Angus Fletcher, Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode

(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1964).

Introuction:
Allegory !ro" allos # agoreuein (other # s$ea% o$enly,
s$ea% in the asse"&ly or "ar%et). Agoreuein connotes
$u&lic, o$en, eclarative s$eech. 'his sense is inverte &y
the $re!i( allos. 'hus allegory is o!ten calle )inversion.*
Plutarch the !irst critic to use the +or allegory instea o! its
oler ,ree% e-uivalent hy$onoia, also the !irst to use the
ver& )to allegori.e.* 'he $olitical overtones o! the ver&
agoreuein nee al+ays to &e e"$hasi.e, inso!ar as
censorshi$ "ay $rouce evious, ironical +ays o! s$ea%ing
(/n1). 0enry Peacha", 'he ,aren o! 1lo-uence:
)Aenig"a: a %in o! Allegorie, i!!ering only in o&scuritie, !or
Aenig"a is a sentence or !or"e o! s$eech, +hich !or the
ar%nesse, the sense "ay harly &e gathere*2 see
Puttenha", 'he Art o! 1nglish Poesie, !or )rile*: )3e
isse"&le againe uner covert an ar% s$eaches, +hen +e
s$ea%e &y +ay o! rile (1nig"a) o! +hich the sence can
harly &e $ic%e out, &ut &y the $arties o+ne assoile* (4n1).
5ee 1r+in Pano!s%y, 6eaning in the 7isual Arts (1988).
'heoore 5$encer9s )ne+ critical* reaing o! )'hirty :ays
0ath 5e$te"&er,* ;e+ <e$u&lic, :ec. 6, 194=. 1+in
0onig9s $ioneering stuy: :ar% Conceit: 'he 6a%ing o!
Allegory (1989). 1rich Auer&ach, )Figura,* in 5cenes !ro"
the :ra"a o! 1uro$ean >iterature2 6ario Pra., 5tuies in
5eventeenth Century I"agery (on 1"&le"s, ch. i, an
a$$eni(). <ose"ary Free"an, 1nglish 1"&le" ?oo%s
(1944). Pano!s%y on e"&le"s2 Al&recht :urer (1944)2
:ur%hei", 'he 1le"entary For"s o! <eligious >i!e, II, i, )'he
'ote" as ;a"e an as 1"&le",* an ch. vii, )'he @rigin o!
the ;otion o! 1"&le".* F.<. Aohnson, Astrono"ical 'hought
in <enaissance 1nglan (19=B).
'he +hole $oint o! allegory is that it oes not ;11: to &e
rea e(egetically2 it o!ten has a literal level that "a%es
goo enough sense all &y itsel!2 +hat counts in our
iscussion is a structure that lens itsel! to a seconary
reaing, or rather, one that &eco"es stronger +hen given a
seconary "eaning as +ell as a $ri"ary "eaning (B).
1"$son $laces allegory in his thir ty$e o! a"&iguity2 C?9s
iscussion eals "ainly +ith its $olitical uses, e.g. Part III o!
A <hetoric o! 6otives, entitle )@rer.* >i%e 1"$son, C? is
intereste in )sy"&olic action* as a "eans o! co$ing +ith
social an $olitical tensions (11n14).
,oethe9s istinction &et+een allegory an sy"&ol2 true
sy"&olis" is )a living "o"entary revelation o! the
Inscruta&le*2 see 3elle%, A 0istory o! 6oern Criticis" I,
/DD. An )unha$$y controversy,* says Fletcher (1=).
