Foundation of Educ

Instructors Resource Manual and Test Bank
for
Philosophical Foundations
of Education
Ninth edition
Howard A. Ozmon
Virginia Commonwealth University
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle i!er
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#el&i %e(ico Cit) Sao 'aulo S)dne) Hon* +on* Seoul Sin*apore "aipei "ok)o
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O>ANI?A"ION OF "H@ %ANUA$
IN"O#UC"ION SU%%AY
3. I#@A$IS% AN# @#UCA"ION 3
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
#iscussion and @ssa) Buestions
%ultiple C&oice Buestions
<. @A$IS% AN# @#UCA"ION 8
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
;. @AS"@N 'HI$OSO'HY. @$I>ION. AN# @#UCA"ION 33
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
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:. 'A>%A"IS% AN# @#UCA"ION 38
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
9. @CONS"UC"IONIS% AN# @#UCA"ION <3
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
8. B@HACIOIS% AN# @#UCA"ION <8
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
7. @DIS"@N"IA$IS% AN# @#UCA"ION ;<
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
6. %ADIS% AN# @#UCA"ION ;7
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
5. ANA$Y"IC 'HI$OSO'HY AN# @#UCA"ION :<
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
34. 'OS"%O#@NIS% AN# @#UCA"ION :6
3
C&apter Outline
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'roAects
Identi-ications
ANSE@ +@Y 9;
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0$1-N2-,0N 0F ,3E 4-N"-/
"&is instructorFs manual is desi*ned to accompan) Philosophical Foundations of Education, Nint& @dition.
b) Howard A. Ozmon. "&e intent o- t&e manual is to pro!ide a concise o!er!iew o- c&apter content and to
pro!ide acti!ities and Guestions wit& w&ic& to stimulate student re-lection and assess pro*ress. "&e
te(tbook w&ic& t&is manual accompanies e(amines important and comple( ideas about education. t&us it is
di--icult to compress t&e !alue and ran*e o- suc& ideas into a -ew selected e(ercises and Guestions.
Howe!er. i- Audiciousl) used. t&ese items can &elp t&e instructor to increase t&e use-ulness o- t&e te(tbook in
de!elopin* t&e p&ilosop&ical awareness o- students.
"&e manual is or*anized accordin* to t&e c&apters o- t&e parent te(tbook. %anual c&apters are or*anized
around t&e -ollowin* structure1
C&apter Outline
C&apter O!er!iew
'roAects
Identi-ications
@ac& manual c&apter pro!ides t&e instructor wit& an outline and o!er!iew o- t&e te(tbook c&apter -or a Guick
*lance o- t&e or*anizational structure and content. Su**estions -or student proAects are pro!ided to &elp
or*anize outside stud) e(ercises or in=class acti!ities -or students. Sample test Guestions and proAects are
pro!ided to &elp instructors assess student pro*ress. includin* a list o- identi-ications. discussion and essa)
Guestions. as well as multiple=c&oice Guestions. "&e aut&or realizes t&at instructors will !ar) in t&eir
indi!idual teac&in* tec&niGues and approac&es. and t&ese acti!ities are meant to ser!e as possi!ilities -or
-urt&er acti!ities. discussions. outside assi*nments. and to pro!ide some assessment o- student pro*ress.
Instructors are encoura*ed to adapt or enlar*e upon t&ese acti!ities to -it t&eir indi!idual teac&in* st)les and
t&e needs o- t&eir students.
"&e parent te(tbook also includes use-ul websites. an inde(. as well as an e(tensi!e biblio*rap&) o-
re-erence material. Instructors are encoura*ed to use t&ese resources to &elp pro!ide students wit& -urt&er
learnin* acti!ities.
N,$05"C,0N
'&ilosop&) o- education be*an w&en people started to t&ink about education in or*anized and co&erent
wa)s. Instead o- Aust a routine acti!it) -or sur!i!al. education acGuired purpose and meanin*. and t&is *a!e
rise to t&eories o- education. Alt&ou*& t&ere &as alwa)s been a stron* connection between t&eor) and
practice. one is sometimes emp&asized at t&e e(pense o- t&e ot&er. Ee need to -rame better t&eories o-
education and to test t&ese t&eories re-lecti!el) in t&e practical world o- education. In t&is wa) t&eor) and
practice complement eac& ot&er. A stud) o- p&ilosop&) o- education &elps to re-ine our t&inkin* about
education. and it pro!ides alternati!e a!enues o- action. It also assists in de!elopin* critical assessments o-
bot& old and new t&eories and practices.
"&ere seems to be a *reat deal o- uncertaint) in education toda) because we li!e in rapidl) c&an*in* times.
%an) obser!ers belie!e t&at t&ese calls -or c&an*es in t&e content and met&odolo*) o- education. and t&at
suc& c&an*e s&ould a--ect not onl) t&e educational establis&ment. but also t&e world in w&ic& we li!e. "&is
indicates t&at education can *o -ar be)ond t&e sc&ool and impact social. political and economic conditions.
"&ere-ore. educators need to de!elop p&ilosop&ical perspecti!es on education in order to brin* dept& and
breat& to bot& t&eir t&ou*&ts and acti!ities. "&e) need to1 /30 become aware o- education as more t&an
sc&ool or classroom acti!ities. /<0 become aware t&at p&ilosop&) pro!ides a compre&ensi!e !iew o-
education. /;0 stud) t&e &istorical de!elopment o- p&ilosop&ical ideas and t&eir relation to education. /:0
stud) t&e p&ilosop&ical treatment and anal)sis o- speci-ic issues in education. /90 en*a*e in continuin*
personal researc&. readin*. and stud) in p&ilosop&) o- education. and /80 learn to de!elop a p&ilosop&ical
perspecti!e and internalize it.
Philosophical Foundations of Education deals wit& s)stematic p&ilosop&ies arran*ed c&ronolo*icall). wit&
attention to indi!idual p&ilosop&ers w&o de!eloped important p&ilosop&ical and educational ideas. and t&e
book pro!ides a critiGue o- eac& p&ilosop&) to present its stren*t&s and weaknesses. "&e aut&or
reco*nizes t&at t&ere are ot&er wa)s o- presentin* suc& material. but t&ere is stron* support -or a s)stems
approac& to t&ese ideas. particularl) at an introductor) le!el. Suc& an approac& to t&e stud) o- p&ilosop&)
5
o- education can be an e(citin* and c&allen*in* !enture t&at *reatl) assists students in understandin* t&e
deeper meanin*s o- education.
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#@C@$O'%@N" OF I#@A$IS%
#@C$O'%@N" OF %O#@N I#@A$IS%
I#@A$IS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF I#@A$IS% IN @#UCA"ION
'lato1 ,he $epublic
+ant1 Education
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
Idealists belie!e t&at ideas are t&e onl) true realit). "&e) do not reAect material realit). but &old t&at t&e
material world is c&aracterized b) c&an*e. instabilit). and uncertaint). w&ile ideas are endurin*.
#@C@$O'%@N" OF I#@A$IS%
"&e ideas o- Socrates were transmitted orall) t&rou*& a dialectical Guestion and answer approac&. 'lato
wrote about and e(panded man) o- t&em. and &e encoura*ed a Socratic approac& to t&inkin*. He &eld t&at
we s&ould concern oursel!es primaril) wit& t&e searc& -or trut&. Since trut& is per-ect and eternal. it cannot
be -ound in t&e material world o- matter t&at is imper-ect and constantl) c&an*in*. %at&ematics
demonstrated t&at eternal trut&s were possible. and 'lato belie!ed t&at we must searc& -or ot&er uni!ersal
trut&s in areas suc& as politics. reli*ion. and educationH &ence. t&e searc& -or timeless trut& s&ould be t&e
Guest o- t&e true p&ilosop&er.
'lato did not t&ink t&at people create knowled*eH rat&er. t&e) disco!er it t&rou*& t&e dialectic. He proposed
an education &e t&ou*&t would &elp de!elop a world w&ere indi!iduals and societ) are mo!ed as -ar as t&e)
are capable toward t&e >ood. and &e su**ested t&at t&e state must take a !er) acti!e role in educational
matters. He maintained t&at t&e curriculum s&ould lead students -rom a concern wit& concrete data to
&i*&er abstract t&ou*&t. 'lato also belie!ed t&at until p&ilosop&ers were rulers. states would ne!er pursue
t&e &i*&est ideals o- trut& and Austice.
Idealism e(erted a *reat in-luence on C&ristianit). "&e idea o- >od as pure Spirit and t&e Uni!ersal >ood is
compatible wit& idealism. Au*ustine was *reatl) concerned wit& t&e concept o- e!il and belie!ed t&at man
was continuousl) en*a*ed in a stru**le to re*ain purit). He accepted 'latoFs notion o- t&e world o- ideas
and t&e world o- matter. but &e re-erred to t&e two worlds as t&e Eorld o- >od and t&e Eorld o- %an. "o
reli*ious idealists. ultimate realit) is >od. and our brid*e to it is t&e mind or soul.
#@C@$O'%@N" OF %O#@N I#@A$IS%
#escartes e(plored Imet&odical doubtI and de!eloped t&e idea o- t&e Cogito. or II t&ink. t&ere-ore I am.I He
encountered t&e necessit) o- one idea re-errin* to anot&er. and &e -ound it impossible to arri!e at an) idea
t&at did not re-er to somet&in* ot&er t&an itsel-. e(cept t&e idea o- 'er-ect Bein*. Finite mind contemplates
obAects o- t&ou*&t -ounded in >od. or in 'latonic terms. t&e &uman mind contemplates t&e ultimate realit) o-
ideas.
Berkele) &eld t&at all e(istence is dependent on some mind to know it. and not&in* e(ists unless it is
percei!ed b) some mind. "o sa) t&at a t&in* e(ists means t&at it is percei!ed. or esse est percipi /to be is to
be percei!ed0.
Hume concluded t&at all we can know are our own impressions and ideasH t&ere-ore. we &a!e no adeGuate
basis -or assertin* t&e realit) o- eit&er material or spiritual t&in*s. Hume was a skeptic w&o &eld t&at we
cannot disco!er an)t&in* t&at Austi-ies necessar) connection or causation. "o connect one occurrence wit&
anot&er is merel) t&e &abit o- e(pectin* one e!ent to -ollow anot&er based on pre!ious e(perience.
6
+ant accepted modern science. and &e belie!ed &e &ad de!ised a new s)stem wit& !alid knowled*e o-
&uman e(perience based on scienti-ic laws. In &is et&ics and moral p&ilosop&). &e de!eloped w&at &e
called moral Iimperati!es.I suc& as to treat eac& person as an end and ne!er as a mere means. "o +ant.
t&e important t&in* was to teac& a c&ild to t&ink accordin* to principles.
He*el de!eloped a s)stem o- lo*ic &e t&ou*&t would correct t&e inadeGuacies o- Aristotelian lo*ic. He
concei!ed o- lo*ical t&ou*&t as a dialectical continuum t&at mo!es toward ric&er. more complete s)nt&eses.
"o He*el. &istor) s&owed t&is mo!ement Aust as lo*ical t&ou*&t processes did. He t&ou*&t t&at in order to
be trul) educated. an indi!idual must pass t&rou*& t&e !arious sta*es o- t&e cultural e!olution o- mankind.
o)ce belie!ed t&at ideas are essentiall) purposes or plans o- action. Human purposes are incomplete
wit&out an e(ternal world in w&ic& t&e) ma) be realized. and t&e e(ternal world is meanin*less unless it is
t&e -ul-illment o- suc& purposes.
I#@A$IS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
Idealists *enerall) a*ree t&at education s&ould stress t&e de!elopment o- t&e mind. and it s&ould encoura*e
students to -ocus on ideas o- lastin* !alue. %aAor emp&ases include t&e searc& -or trut& and t&e importance
o- mind o!er matter.
"&e concern -or t&e indi!idual is one o- t&e main c&aracteristics o- idealism. @ducation s&ould be concerned
wit& sel-=realization. a central aim o- idealist education. but t&e indi!idual sel- is onl) a part o- t&e w&ole and
&as meanin* onl) in t&e lar*er conte(t.
Idealists are also concerned wit& c&aracter de!elopment. and t&e) belie!e t&at *ood education s&ould make
t&is a central *oal. "&e) belie!e t&at moral !alues need to be nurtured b) sc&ools and t&at educators &a!e
an obli*ation to present students wit& appropriate role models -or emulation.
Idealists do not -a!or specialized learnin* as muc& as &olistic learnin* and t&eir curriculum is composed o- a
liberal arts approac& wit& broad concepts rat&er t&an speci-ic skills. Idealists stress t&at education at all
le!els s&ould teac& students to t&ink. assist in t&e de!elopment o- *ood c&aracter. and t&at teac&ers s&ould
maintain a constant concern -or t&e ultimate purposes o- learnin*.
CI"IBU@ OF I#@A$IS% IN @#UCA"ION
'oints o- stren*t& in idealism include /30 t&e &i*& co*niti!e le!el o- education idealists promote. /<0 t&e
concern -or sa-e*uardin* and promotin* cultural learnin*. /;0 concern -or moralit) and c&aracter
de!elopment. /:0 a !iew o- t&e teac&er as a person o- respect central to t&e educational process. /90 t&e
importance o- sel-=realization. /80 a stress on t&e &uman and personal side o- li-e. and /70 a compre&ensi!e.
s)stematic. and &olistic approac& toward education and a stud) o- t&e world.
Some critics ar*ue t&at t&e idealist notion o- a -inis&ed and absolute uni!erse waitin* to be disco!ered &as
&indered science and t&e creation o- new ideas. I- one accepts t&e concept o- absolute ideas. it is not
possible to *o be)ond t&em. E&ile idealists &a!e emp&asized t&e co*niti!e side o- li-e. t&e) &a!e
sometimes emp&asized intellectualism to t&e detriment o- studentsF a--ecti!e and p&)sical de!elopment. and
some critics maintain t&at t&e idealist approac& tends to promote intellectual elitism.
One t&in* c&ampioned b) idealists is t&at t&e) *i!e more attention to c&aracter de!elopment t&an do
ad!ocates o- ot&er p&ilosop&ies. "&eir critics note. &owe!er. t&at t&e idealist !iew o- c&aracter de!elopment
sometimes promotes con-ormit) and subser!ience on t&e part o- learners.
'OJ@C"S
3. Form a *roup and consider &ow an ideal societ) mi*&t be ac&ie!ed t&rou*& education. +eep in
mind t&at in 'latoFs ideal societ) all t&in*s were interwo!en1 education. *o!ernment. and social li-e.
#ecide w&at role education s&ould pla) in an ideal societ).
<. @(amine !arious sc&ool curricula and educational aims in )our communit) -or t&eir commitment to
idealist principles. suc& as c&aracter de!elopment and &i*&er social purposes. #etermine t&e
central ideas t&at *i!e -ocus to t&ese materials. Are t&e curriculum plans &elp-ulK E&at are t&e
stren*t&s and weaknesses )ou detect. and w&at su**estions can )ou make -or impro!ementK
7
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
t&e Academ)
#octrine o- eminiscence
Confessions
Critique of Practical Reason
deduction
Alle*or) o- t&e Ca!e
dialectic
"ranscendentalism
"e #agistro
Absolute Spirit
"emple Sc&ool
#ISCUSSION AN# @SSAY BU@S"IONS
3. #iscuss 'latoFs de-inition o- trut&. E&) does &e maintain t&at trut& is eternal and per-ectK How do
most people -eel about trut& toda)K Is trut& relati!e or is it absoluteK
<. How did 'lato !iew democrac)K How did t&ese !iews in-luence &is ideas on educationK Can
democrac) be Austi-ied -rom an idealist perspecti!eK E&) or w&) notK
;. #iscuss ideas -or order and control in t&e sc&ools as recommended b) Eilliam ". Harris. How do
t&ese recommendations accuratel) re-lect idealist p&ilosop&)K #o t&ese ideas &a!e merit in
toda)Fs sc&oolsK @(plain )our position.
:. E&) do idealists cast doubt on t&e merits o- stud)in* t&e material worldK How do idealists react to
t&e emp&asis on tec&nical and specialized education in sc&ools toda)K Consider t&is idealist !iew
-or its appropriateness to contemporar) li-e.
9. E&at does Socrates mean b) callin* &imsel- a *ad-l)K S&ould education seek to de!elop more
suc& *ad-lies toda)K
8. Au*ustine maintains t&at we must belie!e in order to know. and t&at -ait& must transcend reason in
order -or us to enter t&e realm o- true ideas. E&at are t&e implications o- &a!in* to belie!e
somet&in* in order to know itK How does t&is con-lict wit& our current wa)s o- teac&in*K
7. E&at does +ant belie!e is t&e proper punis&ment -or a c&ild w&o &as liedK From )our point o- !iew
is suc& punis&ment appropriateK
%U$"I'$@ CHOIC@ BU@S"IONS
3. Idealism promotes a curriculum t&at emp&asizes
a. contemporar) ideas.
b. lastin* ideas.
c. c&an*eable ideas.
d. pro-itable ideas.
<. 'lato belie!ed t&at mat&ematical concepts. suc& as < L < M :. s&ow t&e kind o- knowled*e t&at is
a. relati!e trut&.
b. -leetin* and c&an*eable.
c. true but tri!ial.
d. per-ect and eternal.
;. "&e idealist emp&asis on a liberal arts t)pe o- education is based on a belie- t&at
a. true ideas are based onl) in -act.
b. trut& is &olistic rat&er t&an specialized.
c. ideas are created rat&er t&an disco!ered.
8
d. c&an*eable ideas must -it t&e present.
:. #escartesF attempt to doubt all e(istence led &im to t&e idea o- t&e Cogito. or
a. I@!er)t&in* t&at e(ists can be measured.I
b. I"o be is to percei!e an e(istence.I
c. II t&ink. t&ere-ore I am.I
d. I@(istence is essence.I

