + = +
, ,
, ,
79
159
For different Reynolds number a further modification can then be made.
h
D V
2 2
= Re
s
H
throat the at diameter hydraulic the
is D and exit, row the at velocity
and density are and Where
h
2 2
V
2
o
2
o sCos o =
s
( )
( )
2
2
2 4
o
o
sCos H
HsCos
Perimeter
D
h
+
= =
flow
A
25 0
5
1 2
10
.
Re
|
|
.
|
\
|
= , ,
PS SS
Trailing edge
Turbine blading
Aspect ratio
Pitch spacing
Blade shape
160
80
ASPECT RATIO
SPAN OR
HEIGHT,
h
CHORD AT
MID SPAN, c
ASPECT RATIO, (AR) = h / c
Aspect ratio determined by:
EFFICIENCY
VIBRATIONS
ROBUSTNESS
COOLING
No. OF BLADES
COST
MANUFACTURING
For preliminary design purposes,
select initial AR from blades of
similar span (see correlations)
161
Turbine blade aspect ratio
162
Sagerser et al,
NASA
D
h
D
t
The stator and rotor aspect ratios
can be considered individually if
necessary.
Rotor: AR
r
= H
r
/C
xr
Stator: AR
s
= H
s
/C
xs
Based on a range of turbine
designs and engines some
guidelines can be established for
both AR
r
and AR
s
.
81
Turbine blade aspect ratio - rotors
163
Sagerser et al,
NASA
+
A B
LPT: 13.4 -11.8
HPT, IPT: 10.5 -10.0
Turbine blade aspect ratio - stators
164
Sagerser et al,
NASA
+
A B
LPT: 11.0 -10.9
HPT, IPT: 6.5 -6.0
82
165
Sagerser et al,
NASA
HPT
AR_S1.4
AR_R2.3
IPT
AR_S0.7
AR_R4.5
LPT1
AR_S2.4
AR_R6.4
LPT5
AR_S7.6
AR_R4.6
Turbine blade aspect ratio - rotors
166
Sagerser et al,
NASA
LP
HP
LP1
LP5
IP
HP
83
167
Sagerser et al,
NASA
LP
HP
LP1
LP5
IP
HP
Axial chord and spacing
168
Sagerser et al,
NASA
Sagerser et al,
NASA
D
h
D
t
Once the aspect ratio is selected
then the blade axial chord is set for
a given annulus height:
AR= H/C
x
This enables the inter-row spacing
to be set. Based on the average
inter-row gap and the average axial
chord the following relationship is
considered:
Where a
t
is found to range from 0.2
to 1.0. A typical value within a stage
is ~0.25.
84
Space/chord ratio and number of blades
SPACE, s,
= DISTANCE BETWEEN
BLADES
CHORD, c
CAN BE
AXIAL OR
ACTUAL
Space/chord ratio= s/c
OPTIMUM s/c FROM ZWEIFFEL COEFFICIENT OR OTHER METHODS
169
Once the blade height, aspect
ratio and chord have been
determined, the blade pitch
spacing, and hence the
number of blades, can be
estimated.
There are correlations which
propose the optimum spacing
based on the aerodynamic
and loss characteristics
SPACE/CHORD RATIO ZWEIFFEL COEFFICIENT METHOD
Lift = mass flow x
change in whirl
velocity
= W. V
W
= . V
A
. S . V
W
Ideal lift = (P
1
p
2
) . C
AX
Define
C
L
= lift / ideal lift
= [ . V
A
. V
W
. (S/C
AX
)] / (P
1
p
2
)
V
1
V
2
P
1
p
2
C
AX
170
85
C
L
= LIFT / IDEAL LIFT
= [ . V
A
. V
W
. (S/C
AX
)] / (P
1
p
2
)
Po loss =Po / (0.5.. V
2
)
Minimum at C
L
~ 0.8
SPACE/CHORD RATIO ZWEIFFEL COEFFICIENT METHOD
Loss
C
L
0
P A
Separation
losses
Skin-friction
losses
Minimum
loss
c
x
s
171
Turbine optimum space/chord ratio
(alternative to Zweiffel method)
172
86
Blade numbers
173
D
h
D
t
N=
/
AR selection => h/c
h is known therefore c is obtained
Space/chord ratio criteria => s/c
c is known therefore s is obtained.
The blade number selection also