1: The Daemonic Agent
Poet "a%es +hat 5$enser calle )a $leasing analysis o! all*
(>etter to <alegh) an in the course o! this analysis an action
un!urls, +ith agents to carry it. Personification and topical
allusion: either re$resent a&stract ieas or actual, historical
$ersons. 5ee, !or e(a"$le, the gran $ageants o! virtues
an vices in the <enaissance (see ?urc%hart !or a
escri$tion) (/6). 'he ty$ical $ersoni!ie agent can only act
in consort +ith other $ersoni!ie agents (=/). The
conceptual hero: his generation of subcharacters: A
syste"atically co"$licate character +ill generate a large
nu"&er o! other $rotagonists +ho react against or +ith hi"
in a syllogistic "anner2 sort o! li%e $eo$le in real li!e +ho
$roEect, ascri&ing !ictitious $ersonalities to those +ho" they
"eet an live +ith. 3hat, !or e(a"$le, are <ecrosse9s
)$roEections*F (=8). C.5. >e+is: Allegory9s natural the"e is
te"$tation (cite =6n/D). A natural hero !or allegory is the
traveler, &ecause on his Eourney he is $lausi&ly le into
nu"erous !resh situations, +here it see"s li%ely that ne+
as$ects o! hi"sel! "ay &e turne u$ (=6G=B). Daemonic
constriction in thematic actions: ae"ons co"$art"entali.e
!unctions, they are o&sesse +ith only one iea, riven &y
one $rivate !orce (i! +e "et one in real li!e) (4D). Daemons:
good and evil agency: it "ay hel$, in the case o! "oral
allegory, to thin% o! each virtue, ac-uire or lac%ing, as a
%in o! "oral energy, not a state o! &eing as in Aristotle, &ut
an e-uivalent in the "oral +orl o! a tuneGu$ "uscle in the
$hysical +orl (4B). 1(a"$le: association o! rhetorical
techni-ue +ith ae"onic $o+er2 0ercules as e!ener o!
the B >i&eral Arts (6artianus Ca$ella) (44). ,othic novel
a&ouns in ae"onic agencies: statues &leeing or
s+eating, talis"ans, ou&les, etc. (81n8/). Daemonic
mechanism and allegorical machines: ro&otsHserves a
$rescienti!ic !unction (as astrology leas to astrono"y) (89).
Cosmic systems governing personal fate: heroes o not
choose2 they act on co"$ulsion (64). 'y$ical re+ar !or a
victory in one &attle or $rogress in 5$enser9s FI is al+ays a
ne+ challenge. )'here is no such thing as $er!ection in this
+orl2 ae"onic agency i"$lies a "anie e $er!ection, an
i"$ossi&le esire to &eco"e one +ith an i"age o!
unchanging $urity. 'he agent see%s to &eco"e isolate
+ithin hi"sel!, !ro.en into an eternally !i(e !or", an Jiea9
in the Platonic sense o! the ter"* (68). Fro" agent to
i"age: static agency. 'he logic is !or agents to &eco"e
e"&le"s, visual icons (66). Conclusion: the $ilgri"9s
$rogress as a in o! research $roEect, ta%ing li!e !or its
&ounaries2 +ith all the irrationality o! ae"onic energy $er
se, this is the very %in o! agency necessary to iscover a
cos"ic orer (69).
2: The Cosmic Image
'raitional rhetorical vie+ o! allegory: a se-uence o!
su&"eta$hors a"ounting to an e(tene "eta$hor2 also
'uve, 1D8G1D6. Fletcher reEects this, although I9" not -uite
clear +hy2 $sychological rather than logicalF (B8).
6ost stri%ing sensuous -uality o! i"ages in allegory is their
isolation !ro" each other: lac% o! e$th, violation o!
$ers$ectiveHresults !ro" nee to "aintain ae"onic
e!!icacy (4B). 'he ty$e o! allegorical i"agery is an isolate
e"&le"2 = e(a"$les: a) an astrological sign2 &) a &anner
carrie in +ar2 c) a signet ring that has authority, e.g. the
$o+er to co""an o&eience !ro" a total stranger. 1ach
i"age tens to+ar a %rato$hany, a revelation o! a hien
$o+er (44). 5urrealist art is surreal $recisely &ecause its
i"ages are isolate (1DD). >autrea"ont9s classic e!inition
o! l9hu"our noir: )the chance "eeting o! a se+ingG"achine
an an u"&rella on an o$erating ta&le*F
FI the "ost re"ar%a&le sustaine "astery o! ver&al o$sis in
1nglish2 +e have to rea +ith a s$ecial %in o! attention, the
a&ility to catch visuali.ation through soun (Frye, AC, /89).