9. Accordin* to 'lato. t&e best wa) to reac& trut& is t&rou*&
a. meditation.
b. t&e dialectic.
c. problem sol!in*.
d. social interaction.
8. Accordin* to +ant. t&e essence o- education is Ienli*&tenment.I or teac&in* a c&ild to t&ink
accordin* to
a. t&e subAecti!e world unco!ered b) scienti-ic law.
b. obAecti!e creati!it) wit&in a subAecti!e world.
c. t&e ri*orous art o- contemplatin* true ideas.
d. principles as opposed to mere random be&a!ior.
7. "&e steep ascent o- t&e escapin* prisoner in t&e IAlle*or) o- t&e Ca!eI best represents w&ic& o-
t&e -ollowin*K
a. -ailure to contemplate ultimate trut&.
b. t&e e--ects o- dialectical reasonin*.
c. conAecture on t&e Ascendance o- >od.
d. s&adows on t&e mind.
6. "&e ISocratic met&odI in education re-ers to t&e notion o-
a. deducin* trut& -rom re!ealed knowled*e.
b. emplo)in* p&)sical specimens in teac&in*.
c. de!elopin* concepts t&rou*& Guestionin*.
d. teac&in* t&rou*& t&e -i!e senses.
5. "&e idealist emp&asis on subAecti!e sel-=realization in education &as its most likel) ori*ins in

a. #escartesF declaration t&at II t&ink. t&ere-ore. I am.I
b. Smit&Fs !iew o- economic sel-=interest.
c. %eadFs belie- in t&e social sel-.
d. HumeFs skepticism about subAecti!e perception.
34. "&e He*elian in-luence on idealist education can be seen in t&e emp&asis on t&e indi!idualFs
destin) bein* tied to t&at o-
a. t&e *ad-l).
b. oneFs peer *roup.
c. economic sel-=interest.
d. Spirit.
33. For 'lato. art was an important concern in education. and &e belie!ed t&at art s&ould
a. be used to promote t&e -ree e(pression o- students.
b. &elp students acGuire a !ariet) o- political ideolo*ies.
c. be re*ulated and controlled -or t&e *ood o- t&e state.
d. culti!ate reli*ious ideas o- personal sal!ation.
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9
C$ASSICA$ "A#I"IONS
#@C@$O'%@N" OF %O#@N @A$IS%
CON"@%'OAY @A$IS%
@A$IS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF @A$IS% IN @#UCA"ION
Aristotle1 ,he Politics and Ethics of -ristotle
$ocke1 #o7e ,houghts Concerning Education
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
C$ASSICA$ "A#I"IONS
$ike idealism. realism is one o- t&e oldest p&ilosop&ies in Eestern culture and dates back to ancient >reece.
It &as &ad a !ariet) o- interpretations ran*in* -rom classical and reli*ious realism to scienti-ic. natural. and
rational realism.
A central -eature o- realism is t&e t&esis o- independence. or t&e !iew t&at realit). knowled*e. and !alue
e(ist independentl) o- t&e &uman mind. It reAects t&e idealist !iew t&at onl) ideas are real. and it asserts t&at
material -acts o- t&e uni!erse e(ist w&et&er or not &uman minds actuall) percei!e t&em. ealism &olds t&at
matter is an ob!ious e(ample o- an independent realit).
Aristotle maintained t&at a proper stud) o- matter could lead us to better and more distinct ideas. He
belie!ed t&at ideas /or -orms0. suc& as t&e idea o- >od or t&e idea o- a tree. can e(ist wit&out matter. but
t&ere can be no matter wit&out -orm. @ac& material obAect &as bot& a uni!ersal and particular propert). and
-orms /uni!ersals. ideas. or essences0 are t&e nonmaterial aspects o- particular material obAects. Ee arri!e
at -orms or ideas b) e(aminin* speci-ic material obAects.
For Aristotle. t&ere is order and purpose in t&e uni!erse. and we can understand t&e uni!erse b) stud)in* its
purposes. Eit& re*ard to &umans. our purpose is to t&ink. and w&en we re-use to t&ink. we *o a*ainst our
purpose and su--er t&e conseGuences. Aristotle belie!ed t&at a person s&ould -ollow t&e >olden %ean. a li-e
o- moderation between e(tremes. An appropriate education would promote t&is kind o- li-e.
C&ristian p&ilosop&ers. suc& as AGuinas. correlated t&e realist t&ou*&t o- Aristotle wit& C&ristian belie-s and
created t&e sc&olastic p&ilosop&) called I"&omism.I B) usin* our reason as Aristotle su**ested. AGuinas
&eld t&at we could know t&e trut& about >od and nature. He reco*nized t&at trut& could be attained b)
re!elation. but &e also belie!ed trut& could be *ained t&rou*& sensor) obser!ation as well.
#@C@$O'%@N" OF %O#@N @A$IS%
%odern realism. w&ic& is associated wit& Francis Bacon and Jo&n $ocke. took a decidedl) empirical
approac& and ser!ed as a buildin* block -or modern science. "&is approac& created con-licts between
reli*ious belie-s based on deduction and on scienti-ic belie-s based on inducti!e t&inkin* and obser!ation.
Jo&n $ocke de!eloped t&e !iew t&at most knowled*e is acGuired -rom e(perience b) wa) o- sensation and
re-lection.
CON"@%'OAY @A$IS%
Contemporar) realism. w&ic& is associated wit& E&ite&ead and ussell. attempted to correlate science and
p&ilosop&). E&ite&ead ar*ued t&at p&ilosop&) is simpl) a searc& -or pattern in t&e uni!erse. and ussell
maintained t&at suc& patterns s&ould be described wit& precision and anal)zed mat&ematicall).
@A$IS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
"&ere are se!eral !arieties o- realism t&at &a!e a--ected education in di!erse wa)s. "&e two maAor di!isions
are reli*ious realism and scienti-ic or secular realism. "&omists. -or e(ample. belie!e t&at education s&ould
10
&elp us understand bot& t&e spiritual and materials aspects o- li-e. w&ile secular realists emp&asize material
and scienti-ic studies.
"&e scienti-ic mo!ement us&ered in an era o- t&ou*&t t&at stressed an understandin* o- t&e material world
and its control. "&ere is order and re*ularit) o- t&e material world. and scienti-ic in!esti*ation unco!ers t&e
Ilaws o- natureI t&at *o!ern t&is re*ularit). Secular realism maintains t&at reliable knowled*e is *ained
t&rou*& a stud) o- essential ideas and -acts about t&e material world.
Alt&ou*& secular realists ar*ue t&at education s&ould de!elop tec&nical skills and turn out specialists and
scientists. t&e) are not necessaril) opposed to education in t&e &umanities. ealists also put *reat
emp&asis on t&e IpracticalI side o- education. w&ic& ma) include education -or moral and c&aracter
de!elopment.
CI"IBU@ OF @A$IS% IN @#UCA"ION
Secular realist educational t&eor) displa)s a bias in -a!or o- a -act based approac& to knowled*e. Yet. w&at
was once t&ou*&t to be indisputable -act in so man) cases is now considered to be interestin* m)t& and
outri*&t i*norance. suc& as t&e 'tolemaic conception o- t&e uni!erse t&at was once supported b) reli*ious
realism. @!en t&e IlawsI o- modern p&)sics. w&ic& &a!e tremendous researc& and e(perimentation be&ind
t&em. ma) -all to new laws and ideas in t&e -uture. "&ere is also con-usion o!er w&at is meant b) I-act.I -or
t&ere are I-acts o- reasonI and I-acts o- empirical researc&.I Aristotle t&ou*&t it was sel- e!ident t&at obAects
o- di--erent wei*&ts -all at di--erent speeds. It was not until >alileo t&at t&is I-act o- reasonI was o!erturned
b) empirical researc&. "&e I-actualI approac& in bot& reli*ious and secular realism ma) lead to closed
mindedness and narrowness1 i- we alread) &a!e t&e trut& in &and. we are &ardl) moti!ated to searc&
-urt&er. Suc& an outlook is anti=p&ilosop&ical i- it discoura*es an open mind and t&e uns&ackled searc& -or
wisdom.
'OJ@C"S
3. Consider )our e(perience in a laborator) class at )our colle*e or uni!ersit). How is t&e scienti-ic
met&od used in ac&ie!in* solutionsK How do scientists pro!e t&e results o- t&eir t&eories. and does
t&is pro!ide su--icient knowled*e -or indi!idual and social li-eK
<. @(amine some o- t&e co!enants. creeds. or e!an*elical tracts o- selected reli*ious institutions. and
criticall) compare t&em on t&eir !iews o- a scienti-ic approac& to trut&. Compare t&em on suc&
topics as t&e creation or ori*ins o- t&e uni!erse. or t&e issue o- abortion. How do reli*ious t&inkers
Austi-) t&eir belie-s as compared wit& scientistsK #o reli*ious and scienti-ic t&inkers s&are an)
common -eaturesK
;. @(amine selected te(tbooks used in sc&ools in terms o- !iewpoints related to realism. E&at kinds
o- realism. i- an). are representedK I- realist !iews are present. w&at impact could t&is &a!e on &ow
pupils w&o use t&e te(ts !iew trut& and knowled*eK
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
ta!ula rasa
induction
'tolemaic conception o- t&e uni!erse
>olden %ean
s)llo*ism
"&omism
$)ceum
Principia Mathematica
$lan vital
IAn*elic #octorI
Casa dei %am!ini
3. Erite an essa) e(plainin* t&e -ollowin*1
11
a. A leadin* belie- o- realist t&ou*&t and &ow it continues to in-luence educational
practices.
b. A leadin* di--erence between reli*ious and secular realism. and w&at role t&is
di--erence pla)s in contemporar) education.
c. A position on w&et&er t&ese in-luences are desirable or undesirable. and e(plain w&).
<. Some obser!ers ar*ue t&at t&e realist position makes a stron* plea -or -acts and basic subAect
matter. #iscuss w&et&er realism does promote t&is !iew. How su--icient is t&e realist approac& on
t&is issue -or education toda)K
;. E&at is a ke) di--erence between deducti!e and inducti!e t&inkin*K Erite an essa) e!aluatin* &ow
t&ese wa)s o- t&inkin* de!eloped in realism and &ow t&e) in-luence t&e wa) we t&ink about
education.
:. #iscuss AristotleFs !iew -or leadin* a *ood li-e. E&at implications does t&is &a!e -or educational
aims and curriculum. and &ow appropriate is it -or present=da) sc&oolsK
9. #iscuss a leadin* di--erence between classical and modern realism. How does t&is di--erence
mani-est itsel- in education. particularl) in t&e curriculum o- toda)Fs sc&oolsK Is t&is mani-estation a
positi!e or ne*ati!e -eatureK
8. Accordin* to Jo&n Searle. t&ere is a di--erence between Ibrute -actsI and Isocial -acts.I How does
t&is !iew impact educational t&eor) and practiceK
7. E&at are some o- t&e basic ideas and practices o- a %ontessori approac& to educationK E&at. in
)our !iew. are t&e positi!e and ne*ati!e -eatures o- t&e N%ontessori %et&odO.
3. "&e s)llo*ism used b) Aristotle is composed o- a maAor premise. a minor premise. and a
conclusion. E&ic& o- t&e -ollowin* is a maAor weakness in t&is deducti!e process o- lo*ic1
a. It &as an illo*ical order o- descendin* scales o- merit.
b. "&e lo*ic onl) -its Guestions about science.
c. I- t&e premise is wron*. t&en t&e conclusion is -ault).
d. Its reli*ious bias )ields absolute answers.
<. Francis Bacon ar*ued -or an inducti!e approac& in lo*ic or t&inkin*. w&ic& means t&at better
knowled*e is *ained w&en we
a. be*in wit& speci-ic obser!ations and reason to *eneral conclusions.
b. induce trut& -rom bot& reli*ion and science be-ore we belie!e it.
c. induct students into a sin*le wa) o- t&inkin* -or uni-ormit).
d. onl) use deduction in reli*ion and induction in science.
;. A central t&eme o- realism is t&e It&esis o- independence.I w&ic& means t&at realit). knowled*e.
and !alue e(ist
a. onl) in t&e mind o- t&e percei!er.
b. in a separate realm o- ideas.
c. in t&e natural laws o- p&)sics.
d. independent o- t&e &uman mind.
:. "&omas AGuinas belie!ed t&at onl) >od could touc& t&e soul directl). but a teac&er ma) also lead
a student to knowled*e and trut& t&rou*&
a. -irm and -orce-ul dictation o- knowled*e.
b. t&e use o- obser!ation and reason.
c. t&e indoctrination o- students to become obedient belie!ers.
d. in makin* student memorize and recite recei!ed trut&s.
9. Aristotle belie!ed t&at t&e uni!erse &as desi*n to it and t&at e!er)t&in* &as a true purpose. "&e
purpose o- &uman bein*s is to
12
a. t&ink and -ollow a pat& o- moderation.
b. make a li!in* b) skill and intellect.
c. en*a*e in tec&nolo*ical acti!it).
d. sol!e scienti-ic problems.
8. $ocke belie!ed t&at our mind at birt& is a ta!ula rasa. or a
a. rational table -ull o- ideas.
b. mac&ine=like s)stem -or calculation.
c. rational soul -ull o- remembered trut&s.
d. blank slate to be imprinted b) e(perience.

7. Al-red Nort& E&ite&ead ar*ued t&at education s&ould be concerned wit& Ili!in* ideasI t&at connect
t&e e(periences o- learners wit&
a. t&e traditions and tested trut&s o- &istor).
b. t&e processes and patterns o- realit).
c. products and processes o- p&)sical science.
d. dialectical reasonin* o- mind and t&ou*&t.
6. "&e classical realist outlook c&ampioned b) obert Hutc&ins and %ortimer Adler stron*l) promotes
t&e educational use o-
a. *reat books t&at &a!e wit&stood t&e test o- time.
b. mat&ematics and science -or precision in t&ou*&t.
c. timeless reli*ious trut&s about reli*ious sal!ation.
d. contemporar) writin*s t&at re!eal current realit).
5. Herbert Spencer. in &is essa) IE&at +nowled*e Is O- %ost Eort&.I ar*ued t&at education s&ould
promote
a. t&e cultural &erita*e o- t&e past.
b. reli*ious trut& re!ealed b) *reat t&inkers.
c. creati!it) t&rou*& artistic e(pression.
d. t&e supremac) o- scienti-ic knowled*e.
34. Because realists see t&e uni!erse *o!erned b) its own internal order. t&ere is a tendenc) in t&eir
educational p&ilosop&) to reGuire students to
a. adapt and adAust to t&is realit).
b. pursue indi!idual dreams and desires.
c. adAust to t&e needs o- totalitarian re*imes.
d. reAect all ot&er endurin* world !iews.
33. Unlike classical realists. contemporar) realists suc& as Hilar) 'utnam &old t&at
a t&e uni!erse is clearl) capable o- bein* understood in absolute terms.
b. t&e doctrine o- Isimplicit)I is t&e surest wa) to understandin* t&e uni!erse.
c. we need more use o- lo*ic and rationalism and less reliance on &)pot&etical reasonin*.
d. t&e uni!erse is too comple( -or t&e &uman to compre&end in a total or I>odFs @)eI !iew.
3<. %aria %ontessori. like 'estalozzi. stressed t&e importance o-1
a. sensation and t&e use o- obAects in t&e learnin* process.
b. *roup and communit) acti!ities.
c. dealin* wit& emotional con-lict
d. relatin* education to t&e social and political en!ironment.
C3-P,E$ 36 E-#,E$N P3/0#0P38, $E/10N, -N5 E5"C-,0N
"H@ #@C@$O'%@N" OF @AS"@N "HOU>H"
13
FA @AS"@N AN# IN#IAN "HOU>H"
%I##$@ @AS"@N "HOU>H"
@AS"@N "HOU>H" AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF @AS"@N 'HI$OSO'HY IN @#UCA"ION
/Anon)mous01 .haga%ad91ita
Suzuki1 2en 4ind, .eginner:s 4ind
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
"H@ #@C@$O'%@N" OF @AS"@N "HOU>H"
@astern p&ilosop&) is comprised o- -our maAor areas o- t&ou*&t1 Indian. C&inese. Japanese. and %iddle
@astern. >enerall). @astern p&ilosop&) stresses intuition. inner peace. and m)sticism. Some @astern
belie-s &a!e &ad a maAor impact on t&e Eest. suc& as Judaism and C&ristianit). bot& o- w&ic& &a!e %iddle=
@astern roots.
FA @AS"@N AN# IN#IAN "HOU>H"
In Indian t&ou*&t. t&e Cedic tradition o- Hinduism &olds t&at w&ile &umans can be spiritual. t&e) are o-ten
moti!ated b) e!il /lust. *reed. etc.0. and t&e) need to seek purit) o- &eart and mind. "&e %hagavad&'ita
maintains t&at nature and t&e uni!erse o- name and -orm are illusor)1 realit) is spiritual. and a stern
de!otion to dut) is emp&asized. ecent Hindu t&inkers suc& as >and&i ad!ocated lo!e and ser!ice toward
ot&ers as t&e best wa) to mold our social. economic. educational. and political li-e.
Budd&ism &olds t&at t&e uni!erse is an endless stream ruled b) t&e law o- +arma. "&e wa) to o!ercome
t&is is to obtain -reedom -rom t&e birt& and deat& c)cle b) realizin* nir!ana. "&e Budd&a reAected rituals.
ceremonies. and o--icial reli*ious aut&orit). He also obAected to m)ster). speculation. pra)er. and t&e
concept o- a personal >od.
Jainist t&ou*&t is an o--s&oot o- Hinduism. Jains are -ollowers o- t&e (ina. or one w&o &as attained
enli*&tenment. It is !er) similar to Budd&ism in t&at bot& oppose ort&odo( !iews. reAect t&e caste s)stem
and a personal >od. and *i!e *reat importance to t&e concept o- non=inAur). For bot&. Nir!ana is a release
-rom t&e birt&Pdeat& c)cle.
In C&inese p&ilosop&). t&e emp&asis is on t&ou*&t t&at leads to &armon) in li-e. "&e Con-ucian ideal is t&e
indi!idual w&o li!es a li-e o- ri*&tness. !irtue. and propriet). Con-ucius ar*ued t&at indi!idual wort& was a
Guestion o- conduct and c&aracter. He stressed t&e importance o- education. but belie!ed t&at moral
c&aracter was more important t&an skills or in-ormation. %oral education must emp&asize practicalit). suc&
as oneFs relations wit& ot&ers.