depends on the vibration
characteristics. Typically the .rotor and
stator numbers are selected to avoid
common multiple of blades as this can
give rise to resonance and HCF.
2D turbine blade shape
Basic simple circular arc form
R
1
R
3
R
2
THROAT
CURVATURE
CHANGE POINT
Leading edge
circle or elipse
TRAILING EDGE CIRCLE IF UNCOOLED
174
Curvature change on the suction
surface near the throat.
if turning (or deflection) is very high, a
separation bubble is initiated just
upstream of the throat.
This usually re-attaches just
downstream of the throat.
The flow separation will cause a small
penalty in the aerodynamic efficiency
and usually limits application to
turning not greater than 90.
Separated flow causes very high local
heat transfer coefficients
87
Multiple circular arc form
175
A more complex geometrical profile
used multiple circular arcs
This improves the aerodynamics by
introducing an additional radius of
curvature into both the pressure and
suction surfaces.
This delays flow separation to allow
application to cooled blades with
turning angles not exceeding around
110
o
.
2D turbine blade shape
Turbine Design Lift Distribution
Cax
Mach
number
Avoid excessive
local Mn peak
Offload the nose
Design for
incidence variation
Accommodate skew
Avoid LE
spikes
Minimise local PS
diffusion to avoid
separation
Minimise local SS diffusion to
avoid separation
Smooth
distributions
Maximize
area
176
88
Prescribed velocity distributions (PVD)
177
Simple profile shapes are too crude for
advanced turbine designs where the
aerodynamic performance is crucial and the
flow turning is expected to be high.
An inverse design method is more commonly
used. This specifies a required velocity (or lift)
distribution and a geometry shape is generated.
This is referred to a a Prescribed Velocity
Distribution (PVD) method. The process
typically is based on a simplified version of the
Navier-Stokes equations with a boundary layer
correction.
Whilst almost all cooled blades and vanes are
of PVD design today, the corresponding base
profile shapes are more complex and require
more sophisticated and costly manufacturing
techniques.
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS
4.8.2 BASE PROFILE SHAPE
Figure 4.15 TYPICAL TURBINE BASE PROFILE VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS
178
89
Turbine NGV and Lift Characteristics
[From Oates]
179
Turbine Rotor and Lift Characteristics
[From Oates]
180
Poor aerodynamic features
90
PVD 2D Blade design output
181
Large Leading Edge
Circle Size
Stagnation Point Control
and TBC.
Full Lift Distribution Aerofoil Numbers
Chosen For Cost and Forced Response.
Large Leading Edge Wedge
Angle to
Satisfy Cooling Geometry
Requirements.
Large Trailing Edge WedgeAngle
Leads to Reduced Pressure Surface Lift.
Lift Coefficient Limited by Peak Mn.
Taylor, 2006
182
Three dimensional aspects
91
Radial Equilibrium
This expression relating pressure gradient to velocity and radius has many
implications for turbomachinery aerodynamics. In particular in helping to
understand the internal flow pressure gradients and the generation of
secondary flows.
For example.
r
V
r
p 2
=
c
c
A swirling annular flow.
p
++
p
--
p
++
p
--
Endview
p
++
p
--
Flow
NGV Rotor
Static pressure
distribution
Meridional view
183
The pressure gradients created along a curved streamline can have a profound effect
on the aerodynamics of the turbomachinery components. The creation of secondary
flows is frequently due to this mechanism and occurs in both stationary and rotating
frames of reference. Secondary flows will be discussed in more detail in a later section.
Flow going through a blade row:
r
V
r
p
F
2
=
c
c
=
Centripetal force
on fluid, F
Path of fluid
Radius of curvature
of streamline, r
p
++
p
-
p
+
p
+
p
- -
p
-
Pressure
gradient
Velocity, V
F
r
184
92
Boundary layer going around a bend
r
V
r
p
F
2
=
c
c
=
Centripetal force
on fluid, F
p
++
p
-
p
+
p
+
p
- -
p
-
Pressure
gradient
Velocity, V
Boundary layer velocity profile
Low velocities at the wall
Pressure gradient is applied by
freestream fluid above the boundary
layer is primarily maintained throughout
the boundary layer.
The lower the velocity => the smaller
the radius of curvature
To maintain the pressure gradient the
lower velocities follow a tighter bend.
Boundary layer streamlines
- viewed from above
The boundary layer is describes as
being skewed or over-turned.
The resulting flow-field is called
secondary flow.
High
pressure
Low
pressure
185
Streamline curvature
2
p
p
c
+
r
dr
dq
p p c +
p
V
q
2
p
p
c
+
r
s
V
a
a
s
V
r
V
s
Circumferential
plane (r-q)
Meridional
plane (x-r)
The mass of the fluid element is rrdqdr.
The centripetal accelerations are
plane local
plane local
r
V
2
See Saravanamuttoo etc al
186
93
Streamline curvature
Centripetal force due to circumferential flow (F
1
) is:
The radial component of the centripetal force associated with flow
along the curved streamline (F
2
) is:
Radial component of the force required to linearly accelerate the flow
along the streamline (F
3
) is:
Total inertia force, F
i
, is:
r
V
dr rd
2
u
u
s
s
s
s
s
s
r
V
dr rd
r
mV
F o u o cos ) ( cos
2 2
2
= =
s
s
s
s
dt
dV
dr rd
dt
dV
m F o u o sin ) ( sin
3
= =
(
(
+ + =
s
s
s
s
s
i
dt
dV
r
V
r
V
dr rd F o o u
u
sin cos
2 2
187
Streamline Equilibrium
The total pressure force is:
By combining with the expression for the inertial forces and
neglecting all terms above 1
st
order the following equation is obtained:
This is the complete radial equilibrium equation.
For many cases, r
s
is so large and a
s
so small that the last two terms
can neglected and the equation reduces to the familiar simple radial
equilibrium expression.
( )
2
)
2
( 2 ) (
u
u u
d
dr
p
p prd d dr r p p F
P
c
+ + c + =
s
s
s
s
s
dt
dV
r
V
r
V
dr
dp
o o
u
sin cos
1
2 2
+ + =
r
V
dr
dp
2
1
u
=
188
94
Vortex Energy Equation
The simple radial equilibrium expression is frequently applied to the flows
across an individual blade row and to examine the effect of radius.
Stagnation enthalpy, h
0
, at any radius, r, for a given absolute velocity, V, is:
However, V
r
, is usually neglected and:
The variation of enthalpy with radius is:
Recall, Tds = dh dp/r, and
Neglecting second-order terms and filling back into Eqn (A):
) (
2
2 2 2
2
1
2
0 u
V V V h
V
h h
r a
+ + + = + =
dr
dV
V
dr
dV
V
dr
dh
dr
dh
a
a
u
u
+ + =
0
) (
2 2
2
1
0 u
V V h h
a
+ + =
dp
dr
d
dr
dp
dr
dT
ds
dr
ds
T
dr
dh