Cos"os: olest ter" !or orna"ental iction2 >atinate
erivatives are ornatus an ecoratio. A Cos"os signi!ies a
universe an a sy"&ol that i"$lies a ran% in that hierarchy
(1D9). I"$lies $ro$riety an ecoru": %os"iotes (11/).
1.g. the ani"al i"agery in Coriolanus: i"agery $rovies a
level corres$oning to the "ain sy"&olic level o! the $lay,
6enenius Agri$$a9s !a&le o! the &oy $olitic2 &ut that
i"agery in turn is &ase on t+o "ore levels, the levels
i"$lie &y the "icrocos"ic an the "acrocos"ic &oy
(114). At an early stage o! science +e e($ect allegory2
allegories are o!ten si"ulacra o! scienti!ic theories (116).
Allegory &elongs ulti"ately in the area o! e$ieictic rhetoric,
the rhetoric o! $raise an cere"ony2 the rhetorician "ust
calculate the e"otive e!!ect o! a language o! %os"os +hen
he see%s to s+ay a $articular %in o! reaer (1/1). Uses a
stoc% o! %os"oi, ty$i!ying i"ages associate +ith the
highest "otives (1//).
Pro$riety is al+ays +hat the "ost $o+er!ul $eo$le +ant you
to o, as a result o! their re$resenting the esta&lishe orer
(1/9).
Ayn <an an U$ton 5inclair2 a tenency to overo the
etail, to e(aggerate the $roo!s o! social e$ravity, an "ost
o! all to e(aggerate the in!luence o! social syste" on hu"an
e(istence2 a governing authority on to$ o! the sy"&olic
laer (1=6). Frye: a steay tren o+n+ar in 3estern
literature2 %os"os no+ leas to+ar the sie o! e&ase"ent
(14/).
3: Symbolic Action: Progress and Battle
Allegory is structure accoring to ritualistic necessity, as
o$$ose to $ro&a&ility (18D). 'he tenency is !or allegories
to resolve the"selves into either o! t+o &asic !or"s: &attle
an $rogress. Progress: a -uesting Eourney (181). In Kola9s
se-uence o! novels a&out the !a"ily o! the <ougonG
6ac-uart, a co"$le( estiny o! a cro+ o! $eo$le is $laye
out in al"ost $reestine !or". Also the egraation o!
characters in "uch naturalist !iction: the hero is &oun on
no less a -uest i! he &e searching !or his o+n ruin (18B).
:e&ate $oe"s: @+l an the ;ightingale2 >ygate9s <eson
an 5ensualitie2 6arvell9s :ialogue &et+een the 5oul an
the ?oy an A ialogue &et+een the resolve soul an
create $leasure. Also Pro"etheus ?oun. 5ee 6.C. 3aites,
)5o"e as$ects o! the ancient allegorical e&ate,* in stuies
in 1nglish an co"$arative literature (<acli!!e College
"onogra$hs, no 18, 191D).
Also i"$ortant to e(a"ine the $articular synta( in +hich the
action is e($resse: $arata(isGa strucuring o! sentences
such that they o not convey any istinctions o! higher or
lo+er orer. 3here su&orinating evices such as relative
clauses, su&orinating conEunctions, $rhases in a$$osition,
etc., are use, +e have hy$ota(is, o! +hich the style o!
0enry Aa"es +oul &e an e(tre"e e(a"$le (16/).
'ho"as 3ilson calls ana$hora )the "archer.*
An allegorical style: )the e"&le"atic, isolate, "osaic
i"agery2 the $aratactic orer2 the ritual that acco"$anies
religious o&servance2 the lac% o! that $ers$ective +hich
+oul create a "i"etic +orl2 the "icrocos"ic character o!
the i"agery, +here Jevery single +or "ust contain in itsel!
the entire conce$t9* (1B1).
A strong tenency !or any ritual to &e le!t un!inishe, an a
tenency to increase in length an ela&oration. 0ence
un!inishe character o! FI(1B8).