"&e central concept o- "aoism is t&e Ea) or 'at&. t&e wa) t&e uni!erse mo!es and t&e pat& o- per-ection
and &armon). "ao emp&asizes con-ormit) wit& nature and non=action. or lettin* t&in*s alone and not -orcin*
oneFs personal desires into t&e natural course o- e!ents. It is a noncompetiti!e approac& to li-e. "&e best
leader is one w&o rules b) lettin* t&in*s alone and usin* moderation.
"&e &istorical base -or Japanese p&ilosop&) is S&intoism. w&ic& &i*&li*&ts respect -or li-e and kins&ip wit&
nature. "raditional Con-ucian and "aoist belie-s in-luenced Japanese perspecti!es. and Budd&ism. w&ic& in
Japan is ?en Budd&ism. &as been prominent. ?en seeks to discipline and -ree t&e mind. and alt&ou*& it
does not preac& or prosel)tize. it encoura*es one to e(plore new pat&s wit&out *i!in* up ot&er reli*ious or
p&ilosop&ical outlooks.
%I##$@ @AS"@N "HOU>H"
"&e %iddle @ast &as spawned a !ariet) o- p&ilosop&ies and reli*ions. includin* Judaism. C&ristianit). and
Islam.
14
%u&ammad. t&e -ounder o- Islam. sou*&t to uni-) t&e Arabs into a nation o- belie!ers *o!erned b) t&e will o-
Alla& /or >od0. %u&ammadFs ideas were collected in t&e )oran. in w&ic& Alla&Fs timeless moral trut&s are
re!ealed. Islam embraces all people re*ardless o- race. color. nationalit). or condition.
Bot& Judaism and C&ristianit) &ad t&eir ori*ins in t&e %iddle @ast. and Judaism still e(erts an important
in-luence in Israel. "&e collected writin*s o- bot& Judaism and C&ristianit) are re-lected in t&e %i!le.
Judaism includes t&e belie- t&at t&ere is onl) one >od. t&e bene-actor o- all creation. as re!ealed in t&e
scriptures. t&e *orah and t&e *almud. C&ristianit) be*an as a sect o- Judaism t&at -ollowed Jesus o-
Nazaret&. w&ose teac&in*s -orm t&e basis -or t&e ew *estament. Belie- in JesusFs di!init) marks t&e
crucial di--erence between Judaism and C&ristianit).
"wo p&ilosop&er=t&eolo*ians stand out -or connectin* Judaism and C&ristianit) wit& Eestern culture.
Au*ustine connected 'latonic p&ilosop&) wit& C&ristian belie-s. and AGuinas reconciled Aristotelian
p&ilosop&) wit& C&ristian concepts. Bot& Au*ustine and AGuinas &elped -use %iddle @astern Judaism and
C&ristianit) wit& Eestern p&ilosop&ical traditions deri!ed -rom 'lato and Aristotle.

@AS"@N "HOU>H" AN# 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
E&ile man) Eestern educational practices emp&asize order. re*ularit). and -acts. @astern t&ou*&t o-ten
emp&asizes non=attac&ment and t&e de!elopment o- oneFs inner bein*. It also e(tols t&e role o- t&e teac&er.
-or man) o- t&e *reat @astern t&inkers were teac&ers as well as t&eorists.
@astern p&ilosop&) &as pro!ided a !ariet) o- approac&es to education -or t&e purpose o- li!in* well.
alle!iatin* su--erin*. ac&ie!in* enli*&tenment. or reac&in* nir!ana. In some -orms o- @astern t&ou*&t. t&e
teac&in* o- rules o- order and rules o- ri*&t conduct -or t&e indi!idual. t&e -amil). and societ) are
emp&asized. %iddle @astern p&ilosop&ies tend to emp&asize sacred literature. and unlike modern Eestern
t&ou*&t. w&ic& seems to c&an*e wit& social up&ea!al. @astern s)stems o- t&ou*&t encoura*e doctrinal
purit) rat&er t&an t&e e(ploration o- alternati!es in a c&an*in* world.
CI"IBU@ OF @AS"@N 'HI$OSO'HY IN @#UCA"ION
@astern t&ou*&t and education &a!e promoted order. re*ularit). patience. and &armon). but critics c&ar*e
t&at t&is onl) maintains tradition and t&e status +uo. Fault &as also been -ound wit& t&e @astern -ascination
wit& supernaturalism. do*matic rules. !a*ueness. doctrinal -actions. and indi!idualistic attitudes toward
sal!ation. @astern t&ou*&t is also criticized -or promotin* a callous disre*ard -or &uman li-e t&rou*& suc&
de!ices as t&e caste s)stem or encoura*in* indi!iduals to sacri-ice t&eir li!es -or a reli*ious cause. "o
Eestern critics w&o see t&emsel!es as promotin* -reedom and democrac). @astern p&ilosop&ies seem to
promul*ate a sla!is& wors&ip o- rules and aut&orit). and a belie- in oneFs -i(ed and ordered place in t&e
uni!erse. Yet. education enAo)s *reat respect t&rou*&out @astern cultures. "eac&ers &a!e occupied &i*&
status. -or man) o- t&e *reat reli*ious and p&ilosop&ical leaders were considered. abo!e all else. *reat
teac&ers. Howe!er. some critics belie!e t&at an e(cessi!e emp&asis on t&e role o- t&e teac&er in t&e
learnin* process ma) sti-le t&e initiati!e o- indi!idual learners.
'OJ@C"S
3. Cisit a c&urc&. s)na*o*ue. or mosGue and inter!iew a leader /minister. rabbi. imam . etc.0 on t&e
connections o- t&eir reli*ious belie-s wit& @astern p&ilosop&) and reli*ion. How do t&eir speci-ic
reli*ious traditions !iew t&e importance o- educationK
<. #iscuss w&et&er reli*ious ideas reall) &elp or impede pro*ressK How do modern in!entions. suc&
as t&e Internet. impact upon reli*ious t&inkin*K How do ot&er t&in*s in t&e culture. music. dance.
and art. relate to reli*ious practicesK
;. Obtain in-ormation -rom an international reli*ious or*anization /suc& as t&e Eorld Council o-
C&urc&es0 about t&e maAor problems -aced b) reli*ious bodies internationall). How do t&eir
reli*ious belie-s in-luenced b) @astern t&ou*&t relate to education in t&e world toda)K
:. In!ite a speaker -rom an @astern culture to discuss t&e relation o- @astern reli*ion and education to
Eestern culture.
15
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
Bra&man liberation
bo tree
guru
?en ,oan
Fi!e 'illars o- Islam
*orah /or It&e "eac&in*sI0
-umma *heologica
Fi!e Constant Cirtues o- Con-ucianism
Jina
)in* and )an*
t&e t&ird e)e
Societ) o- Jesus
sat)a*ra&a
3. How important is education in @astern p&ilosop&) and reli*ion. and &ow does t&is compare wit&
Eestern educational !iewsK #oes @astern reli*ious and p&ilosop&ical t&ou*&t continue to impact
educational !iews toda)K @(plain.
<. Consider &ow @astern p&ilosop&ical and reli*ious !iews treat relations wit& ot&er &uman bein*s.
How is t&is educationall) si*ni-icantK "ake a position on w&et&er t&is s&ould pla) a role in
education toda) and de-end t&at position.
;. #iscuss some maAor di--erences between Eestern and @astern t&ou*&t on education.
:. #escribe a positi!e and a ne*ati!e -eature o- @astern t&ou*&t -or education toda). @(plain )our
position and de-end it wit& speci-ic e(amples.
9. How do )ou compare reli*ion and p&ilosop&)K Can a reli*ion be a p&ilosop&)K #iscuss similarities
and di--erences.
8. #iscuss C&ristianit) in terms o- its similarities and di--erence wit& ot&er reli*ions and p&ilosop&iesK
7. E&at e--ect &as *lobalization &ad on @astern belie-sK
16
3. One o- t&e *reat writin*s o- Hindu p&ilosop&) t&at &as s&aped &ow Indians t&ink and !iew t&e world
is t&e
a. Upanishads.
b. )oran.
c. -umma *heologica.
d. /nalects.
<. "&e purpose o- instruction o- Bra&man in Hindu t&ou*&t is to
a. make one power-ul and admired b) all.
b. ele!ate oneFs economic standin*.
c. ac&ie!e spiritual liberation.
d. pro!ide a basis o- rulers&ip.
;. All o- t&e -ollowin* are associated wit& Hinduism e(cept
a. )o*a.
b. passi!e resistance.
c. t&e untouc&ables.
d. t&e realit) o- matter.
:. >otama belie!ed t&at t&e root cause o- su--erin* was
a. interpersonal relations&ips.
b. personal *rati-ication.
c. lack o- -ood.
d. po!ert).
9. E&ic& o- t&e -ollowin* most closel) identi-ies JainismK
a. to *o wit& t&e -low o- e(istence.
b. establis&ment o- ci!il ser!ice e(aminations.
c. a!oid inAur) to an) -orm o- li-e.
d. usin* blows in t&e teac&in* process.
8. Con-ucius ar*ued t&at one s&ould become chun&tzu. or a true *entleman. t&rou*&
a. c&oosin* t&e ri*&t parents.
b. ac&ie!in* *reat wealt& and -ame.
c. proAectin* a superior attitude o!er ot&ers.
d. de!elopin* proper conduct and c&aracter.
7. "&e -amous inAunction o- t&e "aoists is wu wei. w&ic& means
a. do not&in* unnatural.
b. -ollow t&e master.
c. listen to nature.
d. act impetuousl).
17
6. ?en Budd&ism is a reli*ious outlook wit& no
a. meditation.
b. supreme deit).
c. enli*&tenment.
d. instructional met&ods.
5. One o- t&e reasons -or t&e popularit) o- Islamic reli*ion is t&at it
a. reGuires &i*&l) educated priests.
b. is based on a pant&eon o- power-ul *ods.
c. promotes a !iew t&at &ea!en is present in t&e world.
d. is open to all re*ardless o- race. color. or ori*in.
34. In Judaism. t&e primar) role o- t&e rabbi is to
a. preac& t&e *ospel to sinners.
b. be a missionar) to non=belie!ers.
c. teac& t&e laws o- >od.
d. &elp belie!ers ac&ie!e nir!ana.
33. In Hinduism. t&e Ilaw o- karmaI states t&at e!er) action a--ects t&e soul and
a. &ow t&e soul will be born in t&e ne(t reincarnation.
b. creates a counter!ailin* reaction o- eGual -orce.
c. is -or*i!en b) $ord +ris&na and does not count.
d. is to be o!ercome b) pra)er and sacri-ice.
3<. In t&e 3744s t&e Jesuits were disbanded b) 'ope Clement IC -or t&eir1
a. e(cessi!e zeal in baptizin* in-ants.
b. political acti!ities.
c. la( -orm o- or*anization
d. lack o- belie- in reli*ious doctrines
C3-P,E$ )6 P$-14-,#4 -N5 E5"C-,0N
OO"S OF "H@ 'A>%A"IS" EO$#CI@E
A%@ICAN 'A>%A"IS"S
'A>%A"IS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF 'A>%A"IS% IN @#UCA"ION
James1 ,al;s to ,eachers
#ewe)1 5e7ocracy and Education
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
OO"S OF "H@ 'A>%AS"IC EO$#CI@E
'ra*matismFs roots lie in >reek and @uropean p&ilosop&ical traditions. but its main e(ponents &a!e been
American p&ilosop&ers. Attitudes -ostered b) t&e @nli*&tenment. naturalistic &umanism. and t&e scienti-ic=
tec&nolo*ical re!olution &a!e been important elements o- t&is mo!ement. as well as t&e contributions o-
'eirce. James. and #ewe).
BaconFs met&od o- inducti!e t&inkin*. $ockeFs connection o- e(perience wit& t&e -ormation o- ideas. and
ousseauFs !iews on natural learnin* processes all in-luenced pra*matism and its !iews on education. but
t&e pra*matists *a!e t&ese ideas new directions. BaconFs !iews on induction and science were e(tended b)
18
pra*matists to include &ow we t&ink about economics. politics. ps)c&olo*). education. and e!en et&ics.
From $ocke t&e pra*matists de!eloped t&eir !iew o- e(perience as t&e source o- t&e ideas we create. and
-rom ousseau t&e pra*matists emp&asized t&e natural de!elopment o- c&ildren. not as romanticized INoble
Sa!a*esI but as biolo*ical and social or*anisms *oin* t&rou*& !arious sta*es o- de!elopment.
"&e p&ilosop&) o- pra*matism declined a-ter #ewe)Fs deat&. but in recent )ears it &as e(perienced a
resur*ence. "&e c&ie- e(ponents o- t&is neo=pra*matism are Bernstein. ort). and Eest. For Bernstein.
pra*matismFs !italit) resides in its !iews on t&e amelioration o- &uman su--erin*. e*alitarian democratic
social re-orm. and reAection o- despair and impotence. ort) maintains t&at pra*matismFs !alue continues in
its ad!ocac) o- democratic re-orm. reco*nition o- &uman -allibilit). and t&e de!elopment o- creati!e
approac&es to t&ou*&t. Eest sees continuin* !alue in t&e pra*matist commitments to social and political
acti!ism. social c&an*e t&rou*& education. public dialo*ue. and an e(perimental approac& to social and
political problems.
'A>%A"IS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
'ra*matismFs in-luence on American education &as been considerable but contro!ersial. "o some
obser!ers. pra*matismFs ad!ocac) o- education -or social re-orm &as been detrimental. but to ot&ers it is a
necessit) -or democratic social li-e to prosper. 'ra*matists stress education as *rowt& in t&e capacit) to
learn -rom e(perience and to direct -uture e(perienceH and democratic ideals pro!ide direction -or suc&
*rowt&. @ducation s&ould promote a more democratic societ). a &umane spirit in people. and a better
understandin* o- t&e pressin* problems in contemporar) societ).
'ra*matist educators pre-er met&ods t&at are -le(ible and pro!ide a !ariet) o- wa)s to learn because t&ere is
no one best wa) to educate. "&e) reAect traditional !iews o- knowled*e as separate -rom actual &uman
e(perience. and t&e) !iew curriculum as a process as muc& as a bod) o- subAect matter. Academic
disciplines and knowled*e s&ould be studied -or t&e insi*&t t&e) o--er into social problems and as aids to
student *rowt&.
CI"IBU@ OF 'A>%A"IS% IN @#UCA"ION
'ra*matism &as been in-luential not onl) in education. but in ot&er areas suc& as law. art. economics. and
ps)c&olo*). "&e impact o- pra*matism on education toda) is not eas) to assess1 some critics c&ar*e t&at
pra*matism promotes radical !iews on education and social re-orm. w&ile ot&ers complain t&at pra*matism
is not radical enou*& in its ideolo*ical and political criticisms. "&ese !ar)in* criticisms indicate t&at
pra*matism continues to en*a*e educational t&eorists and in-luence educational t&eor) and practice.
'OJ@C"S
3. Arran*e a !isit to a local public sc&ool and obser!e acti!ities in a classroom or ot&er sc&ool
-unction. "&rou*& obser!ations and inter!iews. attempt to identi-) -eatures t&at ma) re-lect a
pra*matist approac& to education. Assess )our obser!ations and conclusions.
<. #iscuss a contemporar) issue a--ectin* education /!ouc&ers. reli*ious obser!ances. alienation.
substance abuse. classPraceP*ender bias. etc.0. Consider &ow a pra*matist mi*&t approac& suc&
an issue. and e!aluate &ow pra*matic assumptions would in-luence one2s t&inkin* on t&is subAect.
;. #e!elop a dramatic skit in w&ic& )ou role=pla) &ow a particular subAect=area topic would be
presented b) a traditional approac& and &ow a pra*matist mi*&t present it. Assess t&e similarities
and di--erences and determine w&at role p&ilosop&ical ideas pla) in t&e outcome.
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
induction
$aborator) Sc&ool
I%) 'eda*o*ic CreedI
romanticism
N@i*&t=Year Stud)O
0uest for Certainty
education as *rowt&
open=ended uni!erse
19
proAect met&od
learnin* b) doin*
Noble Sa!a*e
*he -ouls of %lac, Fol,
"&e NstreamO o- e(perience
*he Origin of -pecies
3. Compare w&at #ewe) borrowed -rom Bacon and $ocke. /or -rom ousseau and #arwin0. in
de!elopin* &is p&ilosop&) o- education. How did &e use t&eir insi*&ts in de!elopin* &is own !iews
on education. and &ow did &e di--erK
<. #iscuss pra*matist educational aims and met&ods. How do t&e) di--er -rom older p&ilosop&ical
outlooks. &ow are t&e) similar. and w&at use s&ould t&e) &a!e in education toda)K
;. E&at are some ad!anta*es and disad!anta*es to t&e pra*matist !iew on curriculum as a process
rat&er t&an a mere bod) o- subAect matterK How does t&is relate to t&e pra*matist inAunction
a*ainst t&e Guest -or certaint)K
:. CritiGue #ewe)Fs !iew t&at creati!e intelli*ence *rows out o- seekin* solutions to t&e problems in
indi!idual and social li-e. E&at elements make up #ewe)Fs !iew o- education as *rowt&. and w&at
impact. i- an). s&ould t&is &a!e on educational t&eor) and practiceK
9. #iscuss w&at )ou belie!e to be t&e maAor implications o- neopra*matism -or education toda). Are
ort)Fs su**estions. -or e(ample. an impro!ement -or contemporar) p&ilosop&). and w&at impact
do t&e) &a!e -or traditional !iews on educationK E&at in-luence s&ould neopra*matism &a!e on
educational t&eor)K
8. Cornel Eest &as su**ested t&at pra*matism s&ould &a!e a Iprop&eticI role. t&at is. it s&ould
pro!ide cultural criticism to &elp us address contemporar) issues suc& as race. E&at ot&er kinds
o- contemporar) issues need t&is kind o- critical anal)sis toda)K Su**est some directions -or
education t&is criticism mi*&t pro!ideK
7. E&at pra*matic in-luences can )ou -ind in toda)2s sc&oolsK E&at are some t&in*s pra*matists
mi*&t obAect toK
3. 'ra*matism e(amines traditional wa)s o- t&inkin* and doin* and attempts to reconstruct central
ideas in order to
a. sol!e present problems and promote creati!e intelli*ence.
b. preser!e collecti!e wisdom and en&ance social stabilit).
c. maintain present prosperit) and build -uture wealt&.
d. ac&ie!e lastin* consensus and a!oid disa*reements.
<. "&e classic pra*matists=='eirce. James. and #ewe)==insisted t&at t&e test o- trut& o- an idea or
proposition lies in
a. its reliable &istor) o- lon*e!it).
b. &ow close it re-lects an independent realit).
c. t&e conseGuences o- actin* on it.
d. a lo*ical anal)sis o- meanin*-ul terms.
;. E&ic& o- t&e -ollowin* *roups o- terms most accuratel) describe central aspects o- pra*matismK
a. e!elation. moderation. and natural de!elopment.
b. #eduction. dialectic. and e(perience.
c. e!elation. science. and deduction.
d. @(perience. natural de!elopment. and science.
20
:. #ewe) t&ou*&t t&at modern industrialization &ad submer*ed bot& t&e indi!idual and societ) and.
t&ere-ore. t&e sc&ool s&ould be an institution w&ere
a. c&ildren2s indi!idual and social capacities are nurtured t&rou*& democratic
li!in*.
b. indi!idualism s&ould be t&e *uidin* interest abo!e all ot&er considerations.
c. indi!idual di--erences s&ould take second place to t&e more important needs o- societ).
d. societ)Fs needs must *i!e wa) to t&e needs and interests o- indi!idual c&ildren.
9. #ewe) &eld t&at a primar) moral aim o- sc&oolin* is to enable students to participate in democratic
social li-e. B) t&is &e meant t&at democratic ideas must
a. be o!er&auled to meet t&e needs o- power-ul social interests.
b. become moti!e -orces in &ow an indi!idual relates et&icall) wit& ot&ers.
c. &a!e a ri*orous and -orce-ul application to student be&a!iors.
d. not in-luence basic curriculum so muc& as e(tra=curricular acti!ities.
8. Eilliam James made w&ic& o- t&e -ollowin* ideas central to &is p&ilosop&)K
a. dialectic.
b. e(perience.
c. deduction.
d. introspection.
7. For pra*matists. particularl) #ewe). the aim o- education is
a. economic.
b. mental.
c. knowled*e.
d. *rowt&.
6. 'ra*matists *enerall) emp&asize t&e importance o- moral education and maintain t&at appropriate
moral traits are best acGuired b) indi!iduals t&rou*&
a. -ollowin* t&e establis&ed customs o- societ).
b. -ollowin* t&e course o- *reatest economic pro-itabilit).
c. re-lecti!e inGuir) and social participation.
d. obedience to absolute et&ical !alues.
5. Accordin* to t&e neopra*matists. p&ilosop&ical pra*matism continues to &a!e an important role
toda) because o- its
a. opposition to idealist and realist !iews on metap&)sics.
b. ad!ocac) o- social re-orm and criticism o- certaint).
c. reluctance to press -or social c&an*e.
d. concern wit& promotin* traditional education.
34. Alt&ou*& #ewe) reAected supernaturalism. &e &eld t&at &uman e(perience could &a!e certain
reli*ious Gualities to it because
a. &umans cannot escape t&e reco*nition o- >od.
b. reli*ious ideals are rooted in &uman needs.
c. mankindFs ori*inal sin leads it back to >od.
d. &umans are naturall) inclined toward t&e supernatural.
33. For #ewe). t&e proper role o- t&e teac&er is to be a
a. taskmaster to keep students properl) on task.
b. rule maker and en-orcer o- sc&ool re*ulations.
c. mana*er w&o steers t&em t&rou*& batteries o- tests.
d. knowled*eable *uide and resource -or students.
C3-P,E$ *6 $EC0N#,$"C,0N#4 -N5 E5"C-,0N
21
HIS"OICA$ BAC+>OUN# OF @CONS"UC"IONIS%
'HI$OSO'HY OF @CONS"UC"IONIS%
@CONS"UC"IONIS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF @CONS"UC"IONIS% IN @#UCA"ION
Counts1 5are the #chools .uild a Ne& #ocial 0rder<
S&ane and S&ane1 Educating the 8oungest for ,o7orro&
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
HIS"OICA$ BAC+>OUN# OF @CONS"UC"IONIS%
econstructionist ideas &a!e been present t&rou*&out &istor). 'latoFs epublic s&ows reconstructionist
tendencies. as do t&e p&ilosop&ies o- %arcus Aurelius. Au*ustine. Saint=Simon. and %ar(. E&at ties t&eir
!iews to*et&er is central to reconstructionism1 education as an instrument -or radical social c&an*e.
'HI$OSO'HY OF @CONS"UC"IONIS%
econstructionists owe muc& to pra*matic p&ilosop&). but t&e) criticize pra*matism -or its lack o- radical
acti!ism to sol!e t&e pressin* problems o- t&e times. #ewe) belie!ed t&at sc&ool and societ) must act
cooperati!el). but reconstructionists ar*ue t&at our immediate needs are so *reat t&at education must take a
leaders&ip role in correctin* social ills.
"&us. reconstructionists want to implement immediate solutions to social problems. @arl) ad!ocates suc&
as Counts and Brameld ar*ued t&at educators s&ould seek a *reater power base and an acti!e social and
political role -or education. "&e) ar*ue t&at educators must be more a**ressi!e in ac&ie!in* and usin*
power. t&at t&e) must !iew education as more t&an sc&oolin* alone. and t&at educators s&ould e!en seek
political o--ice to ac&ie!e t&ese ends.
econstructionists are international in t&eir outlook. "&e) belie!e t&at we must take a *lobal perspecti!e
wit& problems suc& as pollution. o!erpopulation. and &un*er. "eac&ers must en*a*e students in suc&
issues and &elp t&em stud) wa)s to combat t&ese problems. Brameld su**ested t&at to be e--ecti!e. muc&
o- t&e studentFs education s&ould occur outside t&e classroom and in t&e wider societ). "o--ler. w&o coined
t&e term I-uture s&ock.I maintained t&at a stud) o- t&e -uture s&ould also be a !ital part o- t&e curriculum at
e!er) le!el o- sc&oolin*. and t&at t&e &ome is increasin*l) becomin* a sc&ool o- its own as an Ielectronic
cotta*e.I
@CONS"UC"IONIS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
A maAor c&aracteristic o- reconstructionism as a p&ilosop&) o- education is its !iew t&at modern societ) is
-acin* a crisis o- sur!i!al. and t&at t&e sc&ool occupies a strate*ic position as a -oundation -or action.
econstructionists see t&e primar) stru**le between t&ose w&o want to preser!e societ) as it is. and t&ose
w&o want maAor c&an*es to make societ) more responsi!e to indi!idual and social needs.
Some critics ar*ue t&at educators s&ould not ad!ocate social c&an*e and sc&ools s&ould be neutral
because education loses obAecti!it) w&en enlisted in partisan acti!it). econstructionists counter t&at to
en*a*e in educational re-orm e--ecti!el). one must become bot& educator and social acti!ist. as e(empli-ied
b) Freire and Illic&. Ee must reco*nize t&at educational c&an*e ma) necessitate maAor c&an*es in t&e
structure o- societ) itsel-.