2
1 1
+ + =
(A)
dr
dV
V
dr
dV
V
dr
dp
dr
ds
T
dr
dh
a
a
u
u
+ + + =
1
0
189
Vortex Energy Equation
The simple radial equilibrium expression is used for the second term on the
RHS:
And the radial entropy gradient is also frequently neglected to give the vortex
energy equation:
Neglecting the viscous loss terms, a frequently used design criteria is the
condition of constant specific work as a function of radius. This means that
the radial distribution of h
0
will not change relative to the inlet conditions
through the machine. Therefore:
dr
dV
V
dr
dV
V
r
V
dr
ds
T
dr
dh
a
a
u u
u
+ + + =
2
0
dr
dV
V
dr
dV
V
r
V
dr
dh
a
a
u u
u
+ + =
2
0
dr
dV
V
dr
dV
V
r
V
dr
dh
a
a
u u
u
+ + = =
2
0
0
190
95
Free Vortex Equation
A further simplification can be made by assuming that the radial distribution of axial
velocity axial is kept constant so that:
Which when integrated gives: V
u
r = constant
This is known as the free vortex condition.
Therefore, the three conditions of (1) constant specific work (2) constant axial
velocity and (3) free vortex variation of whirl velocity, satisfy the radial equilibrium
equation. This is frequently taken as a preliminary design starting point
u
u
u u
u u
u
V
dV
r
dr
dr
dV
r
V
dr
dV
V
dr
dV
V
r
V
dr
dV
a
a
a
=
=
= + +
=
0
0
2
191
Free vortex design
r K U
r K V
const
const
=
= /
u
It should be borne in mind that the enthalpy gradient downstream of the rotor is
constant so that the enthalpy drop through the turbine is constant at all radii.
This typically results in very twisted blades with a large variation in reactions
from hub to tip. The extent of this also then depends on the hub-tip ratio.
As far as velocity triangles are concerned the following results:-
Very high root turning, low root reaction, high root loading
hub
V
_ u
0
V
1
V
The image part with relationship I D
rI d12was not found in the file.
0
V
1
V
tip
V
_ u
0
V
1
V
hub
U
mid
U tip
U
192
96
Vortex design
It is not necessary to use a free vortex flow and other options can be selected. Vortex flow
choices can also be selected to still meet the radial equilibrium condition. For example, a
constant nozzle angle could be considered:
Through the vortex flow equation this then results in:
Other NGV exit angle distributions can also be considered as well as other design
objectives such as constant massflow distributions or constant loading
constant =
0
o
constant
sin
=
2
2
o
u
r V
Japikse
DH
U
2
These aspects can be
used to control the blade
reaction, local turning and
secondary flows,
193
194
Three dimensional flow fields
IP NGV exit flow
Contours of absolute
total pressure
97
Turbine secondary flows
3
1
2
4
5
LE
SS
PS
SS
PS
SS
PS
SS PS
1
2
3
4
5
195
Three-dimensional considerations: Turbine Nozzle Guide Vane
Before test
Painted oil-dyes
Highly skewed
boundary layers
Separation lines
196
98
3D design considerations
197
Harrison 1992
198
99
Giminez 2011
199
Suction side Pressure side
Giminez 2011
200
100
Giminez 2011
201
Giminez 2011
202
101
Giminez 2011
Loss coefficient
SKE
203
contours of density gradient
contours of entropy
Unsteady stage calculation
Snapshot from transient CFD prediction
204
102
HWA traverse plane
Instantaneous plot of absolute velocity
1 NGV pitch
1 rotor pitch
Overtip leakage
Rotor wake
Rotor
mainstream
Secondary flows
Modulation of tip leakage
Unsteady Turbine Flow Features
205
Variation in static pressure
field