4: Allegorical Causation: agic and !itual "orms
For"s o! "agical, allegorical causation: ou&ling ("agical
relationshi$ &et+een t+o levels o! $lot). 5ee 1"$son on
$roletarian lit as $astoralHalso ivision o! a "aEor character
into t+o antithetical as$ects. For &attle an $rogress t+o
as$ects o! "agical causation are relevant: ho"eo$athic, or
i"itative, "agic, the &asis o! causality in allegory +here
sy""etry $reo"inates2 contagious "agic, or "etony"ic
"agic, the &asis !or rituali.e !or"s (144). 5$enser9s
ou&ling e!!ect: Fair an False Flori"ell2 :uessa, Archi"ago
(198).
:os9 'he ,ree%s an the Irrational a "aEor te(t !or the
stuy o! origins o! allegorical literature (199).
Contagious "agic: a nu"&er o! allegories are
to$ogra$hically &ase on the iea that the hero "ust &e
%e$t a+ay !ro" any contact +ith evil, or else he +ill catch it.
5o, sacre $laces !ree o! contagion, e.g. the 0ouse o!
0oliness, the 0ouse o! 'e"$erance, in 5$enser, even Arlo
0ill in the 6uta&ilitie Cantos (/1DG/11). Also sacre, isolate
loci can ta%e the $lace o! consecrate talis"anic o&Eects, or
consecrate "o"ents o! ti"e. ?est e(a"$le: ?oo% L7III o!
the Ilia, the shiel o! Achilles (/14G/18).
)'he curious !act is that the &est instances o! %os"oi are all
o&Eects to+ar +hich a egree o! a"&ivalence is !elt2 they
are &oth goo an &a at once*(/19).
#: Thematic $%%ects: Ambi&alence' the Sublime' and
the Pictures(ue
:ualis" in allegory: the raical o$$osition o! t+o
ine$enent, "utually irreuci&le, "utually antagonistic
su&stances (///).
,ranest e(a"$le o! an a"&ivalent "ythos: Pro"etheus
?oun (//4).
Ironies as conense or colla$se allegories2 sho+ no
i"inishing, only a con!using, o! the se"antic an syntactic
$rocesses o! ou&le or "ulti$leGlevele $olyse"y. 3here
they o i!!er !ro" the allegorical nor" is in the egree o!
e"otive tension they "ani!est2 an(iety increases in
1uro$ean literary +or%s as they a$$roach +hat Frye calls
their )ironic* $hase (/=D). I! allegory is e$ieictic in "oe o!
aress, irony is the converse: )$raise &y &la"e.* Irony
allo+s us to live +ith the iscre$ancy &et+een a$$earances
an truth (/=/).
Praises :rayton9s Polyol&ion as one o! the "ost
co"$rehensive an $o+er!ul o! 1nglish su&li"e $oe"s
(/=6n).
Allusion in 6ilton: transu"$tive style (/41).
5ee Paul ,oo"an on the 5u&li"e, in 5tructure o! >iterature.
Charles P. 5egal, )0y$sos an the Pro&le" o! Cultural
:ecline in the :e 5u&li"itate,* 0arvar 5tuies in Classical
Philology, 64 (1989): 1/1G146.
Pictures-ue is inverse or "icrosco$ic su&li"ity2 su&li"e
ai"s at great si.e an graneur, +hile the $ictures-ue ai"s
at littleness an a sort o! "oesty2 su&li"e $rouces terror
or a+e an(iety, +hile $ictures-ue $rouces an al"ost
e(cessive !eeling o! co"!ort2 +ith all the other as$ects o!
the one there +ill &e !oun inversions o! the other (/8=).
,rotes-uerie2 chinoiserie (e(otic o&Eects): con!ront the
s$ectator +ith ea, ying, ecaying o&Eects (/6/).