"&e reconstructionist perspecti!e o- impendin* social crisis reGuires educators w&o are willin* to e(plore
new possibilities t&rou*& action and w&o are able to en!ision alternati!es -or a better world. It demands t&at
sc&ools be -reed -rom sti-lin* traditions in order to c&an*e societ) t&rou*& indi!idual and collecti!e e--ort.
"oda)Fs sc&ools promote too muc& competition. and t&is tends to isolate and separate people.
econstructionists t&ink we s&ould not separate sc&ools -rom societ). or indi!iduals -rom eac& ot&er. Ee
s&ould seek unit) rat&er t&an -ra*mentation. and t&ree ideals t&at reconstructionists want to implement in
22
sc&ool and societ) are world communit). brot&er&ood. and democrac). Sc&ools s&ould -oster t&ese ideals.
and w&ile sc&ools cannot be e(pected to reconstruct societ) b) t&emsel!es. t&e) can ser!e as models -or
t&e rest o- societ).

CI"IBU@ OF @CONS"UC"IONIS% IN @#UCA"ION
econstructionists are optimistic about -indin* solutions to pressin* problems. and t&e) are utopian in t&eir
!ision o- t&e *ood societ) and t&e prospects -or better &uman cooperation. "&e) &a!e a -uturistic
perspecti!e t&at promotes a mentalit) o- I"&ink *loball). act locall).I
Critics attack reconstructionism -or lackin* pra*matismFs caution and c&ar*e t&at t&e call -or immediate
action on di--icult social problems onl) re!eals super-icialit). In t&eir stron* desire -or c&an*e.
reconstructionists make precipitous recommendations -or re-orm wit& little or no direct e--ect. One can point
to t&e actual e--ects pra*matism &ad on sc&ools. but it is di--icult to discern an) maAor impact -rom
reconstructionism. 'er&aps t&is occurs because pra*matismFs recommendations are less radical. but it ma)
also be due to t&e *reater -easibilit) o- pra*matismFs proposals. econstructionismFs lack o- impact ma)
result because t&eir recommendations are not popular wit& t&e public or wit& most educators.

Critics also c&ar*e t&at reconstructionist !iews are Guite di--erent -rom #ewe)Fs conception o- democratic
cooperation and t&e s)mbiotic relation between sc&ool and societ). #espite t&ese drawbacks. t&e
reconstructionist call -or action still remains as an a!ailable antidote to t&e eas) !irtues o- materialism.
traditional culture. and adAustment to t&e status +uo.
'OJ@C"S
3. Form a small *roup to !isit /or in!ite a representati!e -rom0 a local social ser!ice a*enc) to *at&er
in-ormation on t&e kinds o- social problems addressed b) t&at a*enc). #etermine &ow t&e)
address social problems and &ow e--ecti!e t&is is in meetin* societal needs. InGuire about more
e--ecti!e wa)s o- addressin* suc& problems.
<. Cisit or obtain material -rom t&e United Nations as to its role in world a--airs /-or e(ample.
UN@SCO. t&e educational arm o- t&e UN0. @!aluate t&e e--ecti!eness o- t&eir approac&es and
consider alternati!es.
;. Join a !olunteer acti!it) in )our communit) /suc& as en!ironmental clean=up. raisin* mone) -or a
c&arit). tutorin* t&e elderl). etc.0. @!aluate )our acti!ities in relation to reconstructionist ideals. and
assess t&e !alue o- !olunteer acti!it) in dealin* wit& pressin* social problems.
:. "ake part in a political campai*n o- a candidate o- )our c&oice /suc& as in distributin* literature.
obtainin* si*natures on petitions. telep&one solicitations. etc.0. @!aluate t&e educational
e--ecti!eness o- suc& political acti!ities..
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
"eschooling -ociety
t&e I"&ird Ea!eI
Pedagogy of the Oppressed
t&e II!an Illic& problemI
t&e Iw&eelI curriculum
S@
utopian !. piecemeal en*ineerin*
*he -a!er&*ooth Curriculum
Nelectronic cotta*esO
Center D
Nc&aos t&eor)O
"are the -chools %uild a ew -ocial Order1
*he 2imits of 'rowth
3. E&) did >eor*e Counts criticize pro*ressi!ismK CritiGue CountsF !iews b) identi-)in* and
23
anal)zin* a maAor stren*t& and a maAor weakness o- t&e reconstructionist point o- !iew.
<. E&at role does utopianism pla) in reconstructionist p&ilosop&)K Erite an essa) in w&ic& )ou
assess a maAor ad!anta*e and a maAor disad!anta*e o- t&is approac& -or education at t&e present
time.
;. Accordin* to reconstructionists. w&at kind o- person would make t&e best teac&erK How does t&is
!iew re-lect maAor ideas wit&in reconstructionist p&ilosop&)K Assess t&e e--ecti!eness o- teac&ers
as social acti!ists.
:. E&at are at least two practical actions teac&ers can take to brin* about t&e c&an*es t&at
reconstructionists deem so necessar)K #o )ou a*ree wit& t&e need -or suc& met&odsK E&) or
w&) notK
9. Erite an essa) in w&ic& )ou identi-) w&at )ou belie!e to be t&e most important curriculum
recommendation o- t&e reconstructionists. "ake a position as to w&et&er t&is is a desirable
departure and de-end it.
8. IC&aosI t&eorists see t&e world in terms o- !italit). turbulence. and !olatilit). E&at do t&e) mean
b) t&is and w&at p&ilosop&ical basis does it rest uponK How does t&is impact education.
particularl) re*ardin* standardized tests. t&e Ibell cur!e.I and predictabilit) in educationK
7. #o )ou belie!e t&at educators s&ould take NneutralO positions in t&eir classrooms. or do t&e) &a!e
an obli*ation to speak out about w&at t&e) percei!e as social illsK Are t&ere an) NneutralO
positionsK
3. econstructionists pre-er a teac&er w&o is oriented toward
a. t&e status +uo.
b. reli*ious perspecti!es.
c. social c&an*e.
d. economic interests.
<. Select a response t&at most accuratel) re-lects t&e reconstructionist outlook1 Ieconstructionists
see t&e present as a time o-
a. no opportunit).
b. stron* communit).
c. cultural crisis.
d. social stabilit).
;. >eor*e CountsF "are the -chools %uild a ew -ocial Order1 was written as a criticism o-
a. timid pro*ressi!ism.
b. New #eal re-ormers.
c. economic e(pansion.
d. international c&an*e.
:. "&e most accurate description o- a political moti- -or t&e reconstructionist would be
a. reactionar).
b. conser!ati!e.
c. liberal.
d. radical.
9. I!an Illic& ur*ed t&at t&e best solution to our present educational circumstances s&ould be w&ic& o-
t&e -ollowin*K
a. pro*ressi!e impro!ement.
b. desc&oolin* societ).
24
c. traditional curriculum.
d. ma*net sc&ools.
8. In terms o- curriculum. reconstructionists -a!or one t&at is oriented toward
a. local issues.
b. state a--airs.
c. *lobal concerns.
d. t&e status +uo.
7. "&eodore Brameld. a leadin* reconstructionist. belie!ed t&at t&e best educational *oals were bot&