Wake total pressure deficit
Unsteady Turbine Flow Features
TE and suction surface shocks
Strong static pressure pulse
High frequency content
Impact of shock position
and shock movement
Potential field Viscous wake
NGV wake impingement
and migration
Shock Systems
206
103
207
Turbine cooling introduction
208
if TET > 1250k cooling needed; modern TETs >1800k
Typically at stagnation points on the blade surface;
leading edge T = 1.05 Tgas trailing edge T = 1.20 T gas
Cooling Methods:
air cooling
convection, impingement, films, pedestals, ribs
sophisticated materials
nickel alloys
thermal barrier coatings
modern manufacturing methods
lost wax casting (including single crystal)
internal ceramic cores
laser drilling
Turbine cooling
104
209
typical cooling air needs
Blade row % of core air source
1
st
NGV (hp) 10 % HPC delivery
1
st
rotor (hp) 5 % HPC delivery
2
nd
NGV 2 % HPC delivery
2
nd
rotor 3 % mid HPC
other (sealing) 1 to 2 % mid compression
Flow quantities related to TET and to combustor exit temperature profile
Essential to seal hub gaps between rotors and stators with air to keep discs cool
Combustor-Turbine interface is very important
Turbine cooling
210
Rolls Royce
Turbine cooling air
system
105
211
TYPICAL ENGINE SECONDARY AIR SYSTEM
Turbine Entry Temperature
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
Derwent
Dart
Avon 3
Conway
Spey
RB199
F404
EJ200
F119
Uncooled
turbine
blades
Cooled
turbine
blades
Wrought Alloys
Equiaxed Cast
DS Cast
SC Cast
C
e
r
a
m
i
c
s
212
106
213
TURBINE COOLING PROGRESS
et coolairinl rel gas
blade rel gas
T T
T T
=
_
_
c
Cooling Flow for an Ideal Isothermal Blade/
Cooling Flow of Actual Blade
*
m =
mc Cp
hg Sg l
214
COMPARISON OF COOLING METHOD
107
NGV cooling
courtesy of Rolls-Royce
215
216
HP TURBINE BLADE COOLING
108
Turbine blade cooling
courtesy of Rolls-Royce
217
Bibliography
1. Japikse, D., Introduction to turbomachinery, Oxford University Press, 1997.
2. Cohen, H., Rogers, G., and Saravanamuttoo, H., Gas turbine theory, Longman Scientific and
Technical, 3
rd
Edition, 1987.
3. The jet engine, Rolls-Royce plc, 5
th
Edition, 1996.
4. Cumpsty, N., Jet propulsion, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
5. Dixon, S., Fluid mechanics and thermodynamics of turbomachinery, Butterworth-Heinemann, 4
th
Edition, 1998.
6. Turton, R., Principals of turbomachinery, E.&F.N. Spon, 1984.
7. Lakshminarayana, B., Fluid dynamics and heat transfer of turbomachinery, John Wiley and Sons,
1996.
8. Van Wylen, G., Sonntag, R., Fundamentals of classical thermodynamics, John Wiley and Sons,
1985.
9. Wilson, D., Korakianitis, T., The design of high-efficiency turbomachinery and gas turbines, 2
nd
Edition, Prentice Hall, 1998.
11. Mattingley, J., et al.Aircraft engine design, AIAA education Series, 1987.
12. Hnecke, K., Jet Engines, Airlife, 1997.
13. Kerrebrock, J., Aircraft engines and gas turbines, MIT Press, 1992.
14. Oates, G., Aerothermodynamics of aircraft engine components, AIAA education Series, 1985.
218
109
219
HP TURBINE BLADE
COOLING
PRE-SWIRL SYSTEM
IMAGE COURTESY
ROLLS ROYCE
INJECTS COOLING
AIR INTO ROTATING
TURBINE DISC
220
HP TURBINE BLADE COOLING PRE-SWIRL SYSTEM

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AXIAL TURBINE DESIGN MANUAL

=RT and hence

= For a repeating stage where V

The blade number selection also

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