3hy su&li"e an $ictures-ue have $sychic %inshi$ +ith
allegory: their "orali.ing tenency an in their e"otive
a"&ivalence (/6B). 5$enserian a"&ivalence: ?oo% I, the
a"&ivalence resulting !ro" the sense o! sin, the archety$al
Christian ta&oo2 ?oo% II, the a"&ivalence o! a$$etite an
+ill2 ?oo% III, the a"&ivalence o! the !ear o! se(ual i"$urity2
?oo% I7, continuation o! III, centering o!!icially on con!lict o!
loyalties or con!licte !rienshi$s2 7, a"&ivalence &et+een
iea an la+2 7I, least o$enly a"&ivalent2 6uta&ilitie
Cantos contain in essence the $ro&le"s o! the other &oo%s
(/69). = %ins o! ta&oo in Freu9s 'ote" an 'a&oo: o!
ene"ies, o! rulers, o! the ea2 all in FI, es$ecially o! the
ruler, ,loriana (/B/). <eaing FI: )@n our !irst encounter
the !igures are "iniature, li%e the %nights Proust i"agine
on his &e, Eousting in the $lay!ul light o! a "agic lantern.
?ut as +e rea our +ay into 5$enser, his !igures gro+ large
+ith another si.e, o! ull rever&erations, &y alluing to other
cultures, other religions, other $hiloso$hies than our o+n*
(/B=).
): Psychoanalytic Analogues: *bsession and
Com+ulsion
3hile Freu an his !ollo+ers "ay have !aile to construct
an ae-uate &ehavioral theory that can &e e"$irically
teste, an have !aile to "eet e$iste"ological criticis"
!ro" $hiloso$hy, they have not !aile in their escri$tion o!
sy"&olic action (/4D).
'ote" an 'a&oo: = %ins o! neurosis an = %ins o!
nonneurotic activity: o&sessions an religious ritual2
$aranoia an $hiloso$hy2 hysteria an "i"etic art (/4/).
Pro$er analogue to allegory is the co"$ulsive synro"e: 1)
agency: o&sessional an(iety2 /) i"age: the iee !i(e2 =)
action: co"$ulsive rituals2 4) causality: "agical $racticesH
"agic o! na"es es$ecially2 8) the"e: a"&ivalence in
)antithetical $ri"al +ors*Hin treating co"$ulsive neurotics
the $sychoanalyst is concerne chie!ly +ith the thera$eutic
trans!erence o! a angerous authoritarianis"2 "ust estroy
hol o! so"e authoritarian !igure (/99)2 hero is constantly
ru"inating a&out his o+n esires, su!!ering e(tre"e
te"$tation (=D1).
,reat su""ary:
Allegory as a %in o! co""unication is li%e a %in o!
essential &ehavior, the co"$ulsive ritual. Co"$ulsive
&ehavior is not Eust $hysical actionH&ut even "ore
$ro!ounly a !or" o! sy"&olic action, an can there!ore &e
co"$are to the sy"&olic action %no+n as allegory. 1) in
&oth cases +e !in an authoritarian sort o! &ehavior: rigi,
an(ious, !atalistic2 the hero o! an allegorical e$ic +ill &e
$resente to us oing things the +ay a co"$ulsive $erson
oes things, regularly, "eticulously, &linly. /) in &oth
cases there is great $lay !or "agical in!luence, $sychic
$ossession, ta&oo restrictions2 =) events are isolate !ro"
each other into highly e$isoic !or"s, there&y enca$sulating
$articular "o"ents o! contagion or &eatitue2 4) the
co"$ulsive $attern o! &ehavior o!ten sho+s a use o! oracular
o"ens, +hich are !elt to &e &ining, an this $rovies the
overall su&li"e $attern !or a $ro$hetic literature, +here the
hero is co"$elle ever on+ar an is hel on his $ath &y
these $reestinating o"ens an oracles2 8) in &oth cases
+e "eet a language o! ta&oo, o! antithetical $ri"al +ors, in
+hich the single ter" contains ia"etrically o$$ose
"eanings, allo+ing !or $arao(es an ironies at the heart o!
allegories. 'he $arao(es o! ta&oo co"&ine +ith other traits
o! co"$ulsive &ehavior to give allegory a !unction in the
renering o! a large $art o! our $sychic li!e. 5houl &e o!