a. utopian and practical.
b. radical and libertarian.
c. reactionar) and !isionar).
d. practical and utilitarian.
6. econstructionists c&allen*e t&e !iew t&at sc&ools are
a. neutral.
b. traditional.
c. reli*ious.
d. unsound.
5. One o- t&in*s t&at reconstructionists did not like about pro*ressi!ism was its
a. support o- a middle=class a*enda.
b. c&allen*e to t&e status +uo.
c. orientation to t&e poor.
d. bold social re-orms.
34. Counts belie!ed t&at teac&ers need to t&row o-- t&eir
a. need to teac& basics.
b. political roles..
c. sla!e ps)c&olo*).
d. use o- tec&nolo*).
25
C3-P,E$ =6 .E3->0$#4 -N5 E5"C-,0N
'HI$OSO'HICA$ BAS@S OF B@HACIOIS%
'HI$OSO'HICA$ AS'@C"S OF B@HACIOIS%
B@HACIOIS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF B@HACIOIS% IN @#UCA"ION
Hobbes1 ,he /e%iathan
Skinner1 .eyond Freedo7 and 5ignity
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
'HI$OSO'HICA$ BAS@S OF B@HACIOIS%
Be&a!iorism is not a s)stematic p&ilosop&) like idealism or realism. and it is usuall) classi-ied as a
ps)c&olo*ical t&eor). Howe!er. be&a!iorism raises some serious p&ilosop&ical Guestions in its !iews on
-reedom and &uman di*nit). and it &as its roots in se!eral p&ilosop&ical traditions. Be&a!iorism is related to
realism. particularl) t&e realist t&esis o- independent realit). because t&e be&a!iorist maintains t&at be&a!ior
is caused b) e(ternal en!ironmental conditions. Be&a!iorism also is indebted to t&e materialist p&ilosop&)
o- Hobbes. w&o &eld t&at realit) is primaril) matter and motion. and t&at all be&a!ioral p&enomena are
capable o- bein* e(plained in t&ose terms.
'HI$OSO'HICA$ AS'@C"S OF B@HACIOIS%
Be&a!iorism -ollows realismFs ad!ocac) o- t&e stud) o- particulars and belie!es t&at a better knowled*e o-
be&a!ior is disco!ered b) t&e scienti-ic stud) o- particular be&a!ioral patterns. "&is approac& starts wit&
particular. obser!able -acts /particular be&a!iors0 and proceeds to t&e I-ormsI or laws o- be&a!ior.
$ike t&e positi!ists and lin*uistic anal)sts. be&a!iorists seek a lan*ua*e -ramework t&at t&e) belie!e more
accuratel) re-lects t&e -acts o- be&a!ior. at&er t&an usin* t&e word Isel-I to si*ni-) t&e c&aracteristics o- an
indi!idual. t&e be&a!iorists speak o- IconditionedI and Irein-orced be&a!ior.I As be&a!iorists see it. w&at
t&e) stud) are obser!able be&a!iors and en!ironmental conditions. and t&e) describe t&em in obAecti!e
scienti-ic terms.
Skinner o-ten debunked p&ilosop&ical approac&es to ps)c&olo*) because t&e) !iew &uman bein*s -rom t&e
perspecti!e o- introspection and a priori *eneralizations about -reedom and di*nit). He claimed to base &is
conclusions about be&a!ior on scienti-ic obser!ation and e(perimentH &owe!er. &e -ound it necessar) to
consider p&ilosop&ical ideas about &uman nature and t&e *ood societ). Skinner maintained t&at less
p&ilosop&ical speculation and more IrealisticI obser!ation o- be&a!ior is necessar). but &e still posed t&e
Guestion. IE&at is manKI
In %eyond Freedom and "ignity. Skinner attacked traditional !iews o- &umanit) t&at imputed internal dri!es.
-orces. or ot&erwise m)sterious actions to t&e Iautonomous person.I Forces suc& as a**ression. industr).
attention. knowin*. and percei!in* could be better understood in be&a!ioral terms. Accordin* to Skinner.
t&e contin*encies o- rein-orcement better e(plain t&ese t&in*s t&an some assumed internal or *enetic -orce
wit&in us.
Critics suc& as Carl o*ers insist t&at t&ere is an Iinner realmI t&at t&e be&a!iorist i*nores. SkinnerFs repl)
is t&at w&at is bein* abolis&ed is t&e concept o- t&e inner man de-ended b) t&e literature o- -reedom and
di*nit). E&at is le-t is t&e real. obser!able &uman or*anism t&at is biolo*ical and animal. Skinner
maintained t&at &umans are not mac&ines. but t&e) are mac&ine=like because t&e) are comple( or*anisms
t&at be&a!e in law-ul. obser!able wa)s.
Skinner reco*nized t&e importance o- t&e social en!ironment and culture. Be&a!ior carries t&e ideas and
!alues o- a culture. and it trans-orms. alters. and c&an*es a culture. Ee need a controlled cultural
en!ironment to make us more sensiti!e to t&e conseGuences o- our be&a!ior. In 3alden *wo. Skinner
outlined a -ictional utopia w&ere lar*e=scale conditionin* is used -or social purposes. For Skinner. we are
26
t&e controllers o- be&a!ior but. in turn. can be controlled b) it.
B@HACIOIS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION

%an) people disappro!e o- be&a!ioral en*ineerin*. but it is -reGuentl) used in education and be&a!iorists
point out t&at c&ildren are alread) conditioned be-ore comin* to sc&ool. Skinner wanted to replace t&e
&ap&azard conditionin* most people recei!e wit& somet&in* t&at is s)stematic and meanin*-ul. One point o-
contention between Skinner and &is critics is t&at t&e critics see education and conditionin* as two di--erent
t&in*s. For t&e critics. education represents a -ree mind bein* e(posed to ideas. w&ile conditionin* is t&e
impression o- ideas on t&e mind wit&out critical consent. For Skinner. t&ere is no meanin*-ul distinction to
be made between education and conditionin*.
"&e primar) aim o- be&a!iorist education is to c&an*e be&a!ior in more desirable directions. "&e Guestion
is. w&o decides w&at c&an*es and w&at directionK For Skinner. we are alread) controlled b) *enetics.
parental upbrin*in*. sc&oolin*. peer in-luence. media. reli*ion. and societ). He ar*ued t&at -ear o- control is
not Austi-iedH we ma) -eel -ree and uncontrolled. but we are alwa)s controlled b) somet&in* e!en i- we are
not aware o- it. "&us. Skinner reAected t&e notion o- innate -reedom.
Skinner c&ar*ed t&at muc& o- w&at passes -or education is not *ood education because it does not properl)
moti!ate students or pro!ide positi!e rein-orcement. E&ile some be&a!iorists use a!ersi!e rein-orcement.
Skinner pre-erred positi!e rein-orcement and belie!ed it &ad important implications -or modern education
and societ).
CI"IBU@ OF B@HACIOIS% IN @#UCA"ION

Some educators are zealous supporters o- be&a!ioral tec&niGues in sc&ools and classrooms. In special
education. man) teac&ers -ind be&a!ioral tec&niGues to be particularl) use-ul in controllin* and directin*
c&ildren wit& motor and mental &andicaps. Be&a!iorism is especiall) popular w&en its tec&niGues work and
so man) ot&er approac&es -ail. Furt&ermore. man) be&a!iorists a!oid a!ersi!e met&ods. and t&is appeals to
man) modern educators. C&ildren seem to respond well w&en a met&od pro!ides incenti!es and rewards
-or t&eir ac&ie!ements. Be&a!iorists promote pro*rammed learnin* t&rou*& teac&in* mac&ines and
computers. and t&is is popular wit& some teac&ers and students w&o see it as an e--ecti!e wa) to de!elop
skills and impart knowled*e.
Howe!er. important Guestions ma) be raised about be&a!iorismFs applicabilit) to &uman societ) w&ere so
man) !ariables and unknowns e(ist. Under laborator) conditions. it is possible to maintain ri*orous control.
but control is e(tremel) di--icult in t&e e(periential world. Be&a!iorism ma) work. but its re-usal to admit to
innate &uman capacities does not mean t&ese capacities are ima*inar). "o sa) t&at t&e indi!idual &as no
inner -reedom and di*nit) does not destro) suc& inner -reedom and di*nit) i- in -act t&e) do e(ist.
A maAor weakness o- be&a!iorism concerns t&eir social polic) recommendations. Skinner ad!ocated a
*roup o- planners and controllers -or t&e res&apin* o- t&e indi!idual and societ). but &istor) is replete wit&
t&e &arm caused b) people w&o t&ou*&t t&e) could lead societ) in t&e proper direction. "&e Guestion is.
IE&o controls t&e controllersKI Skinner maintained t&at t&e controlled e(ert in-luence o!er t&e controllers.
but t&is is a weak ar*ument because t&e initiati!e is loaded in -a!or o- t&e controllers w&o &a!e social.
political. and economic power concentrated in t&eir &ands.
'OJ@C"S
3. Cisit a local sc&ool and identi-) t&e !arious met&ods o- conditionin* bein* used. "&rou*&
classroom obser!ation. inter!iews wit& sta--. and e(amination o- sc&ool aims and curriculum.
assess t&e e--ecti!eness o- suc& be&a!ioral tec&niGues. Consider t&e lon*=term e--ects o-
be&a!iorism on t&e students.
<. ead 3alden *wo and de!elop a dramatic skit in w&ic& students role=pla) t&e c&aracters -ound in
t&e book. @!aluate w&at li-e must be like on a dail) basis in suc& an ideal world.
;. Obser!e a conditionin* e(periment b) watc&in* an animal trainer /or a laborator) e(periment. etc.0.
Consider t&e positi!e and ne*ati!e -eatures o- t&is approac&. and assess its implications as a
*eneral educational met&od.
27
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
Iealit) is primaril) matter and motionI
Fat&er o- conditionin* t&eor)
'ositi!ism
%eyond Freedom and "ignity
IAutonomous manI
Contin*encies o- rein-orcement
A!ersi!e rein-orcement
"oken econom)
Jo&n B. Eatson
3alden *wo
positive period /Comte0
3. Erite an essa) in w&ic& )ou describe and e!aluate be&a!iorism in terms /a0 its claims to scienti-ic
status. /b0 its treatment o- t&e p&ilosop&ical issue o- -reedom. or /c0 its !iew on social control.
S&ow &ow t&e issue )ou select in-luences be&a!iorismFs approac& to education. and e!aluate t&e
suitabilit) o- t&is approac& -or education.
<. #escribe two o- t&e leadin* p&ilosop&ical underpinnin*s o- be&a!iorism. @!aluate &ow t&ese
underpinnin*s a--ect be&a!ioristic education. and de-end )our position wit& e!idence and
ar*ument.
;. E&) does Skinner belie!e t&at t&e notion o- &uman -reedom can be a detrimental in-luenceK How
does &e Austi-) &is oppositionK CritiGue &is ar*ument and pro!ide a Austi-ication -or )our response.
:. #o )ou t&ink a societ) like 3alden *wo is capable o- bein* realizedK Is t&is a *ood or bad t&in*K
9. How do be&a!iorists pro!ide a de-ense a*ainst t&e ar*ument t&at t&e controllers o- &uman be&a!ior
ma) become too power-ul and condition people toward ad!erse aimsK "ake a position on w&et&er
t&is de-ense is adeGuate and Austi-) )our position.
8. #escribe at least two wa)s t&at be&a!ioristic !alues &a!e been incorporated into toda)Fs teac&in*.
'ro!ide an interpretation as to w&et&er t&ese de!elopments are educationall) sound. and back
)our ar*ument.
7. Constructi!ism &as risen in opposition to be&a!iorism. E&)K E&at are t&e underl)in* tenets o-
constructi!ism t&at make it di--erent -rom be&a!iorism and &ow are t&ese di--erences re-lected in
t&e educational processK CritiGue constructi!ismFs idea o- t&e learner constructin* &is or &er own
!ersion o- realit). How does t&is compare wit& t&e be&a!iorist !iew o- t&e studentFs role in
educationK
3. Skinner belie!ed t&at conditionin*. to be trul) e--ecti!e in sol!in* social problems. s&ould be used
on a ,,,,,,,,, basis.
a. *lobal
b. special
c. local
d. subAecti!e
<. Be&a!iorists . like Skinner. promote t&e use o- tec&nolo*) in education. particularl) w&ere it is
based on
a. indi!idual selection.
b. pro*rammed learnin* and rein-orcement.
c. punis&ment and conditionin*.
d. inner -reedom o- c&oice.
28
;. Skinner criticized traditional education -or its
a. lack o- immediate rein-orcement in learnin*.
b. poorl) moti!ated polic) makers.
c. inadeGuate and underpaid teac&ers.
d. swollen administrati!e bureaucrac).
:. "&e impact o- lo*ical positi!ism on be&a!iorism resides in its insistence t&at conditions s&ould be
described in
a. wa)s t&at rein-orce democratic belie-s.
b. terms t&at maintain social balance.
c. scienti-ic. lo*ical. and obAecti!e terms.
d. accord wit& absolute metap&)sical !iews.
9. Critics suc& as Carl o*ers -ind -ault wit& be&a!iorism -or its lack o- concern -or
a. outside in-luences.
b. t&e inner realm.
c. emotional instabilit).
d. scienti-ic met&odolo*).
8. A stron* connection wit& "&omas HobbesF t&eor) o- matter and motion can be -ound in
be&a!iorismFs !iew o-
a. conditionin* and rein-orced a!ersi!e be&a!ior.
b. t&e mind as intellect and t&e bod) as -orm.
c. mind o!er matter.
d. t&e bod) as matter and be&a!ior as motion.
7. Si*mund Freud claimed t&at conditionin* was an unconscious inner t&in*. but I!an 'a!lo! ar*ued
t&at it was
a. based on controllable e(ternal conditions.
b. a mentalistic and subAecti!e realit).
c. not inner but e(ternal spiritualit).
d. t&e conscious results o- c&ild&ood trainin*.
6. In SkinnerFs !iew o- utopia. t&e *ood li-e is to be de!eloped t&rou*&
a. cooperati!e en*a*ement in libertarian communities.
b. democratic procedures promotin* indi!idual c&oice.
c. e(tensi!e be&a!ioral control o- &uman li-e.
d. unin&ibited -reedom o- c&oice.
5. Skinner belie!ed t&at -ree will
a. is a moral necessit).
b. in-luences be&a!ior.
c. o!errides sel-=control.
d. is an illusion
34. In 3alden *wo. Skinner describes a utopian societ) or*anized around
a. social and ps)c&olo*ical control.
b. political and economic radicalism.
c. -reedom o- t&ou*&t and action.
d. remo!al o- people -rom social control.
29
C3-P,E$ (6 E?#,EN,-/#4 -N5 E5"C-,0N
@DIS"@N"IA$IS" 'HI$OSO'H@S AN# "H@I "HOU>H"
'H@NO%@NO$O>ICA$ 'HI$OSO'H@S AN# "H@I "HOU>H"
@DIS"@N"IA$IS% IN %O#@N $IF@
@DIS"@N"IA$IS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF @DIS"@N"IA$IS% IN @#UCA"ION
Sartre1 E@istentialis7 and 3u7anis7
>reene1 /andscapes of /earning
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
"raditional p&ilosop&) considers t&e nature o- knowled*e. trut&. and meanin*. w&ile e(istentialist
p&enomenolo*) is more concerned wit& &ow t&ese t&in*s are educationall) si*ni-icant wit&in t&e li!ed
e(perience o- indi!iduals.
@DIS"@N"IA$IS" 'HI$OSO'H@S AN# "H@I "HOU>H"
@(istentialism is concerned wit& t&e indi!idual cau*&t up in a meanin*less and absurd world. Nietzsc&e
e(plored t&e indi!idual transcendin* con!entional social !alues. and +ierke*aard sou*&t indi!idual trut& in a
subAecti!e Ileap o- -ait&.I Buber e(amined t&e need -or mutual respect and di*nit) amon* all &uman
indi!idualsH Heide**er in!esti*ated indi!idual e(istenceH and Sartre studied &ow &uman consciousness
constructs meanin* and transcends obAecti!e e(istence.
Critics point out t&at e(istentialism lacks an adeGuate social base to treat institutions suc& as t&e sc&ool. and
t&is -actor &as &ampered t&e application o- e(istentialist t&ou*&t to t&e problems o- education. Howe!er.
e!en Sartre /per&aps t&e most indi!idualistic o- all0 came to a*ree t&at indi!iduals mi*&t -ind !alue in
participatin* in t&e social and political process as lon* as t&e indi!idual de-ines t&at participation.
@DIS"@N"IA$IS% IN %O#@N $IF@
Indi!idual c&oice. action. and commitment in t&e -ace o- modern an(iet) &as been treated e(tensi!el) b)
e(istentialists. and t&eir work &as in-luenced se!eral disciplines. In ps)c&olo*). o*ers belie!ed t&at
teac&ers s&ould work -or sel-=directed c&an*e b) t&e learner. and %aslow t&ou*&t education s&ould &elp
learners become Isel- actualized.I autonomous. and creati!e. Bot& Nietzsc&eFs belie- t&at >od is dead and
+ierke*aardFs conclusions about reli*ious doubt &a!e &ad an impact upon t&eolo*ical belie-. and
e(istentialism in *eneral &as in-luenced man) modern p&ilosop&ies and t&eories o- education.
'H@NO%@NO$O>ICA$ 'HI$OSO'H@S AN# "H@I "HOU>H"
Husserl attempted to de!elop a science o- &uman consciousness or preconceptual awareness. and
Heide**er in!esti*ated indi!idual e(istence and produced &ermeneutical interpretations o- indi!idual &istor).
Sartre studied t&e radical dic&otom) between consciousness and t&e world. and %erleau='ont) e(amined
&ow &uman mind or consciousness percei!ed t&e obAecti!e world. "&e) eac& &elped in t&e de!elopment o-
p&enomenolo*) /w&ic& e(amines t&e obAects o- consciousness0. and &ermeneutics /w&ic& interprets t&e
meanin* o- conscious e(perience o!er a period o- time0. '&enomenolo*) ma) also be described as a
description o- t&e p&enomena o- consciousness as indirectl) re!ealed t&rou*& lan*ua*e. and &ermeneutics
as an interpretation o- &ow t&e compre&ension o- lan*ua*e relates to t&e compre&ension o- sel-. For
>adamer. &ermeneutics is concerned wit& t&e internal process o- usin* lan*ua*e and de!elopin* a rational
understandin* o- oursel!es and t&e world. icoeur maintains t&at it is t&rou*& lan*ua*e t&at people brin*
into t&e open w&ate!er understandin* t&e) &a!e o- t&emsel!es.
@DIS"@N"IA$IS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
@(istentialists belie!e t&at a *ood education is one t&at emp&asizes indi!idualit). "&e -irst step. t&en. is to
30
understand oursel!es. and t&is includes t&e rational and irrational aspects o- indi!idual li-e. For e(ample.
education s&ould &elp us understand an(iet) and t&e tensions o- e(istence. It s&ould also &elp us -ace
con-lict and e(amine our belie-s and actions.
@(istentialism and p&enomenolo*) put t&e emp&asis on &uman possibilit) in education. because eac& new
e(perience sets t&e sta*e -or -uture possibilities. A maAor task is to &elp eac& learner construct an
appropriate li-e world t&rou*& t&ou*&t-ul action. or pra4is. "&e aim is -or learners to become attenti!e.
percepti!e. and Nwide awake Nto &uman possibilities.
@(istentialists want sc&ools and ot&er institutions to be places w&ere students de!elop indi!idual -reedom.
Indi!idual di--erences are si*ni-icant. and educational institutions s&ould not promote con-ormit) and
obedience. @(istentialists and p&enomenolo*ists seek to &elp students internalize t&e world and make it
t&eir own. "&e teac&erFs role is to be an enabler. one w&o &elps t&e student appropriate and make o!er
li-eFs meanin*s.
In terms o- curriculum. t&e &umanities are important to e(istentialists because t&ese studies deal wit&
relations between people. includin* relations t&at are tra*ic as well as &app). absurd as well as meanin*-ul.
"&e curriculum s&ould be seen -rom t&e standpoint o- t&e learner. and t&e !arious subAects s&ould be
presented as opportunities -or indi!idual Isense makin*.I
CI"IBU@ OF @DIS"@N"IA$IS% IN @#UCA"ION
@(istentialism and p&enomenolo*) &a!e been &ailed as antidotes w&ere education &as become dominated
b) con-ormit) and a bureaucratic mentalit). "&e) belie!e t&at we must ree(amine our culture -or rampant
materialism and anti=intellectualism. and t&eir de!astatin* e--ects on indi!iduals. 'robabl) no ot&er modern
p&ilosop&) t&ou*&t de!otes so muc& concern -or t&e indi!idual in political. social. and economic li-e.
In education. e(ponents o- e(istentialism and p&enomenolo*) condemn t&e kind o- education t&at sti-les
personal initiati!e. but critics c&ar*e t&at t&eir t&ou*&t ma) promote a sel-=centered e*oism and disre*ard -or
ot&ers. Critics also note a tendenc) toward di--icult terminolo*) and comple( anal)sis. but ad!ocates repl)
t&at t&eir t&eor) is comple( because t&e &uman condition itsel- is comple(. @(istentialists and
p&enomenolo*ists ar*ue t&at indi!iduals can learn in traditional wa)s. but must also seek *reater &uman
possibilities and new wa)s o- learnin*.
'OJ@C"S
3. In!ite a social worker to class to discuss t&e problems people -ace w&o are below t&e po!ert) line.
Consider t&e possible causes o- po!ert) and assess t&eir impact on indi!iduals and t&eir !iews o-
sel-=wort&. #iscuss &ow poor social conditions contribute to alienation. &ow alienation contributes
to indi!idual &opelessness. and w&at impact education ma) &a!e on t&ese conditions.
<. ead CamusF *he -tranger and identi-) t&e e(istential ideas portra)ed in t&is no!el. How does t&e
pli*&t o- t&e central c&aracter re-lect t&e li!es o- indi!iduals at t&e present timeK Consider &ow
students toda) are cau*&t in t&ese e(istential dilemmas.
;. As a *roup. attend /or read0 a pla) o- t&e *enre called t&e "&eatre o- t&e Absurd. How do t&ese
pla)s di--er -rom popular t&eater. mo!ies. or tele!ision dramaK How does t&is *enre re-lect
e(istentialist ideas or t&emes. and w&at does it sa) about t&e &uman conditionK
I#@N"IFICA"IONS

*hus -pa,e 5arathustra
-ummerhill
t&e Ileap o- -ait&I
Pedagogy of the Oppressed
&ermeneutics
p&enomenolo*)
prere-lecti!e consciousness
an II="&ouI relations&ip
dread-ul -reedom
indi!idual responsibilit)
31
*he -econd -e4
3. E&at is &ermeneutics and w&at uses does it o--er -or educational t&eor) and practiceK How does it
&elp us clari-) indi!idual perceptionK How does it aid teac&in*K
<. In small discussion *roups. identi-) some o- t&e leadin* practices in contemporar) sc&ools to w&ic&
e(istentialists obAect. #iscuss &ow e(istentialist ideas contribute to possible solutions to
contemporar) problems in education. @!aluate t&e stren*t&s and weaknesses o- su**ested
solutions based on e(istentialist ideas.
;. #iscuss &ow educators ma) &elp to de!elop t&e Iaut&entic personI t&at e(istentialists e(tol. E&at
is an Iaut&entic personI and can aut&enticit) be de!eloped t&rou*& educationK Some p&ilosop&ers
t&ink t&at Socrates was a *ood e(ample o- aut&enticit). #o )ou a*ree or disa*reeK
:. %an) people -ind it di--icult to see &ow Sartre could consider &imsel- a %ar(ist and be an
e(istentialist. Is t&ere an) necessar) con-lict between t&e twoK Can an indi!idual li!e e--ecti!el)
apart -rom social relationsK E&at role does education pla) in indi!idual and social well bein*K
9. In e(istentialist education. t&e teac&er pla)s a crucial role. E&at intellectual c&aracteristics s&ould
a person &a!e to be a teac&er -rom t&e e(istentialist point o- !iewK Con!ersel). w&at s&ould an
e(istentialist teac&er a!oidK
8. E&) do )ou t&ink t&ere are C&ristian e(istentialists and &ow do t&eir ideas di--er -rom mainstream
C&ristian t&inkin*K
7. E&at do )ou t&ink o- t&e use o- pla)s and no!els to promote one2s p&ilosop&ical !iewsK
3. A central identi-)in* -eature o- e(istentialist t&ou*&t is t&e t&eme o- t&e indi!idual
a. cau*&t up in a meanin*less and absurd world.
b. -indin* meanin* in t&e adolescent )ears.
c. seekin* a place in t&e social order.
d. maintainin* obAecti!it) in social relations.
<. +ierke*aardFs p&ilosop&ical studies were mainl) concerned wit& indi!idual alienation -rom
a. an o!erbearin* peer *roup.
b. a sin-ul and unrepentant world o- non=belie!ers.
c. un-air competition in t&e economic order.
d. an obAecti!e and science=oriented world.
;. Buber promoted an II="&ouI !iew o- interpersonal relations&ipsH t&at is. one must reco*nize t&at
eac& and e!er) indi!idual &as
a. an inalienable ri*&t to sel-=e(pression.
b. an intense need to clari-) lan*ua*e concepts.
c. a commitment to &er own social well bein*.
d. t&e -reedom to reAect ot&ers.
:. Accordin* to Sartre. we are Icondemned to be -ree.I and t&is !iew o- -reedom also means t&at we
are
a. Austi-ied in alwa)s actin* in our own sel- interest.
b. totall) responsible -or our c&oices and actions.
c. unable to escape -rom our traditions and in&ibitions.
d. -ore!er condemned to -ollow traditional -reedom.
32
9. @ducational t&eorists suc& as Carl o*ers re-lect an e(istentialist outlook in t&eir belie- t&at
teac&ers s&ould
a. be -acilitators o- learnin*.
b. s&ow. *uide. and direct.
c. promote problem sol!in*.
d. be &umanistic taskmasters.
8. Hermeneutics is t&e p&ilosop&ical stud) o-
a. indi!idual be&a!ior in en!ironmental conditions.
b. obAecti!e bio*rap&ical data about ot&er people.
c. t&e interpretation and meanin* o- conscious e(perience.
d. &umanistic interpretations o- literature.
7. @(istentialists maintain t&at education s&ould place *reater emp&asis upon indi!idual &uman
realit). b) w&ic& t&e) mean
a. &elpin* subAecti!e indi!iduals become more obAecti!e.
b. preparin* students to -ace t&e demands o- t&e Aob market.
c. &elpin* indi!iduals understand scienti-ic obAecti!it).
d. e(plorin* t&e rational and irrational aspects o- e(istence.
6. C&ristian e(istentialists suc& as >abriel %arcel belie!e t&at an important aspect o- &uman
e(perience s&ould be
a. learnin* Aob skills in t&e econom).
b. t&e presence o- -ellow &uman bein*s.
c. t&e demands o- t&e *roup.
d. le*itimate needs -or adult appro!al.
5. %a(ine >reeneFs !iew t&at educators s&ould promote Iwide=awakenessI amon* students re-lects
t&e e(istentialist belie- t&at a proper education s&ould make us aware o-
a. -uture possibilities.
b. irrational be&a!ior.
c. e(tensi!e determinism.
d. power-ul &ierarc&ies.
34. From t&e p&enomenolo*ical standpoint. education s&ould &elp students de!elop a rational
understandin* o-
a. an encompassin* sense o- obAecti!it) t&at e(plains our li!ed e(perience.
b. w&at t&e world will impose -rom t&e outside onto impressionable students.
c. t&e demands imposed b) ot&ers in a competiti!e social en!ironment.
d. t&e primar) world o- consciousness t&at eac& o- us brin*s to learnin* situations.
33
C3-P,E$ 86 4-$?#4 -N5 E5"C-,0N
OI>INS OF %ADIS%
"H@ 'HI$OSO'HY OF +A$ %AD
E@S"@N %ADIS% AN# "H@ OI>INS OF NCI"ICA$ "H@OYO
%ADIS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF %ADIS% IN @#UCA"ION
%ar(1 0n Education
%akarenko1 /ectures on Child Education6 1eneral 1uidelines for Child Care in the Fa7ily
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
OI>INS OF %ADIS%
A distin*uis&in* -eature o- %ar(ism is t&e importance o- materialism. w&ic& %ar( belie!ed s&ould *uide
&uman societ). He &eld t&at science could trans-orm &uman circumstances. t&at knowled*e is based on
sensor) e(perience. and t&at social pro*ress ma) be ac&ie!ed b) c&an*es in t&e material world.
Socialism pro!ided %ar(ism wit& t&e belie- t&at &uman pro*ress could occur t&rou*& -undamental c&an*es
in social and en!ironmental conditions. %ar( adopted t&e need -or social cooperation and belie!ed t&at
capitalism lacked social responsibilit) because it was sel-is&l) absorbed in t&e accumulation o- wealt&.
"H@ 'HI$OSO'HY OF +A$ %AD
As a p&ilosop&er. %ar( borrowed two maAor ideas -rom He*el1 t&e concept o- alienation and t&e process o-
t&e dialectic. A second maAor p&ilosop&ical in-luence was Feuerbac&Fs !iew t&at &istor) is determined b)
&uman t&ou*&t and action in a world o- material conditions. %ar( took t&is to mean t&at &uman t&ou*&t and
action to*et&er /pra4is0 could re!olutionize t&e course o- &istor).
In &is earl) )ears. %ar( wrote wit& &umanistic tendencies. but a-ter &is collaboration wit& Friedric& @n*els.
&e became a se!ere critic o- Ibour*eoisI capitalism and ad!ocated social re!olution. %ar(Fs I*uidin* t&readI
was &ow people produce necessities and create institutions t&at enmes& t&eir conscious wills. He belie!ed
t&at w&en t&e -orces o- production and t&e superstructure o- social institutions came into se!ere con-lict.
rapid social c&an*e would occur. %ar( t&ou*&t t&at workers &ad become alienated -rom t&eir &umanit). and
t&at t&e capitalist s)stem o- pri!ate propert) was t&e cause.
%ar( called &is !iew It&e materialist interpretation o- &istor)I in w&ic& &istor) could be traced t&rou*& t&e
di!isions o- labor o!er time. "&e latest epoc& was t&e class con-lict between bour*eois capitalists /t&e
I&a!esI0 and proletarian workers /t&e I&a!e=notsI0. He belie!ed t&at workers could rise and o!ert&row
capitalism i- t&e) de!eloped a stron* sense o- class identit) and solidarit).
@n*els &elped popularize %ar(Fs t&ou*&t and called it Idialectical materialism.I t&e !iew t&at &istor) is
determined b) a dialectical process based on material conditions. $enin adopted dialectical materialism and
&eld t&at t&e state would Iwit&er awa)I a-ter !iolent re!olution and t&e establis&ment o- t&e dictators&ip o-
t&e proletariat. "&is !iew o- %ar(ism *ained in-luence in t&e @ast. especiall) in t&e -ormer So!iet Union and
in C&ina.
E@S"@N %ADIS% AN# "H@ OI>INS OF ICI"ICA$ "H@OYI
Alt&ou*& %ar( rele*ated p&ilosop&) to It&e dustbin o- &istor).I Eestern or neo=%ar(ists belie!ed p&ilosop&)
&ad a continuin* role to pla). "&e term Icritical t&eor)I de-ines t&e work o- t&e Frank-urt Sc&ool. w&ic&
studied c&an*e in t&e Eest -rom old=st)le entrepreneurial capitalism to corporate capitalism. "&e) criticized
Imass culture.I t&e Itec&nocratic consciousness.I t&e Iadministered societ).I and t&e Ione dimensional
man.I "&e) &eld t&at &istorical e!olution comes not onl) -rom material modes o- production but -rom t&e
cultural processes societies use to maintain t&emsel!es.
34
%ADIS% AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
%ar( did not write e(tensi!el) about education. but educational ideas wit&in &is *eneral t&eor) &a!e *reatl)
in-luenced education. Under %ar(ism=$eninism. education was supposed to mold a socialist
consciousness. a socialist societ). and a communist moralit). I- bour*eois indoctrination was banis&ed.
&owe!er. socialist indoctrination was not. and was decried b) man) critics.
%ar(Fs ideal was to put indi!iduals in control o- t&eir own labor and enable t&e workin* class to c&an*e its
conditions. He opposed paternalistic education desi*ned to produce docile workers. I- people are t&e
product o- circumstances and education. t&en &uman action is necessar) to c&an*e socio=economic
circumstancesH &ence. educational processes must be understood as purpose-ul &uman acti!it). or pra4is.
Eestern %ar(ists promote a !iew o- education -or liberation w&ere t&e learner is an acti!e rat&er t&an a
passi!e participant. "&e) are a*ainst t&e kind o- mec&anical determinism c&ampioned b) %ar(ism=
$eninism. but t&e) still criticize Eestern sc&ools -or producin* docile workers b) reproducin* t&e conditions
o- t&e workplace in t&e sc&ools. "&e) ar*ue t&at suc& sc&oolin* c&an*es people rat&er t&an t&e economic
s)stemH t&at t&e present s)stem produces compliant workers and citizens.
%ar( -a!ored compulsor) education. but not a curriculum based on class distinctions. He ad!ocated local
communit) control to a!oid bour*eois state control and indoctrination. He also -a!ored tec&nical and
industrial education. but not narrow !ocationalism. %ar( appro!ed a t&ree=part curricular or*anization o-
mental education. p&)sical education. and tec&nolo*ical trainin*H &owe!er. t&e later %ar(ist=$eninist
s)stems o- education promoted t&e aut&orit) o- t&e 'art) apparatus and resulted in an aut&oritarian !iew o-
knowled*e and curriculum -or t&e sc&ools.
CI"IBU@ OF %ADIS% IN @#UCA"ION
One o- t&e stren*t&s o- %ar(ism as a p&ilosop&) is t&at it pro!ides a !iew o- social trans-ormation and
promotes a !iew o- purpose-ul &uman action to carr) t&rou*& on t&at trans-ormation. "&us. it &as a stron*
appeal -or t&ose w&o li!e under oppression. and it o--ers a utopian !ision o- collecti!e destin). %ar(ism also
&as t&e stren*t& o- its critical role. -or it &elps non=%ar(ist societies look at t&emsel!es in wa)s t&e) would
not ordinaril) pursue. Eestern %ar(ism &as issued warnin*s about alienation. tec&nolo*ism. bureaucrac).
and mass culture t&at are timel) -or most contemporar) industrialized countries. It &as been a maAor
ad!ocate o- makin* education a!ailable to e!er)one. and in its educational t&eor) it blends t&eor) and
practice. A *larin* weakness o- %ar(ism. &owe!er. is t&at t&e model o- education it practices seldom seems
to demonstrate t&e ideals it espouses in t&eor).
Some critics maintain t&at %ar(ists and neo=%ar(ists alike s&ow a lack o- sensiti!it) to t&e c&an*es t&at
non=socialist industrial economies &a!e under*one. "&e) also note t&at t&e dialectic o- &istor)==or &istorical
e!olution==ma) not be onl) a socialist or a materialist t&eor). and t&at it lacks credible proo-.
"&ere are man) also w&o obAect to t&e Nine!itabilit)O o- %ar(ist t&ou*&t. and Neo=%ar(ists are stron*
ad!ocates -or si*ni-icant c&an*es to classical %ar(ist t&eor).
'OJ@C"S
3. ead and report about an e(istin* national s)stem o- education t&at re-lects a stron* %ar(ist
approac& /suc& as t&e C&inese or Cuban educational s)stem0. How does it compare wit& )our
own e(perience wit& sc&oolsK E&at are some leadin* ad!anta*es or disad!anta*es o- a %ar(ist
approac& to educationK
<. @(amine articles or books on people w&o &a!e e(perienced li-e in bot& a capitalist and a
communist re*ime. E&at is t&eir !iew as to t&e respecti!e social s)stems. particularl) t&e
educational ad!anta*es and disad!anta*es pro!ided in eac& oneK
;. Form a small *roup and in!esti*ate &ow %ar(ist !iews o- education &elp us to critiGue t&e s)stems
o- education we &a!e. #iscuss w&at we *ain or lose t&rou*& %ar(ist t&eor). and w&at !alue suc&
t&eor) ma) &a!e -or educational re-orm in t&e present and t&e -uture.
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
35
Ipol)tec&nical educationI
@n*els
obert Owen
*he 3ealth of ations
Isurplus !alueI
critical t&eor)
alienation o- labor
collecti!ism
Ndoctrine o- sensationalismO
Nin!isible &andO
reification
Nt&e opium o- t&e peopleO
Ndialectical materialismO
3. How did He*elFs p&ilosop&) in-luence %ar(Fs !iews. and &ow did %ar( c&an*e He*elFs position to
-it &is materialist conception o- &istor)K
<. E&at role did t&e idea o- Nsocialist consciousnessI &a!e in t&e aims o- %ar(ist=$eninist
educationK How does t&is concept relate to %ar(Fs belie- t&at -undamental c&an*es were needed
in societ)K How does t&e concept o- t&e collecti!e pla) a role in %ar(ist=$eninist educationK
;. E&at do neo=%ar(ists belie!e is t&e best kind o- educationK #oes t&e de!elopment o- a critical
consciousness re-lect t&e basic ideas o- %ar(K E&) or w&) notK
:. How would )ou assess t&e *rowt& or demise o- communist ideas in toda)2s worldK
9. E&) do %ar(ists see t&e owners&ip o- pri!ate propert) as an issue o- concernK How is education
used to support e(istin* economic interests. and &ow ma) education be used to c&an*e t&ese
conditionsK E&at problems or bene-its would be encountered in -ollowin* a %ar(ist t&eoretical
approac&K
8. E&at is t&e important role t&e teac&er and t&e educational en!ironment pla) in %ar(ist
educational t&eor)K E&at c&aracteristics does a %ar(ist teac&er need to be success-ul. and w&at
kind o- learnin* en!ironment s&ould be nurturedK
7. #o )ou t&ink t&at &uman nature can be c&an*ed as a result o- education as So!iet educators like
%akarenko and +rupska)a belie!edK E&at role does %akarenko su**est t&at parents pla) in
t&is respectK