+ie interest, since )+e are, a!ter all, all o! us co"$ulsive in
so"e +ay or other* (=D=).
,: -alue and Intention: The .imits o% Allegory
7alue o! allegory +as calle into -uestion &y ,oethe an his
<o"antic !ollo+ers, an &y the ;e+ Critics (see es$. ?roo%s
an 3arren, Unerstaning Poetry, rev. e. /B4G/B4).
5te$ !ro" co"$ulsive to co"$ulsory is short2 since
allegorical +or%s $resent an aesthetic sur!ace +hich i"$lies
an authoritative, the"atic, )correct* reaing, an +hich
atte"$ts to eli"inate other $ossi&le reaings, they
eli&erately restrict the !reeo" o! the reaer. 'hey raise
the -uestion o! value irectly, asserting certain $ro$ositions
as goo an others as &a2 a +or% li%e the FI violates the
Cantian rule o! isinteresteness (=D6).
see tro&ar clus, 6aurice 7alency, In Praise o! >ove: on
eli&erate o&scurity o! trou&aour $oetry.
Four!ol sche"e o! inter$retive levels $arallels the
Aristotelian !our causes: literalM"aterial2 allegoricalM!or"al2
tro$ologicalMe!!icient2 anagogicalM!inal (=1=n11).
Anato"y o! 6elancholy an allegory in +hich :e"ocritus is
the hero (=19G=/D).
Puttenha" in 'he Arte o! 1nglish Poesie (1849): allegory
)the chie! ringleaer an ca$tain o! all other !igures, either
in the $oetic or oratory science*2 the ece$tive, su&versive
!igure o! )!alse se"&launt,* es$ecially neee &y the
courtier, +ho "ust learn to s$ea% ece$tively an
e-uivocallyHallegorically (=/4G=/9).
Psychoanalysis, es$ecially $o$ular !or"2 science !ictionH
&oth "oern !or"s o! allegory (==6). 6ore allegory is
actually &eing $rouce no+ than ever, &ut the i!!erence is
that the +or% $rouce ta%es a negative vie+ o! its $rece$ts
(=4D). );aive allegory !lourishes +here $ioneer, or highly
co"$etitive, social conitions $ertain, an those are
conitions +here sheer survival is at sta%e, an there is no
$lace !or ialectical su&tleties* (=4/). Allegory a ritual !or
carrying o!! the threat o! a"&ivalent !eelings (=4=).
6ythNrea"2 allegoryNrationali.ation an co"$ulsive
thin%ing (=88n61).
A%ter/ord
Allegories are )"onu"ents to our ieals* (=6D). 5ee Paul
,oo"an on 1"erson9s Concor 0y"n, in );otes on a
<e"ar% o! 5ea"i,* in Uto$ian 1ssays an Practical Pro$osals,
1=DG1=B.
Fil"s es$ecially nee the e"&le"aticMallegorical "oe: :e
5ica9s 6iracle in 6ilan2 Cle"ent9s For&ien ,a"es,
,ervaise2 ?erg"an9s 'he 5eventh 5eal, 'he 7irgin 5$ring,
'hrough a ,lass :ar%ly, 'he 6agician2 Fellini9s >a 5traa, >a
:olce 7ita, 'he 'e"$tation o! :r. Antonio2 ?unuel9s
7iriiana2 Antonioni9s >9Avventura an >a ;otte, Alain
<esnais9s >ast Oear at 6arien&a2 0iroshi"a 6on A"our,
Une Aussi >onge A&sence (=68G=66).
Potential +ea%ness o! the "oe: anesthesia, i!!usion o!
inner coherence, as it threatens never to en (=6B).
)'he strengths o! the "oe are e-ually clear. It allo+s !or
instruction, !or rationali.ing, !or categori.ing an coi!ying,
!or casting s$ells an e($ressing un&ien co"$ulsions, !or
5$enser9s J$leasing analysis,9 an, since aesthetic $leasure
is a virtue also, !or ro"antic storytelling, !or satirical
co"$lications, an !or sheer orna"ental is$lay. 'o
conclue, allegories are the natural "irrors o! ieology*
(=64).