3. A distin*uis&in* -eature o- %ar(ist t&ou*&t is t&e central place o-
a. materialism.
b. idealism.
c. spiritualism.
d. indi!idualism.
<. In t&eir de!elopment o- critical t&eor). members o- t&e Frank-ort Sc&ool attacked t&e Imass
cultureI o- capitalism because t&e) t&ou*&t it
a. was a misunderstandin* o- %ar(ist t&eor).
b. promoted a -alse sense o- personal -reedom.
c. t&reatened to eradicate indi!idualit).
d. encoura*ed people to produce more needless wealt&.
;. %akarenko ad!ocated a central role -or t&e collecti!e in education because it
a. encoura*ed indi!idual initiati!e.
b. subordinated sel-=interest to social interests.
36
c. promoted artistic sel-=e(pression.
d. discoura*ed peer *roup in-luence.
:. %ar( attacked capitalism -or in its sel-is& absorption in t&e accumulation o- wealt& and its
a. *reater producti!it) o- consumer *oods.
b. -ailure to use dialectical reasonin*.
c. desire to produce *reater social re-orm.
d. lack o- social responsibilit).
9. Accordin* to %ar(ists. t&e -orce be&ind t&e alienation o- labor is
a. pri!ate propert).
b. public propert).
c. sc&ool propert).
d. collecti!e owners&ip.
8. %ar( belie!ed t&at t&e last *reat sta*e o- &istorical de!elopment was
a. tribal owners&ip.
b. rise o- t&e proletariat.
c. bour*eois societ).
d. -eudalism.
7. Accordin* to %ar(ist t&eor). social pro*ress is not based on &eredit). but results -rom
a. better tec&nolo*) in t&e workplace.
b. indi!idual initiati!e in economic li-e.
c. c&an*ed en!ironmental circumstances.
d. a clear &ierarc&) o- control.
6. In %ar(ist=$eninist educational t&eor) as practiced in t&e -ormer So!iet Union. political
indoctrination was used because it promoted
a. indi!idual e(pression.
b. a searc& -or trut&.
c. a stron* sense o- personal di*nit).
d. t&e desired social consciousness.
5. %ar( belie!ed t&at sc&ools in bour*eois societies s&ould not teac& subAects about Ieconomic lawsI
because &e belie!ed t&ese subAects
a. were unwort&) o- serious stud).
b. s&ould be le-t onl) to adults.
c. would be used to indoctrinate students.
d. -ailed to contain endurin* trut&s o- lastin* !alue.
34. Neo=%ar(ist educational t&eorists &a!e ar*ued t&at in capitalist societies. sc&ools socialize c&ildren
to e(istin* economic arran*ements b)
a. reproducin* t&e conditions o- t&e workplace.
b. makin* education a pro-itable acti!it).
c. emp&asizin* economic t&eor) in all subAects.
d. ri*id suppression o- -reedom o- t&ou*&t.
33. Unlike Freire and +in*. C&e >ue!ara belie!ed t&at
a. all stru**les -or eGualit) can be ac&ie!ed t&rou*& diplomac).
b. non=!iolence is t&e ke) to political success.
c. all nations need to become democratic in principle.
d. !iolence is necessar) to o!ert&row t&e rule o- t&e capitalist class.
37
C3-P,E$ A6 -N-/8,C P3/0#0P38 -N5 E5"C-,0N
"H@ ANA$Y"IC %OC@%@N" IN 'HI$OSO'HY
'HI$OSO'HICA$ ANA$YSIS AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF ANA$Y"IC 'HI$OSO'HY IN @#UCA"ION
%artin1 0n the $eduction of BCno&ing ,hatD to BCno&ing 3o&E
Barrow1 5oes the Fuestion BGhat s Education<D 4a;e #ense<
CHA'"@ OC@CI@E
Clari-ication o- meanin* is t&e t&eme o- anal)tic p&ilosop&). Anal)tic p&ilosop&ers maintain t&at most
p&ilosop&ical problems o- t&e past were not issues o- ultimate realit) or trut&. but o- conceptual con-usion
and imprecise lan*ua*e. "&e disco!er) o- knowled*e is not t&e business o- p&ilosop&). but o- science. and
t&e proper role o- p&ilosop&) is lin*uistic or conceptual clari-ication.
"H@ ANA$Y"IC %OC@%@N" IN 'HI$OSO'HY
"&e anal)tic mo!ement &as o-ten been called It&e lin*uistic turnI because it turned awa) -rom traditional
p&ilosop&) and its approac&es. Its -orerunners include %oore and ussell1 %oore studied Iordinar)
lan*ua*eI and concluded t&at most problems o- t&e modern world are due to conceptual misunderstandin*s
in our ideolo*ies and belie-sH ussell &eld t&at lan*ua*e &as a basic lo*ical structure similar to mat&ematics.
and t&at b) anal)zin* or reducin* statements to t&eir smallest parts /t&eir IatomsI0. precision o- meanin*
could be *ained. ussell reAected traditional I*rand mannerI p&ilosop&) in -a!or o- piece=meal anal)sis. an
approac& t&at re-lects t&e anal)tic mo!ement as a w&ole.
Anot&er source was Ilo*ical positi!ism.I w&ic& ori*inated wit& t&e ICienna CircleI in 35<5. A notable -eature
o- t&is *roup was t&eir -ascination wit& modern science and It&e principle o- !eri-ication.I "&e) &eld t&at no
p&ilosop&ical proposition would be accepted unless it could be !eri-ied lo*icall) or mat&ematicall). or on
empirical or sense data *rounds.
In &is earlier work. Eitt*enstein &eld t&at science was t&e primar) source o- knowled*eH &ence. p&ilosop&)
s&ould not be concerned wit& t&e disco!er) o- knowled*e. but wit& t&e statements made about it and t&e
limits o- lan*ua*e. A)er &eld t&at t&e task o- p&ilosop&) is t&e anal)sis o- lan*ua*e and w&et&er statements
are meanin*-ul and can be !eri-ied. Under t&is kind o- in-luence. anal)tic p&ilosop&) turned awa) -rom
constructin* an ideal lan*ua*e or establis&in* ri*id rules -or ordinar) lan*ua*e. and Ilin*uistic anal)sisI
became a common name -or anal)tic p&ilosop&).
Eitt*ensteinFs later p&ilosop&) was a maAor -actor in t&e de!elopment o- lin*uistic anal)sis. He saw
lan*ua*e as comprised o- inde-inite possibilities o- usa*e. He t&ou*&t t&at most p&ilosop&ical IproblemsI
were due to lin*uistic con-usions. and t&at t&e proper role o- p&ilosop&) was to clari-) lin*uistic con-usion
and -ocus on t&e e(planation o- meanin*. For Eitt*enstein. p&ilosop&) s&ould be purel) descripti!e
because t&e e(planation o- meanin* depends upon t&e conte(t o- usa*e and t&e lan*ua*e structure bein*
used. Eords &a!e no true meanin* *i!en b) some independent powerH t&e) onl) &a!e t&e meanin*s people
*i!e t&em. In actual usa*e. we construct and pla) Ilan*ua*e *ames.I and t&e meanin*s are as !aried as
t&e *ames.
)le attacked t&e Cartesian !iew t&at t&e material bod) can be studied scienti-icall). but t&at mind is
a!ailable onl) to subAecti!e introspection. )le called t&is !iew It&e do*ma o- t&e >&ost in t&e %ac&ineI t&at
promotes a cate*or) mistake b) treatin* bod) and mind as e(act opposites but as t&e same lo*ical t)pes.
Similarl). we con-use Iknowin* t&atI and Iknowin* &ow.I w&ic& results in crammin* students wit&
Iknowled*eI but i*norin* per-ormance.
'HI$OSO'HICA$ ANA$YSIS AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
Anal)tic p&ilosop&) o- education is per&aps most use-ul in &elpin* educators clari-) w&at t&e) t&ink and do.
"&e intent is not to de!elop new educational ideolo*). but to understand t&e meanin*s o- our ideolo*ies
better. "&e bene-its o- anal)sis -or students come as a result o- a clari-ied and more meanin*-ul education.
38
Anal)tic p&ilosop&) &as an important role to pla) because so muc& o- education deals wit& lo*ic and
lan*ua*e. "&e anal)st emp&asizes t&e importance o- lan*ua*e in learnin* and t&e need to e!aluate and
clari-) t&e statements we make about education. Anal)sts point out t&at lan*ua*e is a !er) important part o-
li-e. and it is doubt-ul t&at we could e!en t&ink wit&out it.
Anal)tic p&ilosop&) o- education is interested in impro!in* &ow educators t&ink about education b) bein*
sensiti!e to t&e comple(ities o- lan*ua*e and its !ariet) o- meanin*s and usa*es. %an) concepts /suc& as
Austice. &onor. and !irtue0 *i!e a I&aloI e--ect to statements about t&e aims o- education. Since most people
&a!e &ad little trainin* in lo*ical t&ou*&t. t&e) are eas) !ictims -or t&e misuse o- lan*ua*e to make t&em
support particular !iewpointsH t&ere-ore. educators s&ould be sensiti!e to lan*ua*e problems and attempt to
make t&eir lan*ua*e precise and clear.
Ee must clari-) t&e aims o- education in a p&ilosop&icall) adeGuate manner. and p&ilosop&ical anal)sis is a
maAor tool in accomplis&in* t&is task o- clari-ication. Anal)tic p&ilosop&ers belie!e t&at educators s&ould be
attuned to t&e lo*ical comple(ities o- lan*ua*e and its !ariet) o- meanin*s and usa*es. In s&ort. t&e) do not
attempt to prescribe a particular kind o- education as muc& as to clari-) t&e conceptual presuppositions and
intended purposes o- educators. "&e) pre-er to look at w&at ad!anta*es ma) accrue -rom a clari-ied
concept o- education.
Anal)tic p&ilosop&ers are aware t&at met&ods and media o- all kinds educate t&e c&ild in man) wa)s.
Alt&ou*& educators s&ould understand t&e !alue=laden c&aracter o- lan*ua*e. t&e) do not alwa)s seem to
operate wit& an awareness o- it. "&ere are a number o- meanin*s in!ol!ed in t&e wa) words are used. and
t&ese must be !iewed a*ainst t&e conditions and circumstances e!ol!in* in contemporar) societ). Some
anal)sts use paradi*ms or models o- lo*ic to &elp clari-) and order our concepts o- education. "&is is similar
to Eitt*ensteinFs idea o- Ilan*ua*e *ames in some respectsI because paradi*ms &a!e speci-ic uses -or
particular kinds o- problems. Anal)tic p&ilosop&ers ad!ocate t&e need -or empirical researc& on speci-ic
teac&in* met&ods because most are based on little more t&an &unc&es and personal preAudices.
Curriculum plannin*. t&e) belie!e. is o-ten super-icial because o- -ault) lan*ua*e. con-used meanin*s. and
unclear purposes. Ee need to promote a critical attitude toward curriculum restructurin* w&en meanin*s
and purposes are not made clear.
CI"IBU@ OF ANA$Y"IC 'HI$OSO'HY IN @#UCA"ION
One o- t&e -unctions o- p&ilosop&) is to de!elop a critical attitude toward lan*ua*e and meanin*. and t&is is
certainl) somet&in* t&at anal)tic p&ilosop&) &as -ostered. at&er t&an accept read)=made answers and
slo*ans as solutions -or educational dilemmas. anal)tic p&ilosop&ers &a!e supported an approac& t&at
insists t&at all ideas and issues be e(amined e!er) step alon* t&e wa).
Critics ar*ue t&at w&ile anal)tic p&ilosop&) &as &elped clari-) some educational issues. it is too limited a
!iew to meet t&e demands o- a c&an*in* comple( culture. It &as also been accused o- promotin* a new
sc&olasticism w&ere ar*uin* o!er words is more important t&an substanti!e ideas and practices. One o- t&e
t&in*s t&at -rustrate critics is t&e di--icult) o- ascertainin* w&at anal)sts reall) want in education. Anal)tic
p&ilosop&ers claim t&e) want to clari-). not prescribe. but critics claim t&at t&e anal)tic approac& &as neit&er
prescribed nor ac&ie!ed an) amount o- si*ni-icant clari-ication.
'er&aps t&e -rustration o- critics lies wit& anal)tic p&ilosop&)Fs assertion t&at true p&ilosop&) can onl) be
anal)tic. E&ere. t&en. do our !isions come -romK It would seem to most critics t&at p&ilosop&) &as a lar*er
role to pla) in s&apin* new and more use-ul ideas -or education.
'OJ@C"S
3. @(amine a political tract or t&e editorial pa*e o- )our local newspaper in terms o- its use and
misuse o- lan*ua*e.
<. Anal)ze e(amples -rom dail) li-e on t&e abuse o- lan*ua*e. suc& as t&e clic&Qs people use.
slo*aneerin*. bumper stickers. etc. For e(ample. w&at does t&e slo*an IE&en *uns are outlawed.
onl) outlaws will &a!e *unsI mean and w&at conclusions is it intended to produceK
;. @(amine &ow ad!ertisin* is used to promote particular a*endas. outlooks. and be&a!iors.
39
#etermine w&at t&e co!ert and o!ert messa*es are. and &ow lan*ua*e is used to manipulate &ow
people be&a!e.
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
t&e Cienna Circle
Philosophical 6nvestigations
t&e do*ma o- It&e >&ost in t&e %ac&ineI
IIdol o- t&e %arketplaceI
cate*or) mistake
principle o- !eri-ication
s)nt&etic p&ilosop&)
lan*ua*e *ames
anal)tic paradi*m
2anguage, *ruth and 2ogic
"autolo*)
atomic sentence
3. Consider t&e claim b) anal)tic p&ilosop&) t&at most p&ilosop&ical problems reside in con-used
lin*uistic and conceptual meanin*s. Are t&e problems addressed b) p&ilosop&) o- education
primaril) matters o- lan*ua*e. or are t&e) more t&an t&atK How can lin*uistic and conceptual
clari-ication &elp educationK
<. #e!elop a critical appraisal o- &ow lin*uistic anal)sis di--ers -rom ot&er p&ilosop&ies in its approac&
to education. E&at kind o- curriculum do t&e) want and w&)K E&at are t&eir aims -or education.
and w&)K How does anal)tic p&ilosop&) di--er -rom traditional p&ilosop&ies on t&ese mattersK
;. Ad!ocates maintain t&at p&ilosop&ical anal)sis &as alwa)s been used in p&ilosop&). >i!e
e(amples o- &ow anal)sis is used in ot&er p&ilosop&ies /suc& as idealism. realism. etc.0. S&ow
t&eir similarities and di--erences wit& t&e anal)tic approac& to knowled*e. How do t&ese similarities
and di--erences impact on educational t&eor)K
:. From t&e anal)tic perspecti!e. w&at is t&e main role o- t&e teac&erK E&at s&ould t&e teac&er stri!e
to impress on students about t&e relation between lo*ic and lan*ua*eK
9. E&at do anal)tic p&ilosop&ers mean b) I!alue=laden lan*ua*e.I and &ow does t&is in-luence
educationK >i!e e(amples and e(plain &ow !alue=laden lan*ua*e a--ects our dail) li!es.
8. E&at is t&e di--erence between Nknowin* t&atO and Nknowin* &ow.O and w&) is t&is an important
aspect o- educational t&ou*&tK
7. E&at is )our reaction to so=called Ncommon sense p&ilosop&)OK
40
3. "&e underl)in* assumption o- p&ilosop&ical anal)sis is t&at t&e proper role -or p&ilosop&) is to
pro!ide
a. clari-ication to lin*uistic and conceptual con-usion.
b. mat&ematical precision to scienti-ic -indin*s.
c. support -or &umanistic studies.
d. scienti-ic certaint) to obser!ational data.
<. Bertrand ussell in-luenced anal)tic p&ilosop&) to a!oid a I*rand mannerI approac& in -a!or o-
a. makin* disparate parts -it into a block uni!erse solution to problems.
b. reducin* eac& problem to its smallest parts -or clarit) and precision o- meanin*.
c. takin* constituent parts and connectin* t&em to *eneral science.
d. puttin* t&e parts back into t&e w&ole -or better s)nt&esis.
;. A distin*uis&in* -eature o- lo*ical positi!ism was its insistence on
a. a!oidin* atomism in -a!or o- s)nt&esis.
b. t&e principle o- !eri-ication.
c. t&e use o- lo*ic in p&ilosop&ical ar*ument.
d. bein* tentati!e about p&ilosop&ical conclusions.
:. $udwi* Eitt*ensteinFs re!ised p&ilosop&) embraced t&e !iew o- lan*ua*e as comprised o-
a. obAecti!e statements o- !eri-ication.
b. atomistic statements o- -act.
c. inde-inite possibilities o- usa*e.
d. uni!ersal principles o- a*reement.
9. %an) anal)tic p&ilosop&ers sa) t&at since t&inkin* is so dependent on lan*ua*e.
a. t&inkin* problems are also lan*ua*e problems.
b. p&ilosop&) must depend on an international lan*ua*e.
c. new meanin*s must be *ained t&rou*& new lan*ua*es.
d. one cannot t&ink wit&out an obAecti!e lan*ua*e.
8. Anal)tic p&ilosop&ers o- education do not attempt to prescribe a particular kind o- education as
muc& as t&e) seek to
a. construct a uni!ersal lan*ua*e -or sc&ools to use.
b. simpli-) t&e aims and obAecti!es o- education.
c. make t&e -ormal stud) o- lan*ua*e a reGuirement.
d. clari-) t&e conceptual ar*uments used b) educators.
7. "&e use o- p&ilosop&ical anal)sis in education &as o-ten been directed at educational slo*ans in
order to
a. promote democrac) b) -orce-ul slo*ans.
b. clari-) &ow meanin*s are used in slo*ans.
c. abolis& t&e use o- slo*ans in sc&ools.
d. ad!ocate particular slo*ans -or adoption b) sc&ools.
41
6. For >ilbert )le t&e I*&ost in t&e mac&ineI is reall) a p&ilosop&ical con-usion o!er t&e meanin* o-
t&e
a. bod).
b. soul.
c. emotion.
d. mind.
5. Anal)tic p&ilosop&) &as &ad t&e most impact on our use o-
a. curriculum met&ods.
b. lan*ua*e.
c. p&ilosop&ical speculation.
d. scienti-ic met&od.
34. "&e kind o- Guestion t&at moti!ates anal)tic p&ilosop&ers is not IE&at is realKI but IE&at is
a. t&e trut&KI
b. t&e nature o- *oodnessKI
c. an anal)sis o- meanin*KI
d. t&e epistemolo*ical assumptionKI
C3-P,E$ 106 P0#,405E$N#4 -N5 E5"C-,0N
'OS"%O#@N CAI@"Y
'OS"%O#@NIS% AN# 'HI$OSO'HY
'OS"%O#@N AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
CI"IBU@ OF 'OS"%O#@NIS% IN @#UCA"ION
>irou(1 .order Pedagogy as Post7odern $esistance
Nu)en1 /yotard as 4oral Educator
CHA'"@ OU"$IN@
'OS"%O#@N CAI@"Y
'ostmodernist &allmarks are concern wit& iron). contin*enc). and popular cultureH and a -ascination wit&
!ariet). di--erence. and deconstruction are prominent. 'ostmodernists see a crisis in contemporar) culture
and &old t&at no sin*le cultural tradition will su--ice to meet it. In education. man) postmodernists are critical
t&eorists w&o see t&e curricular canons o- Eestern cultural traditions. Iscienti-ic lawsI or -irst principles as
-orms o- continuin* domination. "&e) promote knowled*e about cultures on t&e mar*ins and discourses
around *ender. race. et&nicit). and class identities.
'OS"%O#@NIS% AN# 'HI$OSO'HY
'ostmodern p&ilosop&) is &i*&l) critical o- modern p&ilosop&). but is dependent on it -or man) o- its t&emes.
"wo leadin* postmodern p&ilosop&ers are Foucault and #errida. Foucault e(plored &ow notions o- trut&
&a!e t&eir ori*ins in &istorical con-lict and stru**le. and &ow t&ese notions e(ercise power o!er institutions.
social s)stems. and personal identities. He e(amined &ow social policies and mo!ements come to*et&er in
&istorical e!ents to send us in certain directions rat&er t&an ot&ers. at&er t&an seekin* uni!ersal causal
-orces in &istor). p&ilosop&) s&ould look -or t&e Ire*imes o- trut&I t&at e(ercise power and control o!er
people and institutions. #errida critiGues t&e lo*ocentrism o- Eestern p&ilosop&ers since Aristotle w&o &a!e
assumed t&at w&at appears to t&e intellect is representati!e o- t&e world. As #errida sees it. intellectual
representations belon* not to logos. t&e or*anizin* rational principle o- t&e world. but to &uman discourses.
writin*s. or te(ts. Ee need to IdeconstructI our te(ts and e(amine &ow t&e !a*aries o- lan*ua*e con-use
meanin*s. because we are ne!er -ull) in control o- t&e lan*ua*e we use. #errida belie!es t&at lan*ua*e
cannot be e(actin*l) precise. and t&e assumption t&at mind precedes lan*ua*e is mistaken1 w&at we call
42
mind comes -rom our cultural te(ts and &ow we interpret t&em.
'OS"%O#@N AS A 'HI$OSO'HY OF @#UCA"ION
'ostmodern p&ilosop&ers o- education re-lect critical t&eor) and elements o- %ar(ism. but t&e) also -ind -ault
wit& its totalizin* lan*ua*e. >irou( wants to retain modernismFs belie- in &uman reason and et&ics. but
rede-ine relations between t&e mar*ins and t&e center o- societ) -or c&an*e and Austice. %c$aren promotes
a critical peda*o*) t&at opposes positi!istic. a&istorical. and depoliticized education. and is opposed to t&e
politics o- power -ound in contemporar) sc&ools and t&e lar*er societ). C&err)&olmes ad!ances a
NpoststructuralistO approac& to education to o!ercome t&e emp&asis on a ri*idl) structured curriculum.
testin* and sortin*. and bureaucratic control. Bowers wants a t&eor) o- education t&at conser!es si*ni-icant
cultural ac&ie!ements but builds a re-lecti!e communit) t&at looks to t&e -uture.
'ostmodernist aims o- education stress et&ical relations amon* people. includin* people o- di--erent
back*round. ori*in. and perspecti!e. A basic aim is to en*a*e students in critical discourses on &uman
e(ploitation and to emancipate t&em -rom oppression. @ducation s&ould result in sel- and social
empowerment rat&er t&an ser!in* t&e marketplace and economic competition.
"&e postmodernist curriculum includes issues o- power. &istor). identities. cultural politics. and social
criticism leadin* to collecti!e action. It connects educational processes /means0 to t&e imperati!es o- a
democratic communit) /ends0. and belie!es t&at a *ood curriculum s&ould empower people and trans-orm
societ). 'ostmodernists reAect reliance on master narrati!es and include t&e stud) o- people w&o are on t&e
mar*ins o- culture. An important aspect o- curriculum is t&e ordinar) e(periences and outlooks t&at students
brin* wit& t&em. 'ostmodernist curriculum recasts t&e meanin* and use o- canons o- knowled*e. and it
seeks a new conception o- knowled*e t&at does not depend upon disciplinar) boundaries. "&ere-ore.
teac&ers must be seen as Itrans-ormati!e intellectualsI occup)in* political and social roles. Interaction
between students and teac&ers is a crucial consideration. and students must learn to e(press t&emsel!es.
e(periment. and be personall) and sociall) responsible.
CI"IBU@ OF 'OS"%O#@NIS% IN @#UCA"ION
Stren*t&s in t&e postmodernist !iew include attention to moral and et&ical education in order to de!elop
personal and social identities. 'ostmodernists emp&asize di!ersit) and social discourse. and t&e) promote
a pluralistic democratic communit). "&e) want to s&ed li*&t on &ow personal and social identities are
-ormed. and t&e) emp&asize &ow discourse and narrati!e s&ape peopleFs minds. "&e) call attention to &ow
t&e curriculum and t&e teac&in*=learnin* process ma) ser!e to liberate or oppress. Howe!er. postmodernist
lan*ua*e is di--icult to decip&er. and attention is needed on a public lan*ua*e t&at communicates and
persuades. 'ostmodernists seem to be more conscious o- w&at t&e) oppose t&an w&at t&e) promote. and
t&eir emp&asis on &uman di--erences ma) encoura*e -ra*mentation and separateness instead o- a
reco*nition o- common &uman bonds.
'ostmodern p&ilosop&) is not a uni-ied p&ilosop&ical perspecti!e. It proAects a critical mood or -rame o-
mind wit&out a de-inite sense o- direction or outcome. In part. postmodernism ec&oes elements o-
neopra*matism. and Bernstein promotes an en*a*ed communit) o- inGuirers w&o respond to t&e con-licts
o- t&e da). Eest claims t&at neopra*matism. w&ile supportin* some aspects o- postmodernism . reAects its
ni&ilistic tendencies. and promotes cultural criticism and political en*a*ement in t&e ser!ice o- a creati!e
democrac). ort) also supports neopra*matism as our best &ope -or solidarit) to o!ercome cruelt) in t&e
world.
'OJ@C"S
3. Ask a small *roup o- students to identi-) and report to class w&at selected postmodernist
p&ilosop&ers /suc& as Foucault0 mean b) t&e terms IpowerI and Iempowerment.I Compare &ow
t&ese terms are used b) postmodernist educational p&ilosop&ers and t&eorists. E&at are t&e
similarities and di--erencesK
<. Join wit& some classmates in in!esti*atin* t&e links o- postmodernist educational criticism wit& t&e
radical education mo!ement o- t&e late 3584s and earl) 3574s. E&at are t&e similarities and
di--erences. and w&at is uniGue about present=da) postmodern t&eor) o- educationK
43
;. Inter!iew a local teac&er. principal. or superintendent about t&e impact o- leadin* postmodernist
polic) recommendations -or education. "r) to determine &ow e--ecti!e t&ose recommendations
&a!e been /or would be0 i- t&e) were implemented. E&at does t&e inter!iewee personall) see as
t&e maAor stren*t&s and weaknesses o- suc& polic) recommendationsK
I#@N"IFICA"IONS
lo*ocentrism
-oundationalism
di--Qrance
teac&ers as trans-ormati!e intellectuals
#adness and Civilization
deconstruction
mar*inalization
Npresentin* t&e unpresentableO
cultural capital
Antonio >ramsci
Nre*imes o- trut&O
3. E&at role do t&e concepts o- power and empowerment &a!e in postmodernist educational aims.
curriculum. and teac&in* strate*iesK
<. #escribe t&e *uidin* t&read/s0 o- t&ou*&t t&at connect postmodernist educational p&ilosop&ers and
t&eorists. Compare t&is /t&ese0 wit& si*ni-icant areas o- di--erence amon* t&em. E&at are t&e
educational rami-ications o- t&e similarities and t&e di--erencesK
;. It &as been said t&at postmodernism is IparasiticI on t&e modern. E&at does t&is meanK Is it an
accurate wa) to describe t&e relation o- postmodernism and modernismK
:. "&ere is considerable commentar) about t&e role o- critical t&eor) in postmodern education.
#iscuss important connections between postmodern critical t&eor) and %ar(ist critical t&eor).
S&ow &ow t&e) are similar. &ow t&e) di--er. and w&at di--erence /i- an)0 t&is makes -or postmodern
t&eor) o- education.
9. How does postmodernist t&ou*&t re-lect a Ine*ati!e idealismKI How does t&is relate to t&e belie-
t&at we are limited to our te(ts. lan*ua*es. or representations==our ideasK Is t&e c&ar*e o-
Ine*ati!e idealismI a -air oneK E&) or w&) notK
8. Is t&ere a wa) out o- t&e ni&ilism t&at postmodernists proAectK E&at mi*&t be some a!enues we
could take to correct t&is problemK
7. E&at does $)otard mean b) Npresentin* t&e NunpresentableO and &ow does t&is position impact
upon our !iews o- Austice and moralit)K
6. How can one NdeconstructO a te(tK Is t&is a use-ul approac& to understandin* t&e world.
44
3. 'ostmodernism is sometimes re-erred to as IparasiticalI on modernism. but one c&aracteristic t&at
sets it apart -rom modernism is its
a. reliance upon %ar(ist critical t&eor).
b. reAection o- p&ilosop&ical master narrati!es.
c. e(amination o- underl)in* cultural ideas.
d. use o- education to promote its central ideas.
<. I- modernism sou*&t unit) and standardization modeled alon* t&e lines o- science. postmodernism
promotes
a. mar*inal knowled*e and discourses o- di--erence.
b. social class identit) and con-lict wit& bour*eois in-luences.
c. maintainin* t&e boundaries between race and *ender.
d. trut&s -rom t&e past t&at stand t&e test o- time.
;. %ic&el Foucault maintained t&at &istorical e!ents are in-luenced b) Ire*imes o- trut&I t&at are t&e
result o-
a. &istorical processes outside t&e control o- mortal &umans.
b. t&e marc& o- obAecti!e science unleas&ed -rom sectarian reli*ious control.
c. &uman in!ention wit&in speci-ic &istorical conte(ts.
d. nationalistic tendencies tied to racial and *eo*rap&ic ori*ins.
:. JacGues #errida &olds t&at t&e lo*ocentrism o- Eestern p&ilosop&) &as led not to accurate
representations o- logos. but to
a. unco!erin* t&e principles o- t&e uni!erse.
b. reli*ion and t&eolo*) rat&er t&an to nature.
c. *reater disciplined inGuir).
d. discourses. writin*s. or te(ts.
9. Neopra*matists criticize postmodernism -or its ni&ilistic and ne*ati!e tendencies w&en w&at is
needed. t&e) claim. is
a. a return to t&e certaint) o- scienti-ic purit) and t&e searc& -or *lobal unit).
b. less con-rontation and more dialo*ical encounter in a communit) o- inGuirers.
c. a reassertion o- t&e +antian pro*ram o- critiGuin* all knowled*e claims.
d. a re!i!al o- t&e 'latonic searc& -or social Austice -ound in t&e searc& -or "rut&.
8. Henr) >irou( belie!es t&e aim o- education is to
a. en*a*e students in social discourse t&at &elps t&em reAect &uman su--erin* and
e(ploitation.
b. promote a &ierarc&ical social or*anization wit& postmodernismFs reAection o-
metanarrati!es
c. &elp students promote a better understandin* o- t&e lan*ua*e di--iculties in!ol!ed.
d. pro!ide students wit& t&e kinds o- te(ts t&e) need to sol!e problems.
7. >enerall) speakin*. postmodernists &old t&at t&e curriculum s&ould not be !iewed as discrete
subAects and disciplines. but as studies o-
a. power. &istor). cultural politics. and social criticism.
b. trut&. *oodness. and beaut) around t&e world.
c. &istorical importance t&at sur!i!e t&e a*es.
d. eGual wei*&t and merit i- re-lectin* trut& claims.
6. 'ostmodern educational t&eor) reAects master narrati!es and -a!ors a curriculum t&at includes
contributions b) narrati!es
45
a. o- a new ideolo*) o- cultural supremac).
b. t&at reAect all @urocentric ori*ins.
c. on t&e mar*ins o- culture.
d. -or t&e risin* middle classes.
5. Critics c&ar*e t&at w&ile postmodernism pro!ides new insi*&t into power relations in sc&ool and
societ). its -ascination wit& di--erence and mar*inalit) ma) blind it to t&e
a. power !acuum le-t b) t&e o!ert&row o- liberalism.
b. c&aracteristics &uman bein*s &old in common.
c. real di--erences between *enders and races.
d. -undamental -act o- uni!ersal trut&.
34. A maAor concern in postmodern education is a sensiti!it) to lan*ua*e and &ow it
a. s&apes t&e wa) students t&ink and conceptualize.
b. can be used inaccuratel) b) uncarin* students.
c. needs to be used accordin* to uni!ersal rules.
d. must alwa)s be spoken care-ull) and properl).
-N#GE$ CE8
Chapter 7 8 #ultiple Choice
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48

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Foundation of Educ

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Instructors Resource Manual and Test Bank

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