Illustrated Notes-Form One and Two Notes

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MADE EASY AND INTERESTING
Illustrated lesson notes for key topics in physical geography
By
E. Cheloti
Part one; form one and two work.

THE BOOK HAS BEEN PROVED USEFUL TO BOTH THE STUDENT AND THE TEACHER.
ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
TOPICS COVERED
1. Introduction to geography
2. The earth and the solar system
3. Field work
4. MINERALS AND ROCKS
@ Cheloti- Introduction to Geography, Earth, Solar system and Internal land forming processes.
INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY
Geography is defined as:
"The study of the diverse features on the earth's surface such as its relief, climate, vegetation,
soils, economic resources, their description, development and distribution; and their interaction
with man."
(R.O Buchanan, "Illustrated Dictionary of Geography")
Geography is the study of how man interacts with the environment.

The environment refers all the external conditions which have influence over
the behaviour of an organism.
There are two divisions of the environment;
a) The physical environment the natural physical conditions of
weather, climate, vegetation, animals, soils, landforms and drainage.
b) The human environment; including human activities such as
farming, forestry, mining, tourism, settlement, transportation, trade
and industry.
Why do we study Geography?
Geography is important for a number of reasons:
a) "To gain knowledge about our environment and how to control it for
both the present and the future generations."
b) "To understand and explain how man interacts with his surroundings."
c) "It helps us to be aware of the features within our environment, how
they are formed, the benefits we get from them and the threats they
pose."
d) "Geography provides useful skills for becoming a teacher, surveyor,
planner, geologist and environmentalists, so as to earn a living."
e) Geography teaches us the basic principles and geographical methods
of studying and therefore solving problems of national development.
f) Geography also helps us to acquire positive attitudes and values
which enable us to become useful members of the society. During
fieldwork, an individual is able to develop respect for work especially
group work.
g) Studying geography of other regions in the world creates international
awareness which facilitates good relations among people.
THE MAJOR BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
1) Physical geography deals with the study of the earth's landscape and
atmosphere.
It includes the study of:
The earth in relation to the solar system.
The shape of the landscape (called Geomorphology)
Weather (called Meteorology)
Climate (called Climatology)
The location of plants and animals (called Biogeography)
Rocks (called Geology)
2) Human geography deals with man's economic activities such as

agriculture, commerce, tourism, industrialization, transport, commerce.
It has the following sub-branches;
Historical geography (How land use has changed over time)
Cultural geography (How land is used in different cultures)
Demography (the effect of changes in population)
Economic geography (How man creates wealth from the environment)
Social geography (How changes in society affect land use)
Political geography (How politics affects land use)
Settlement geography (How changes in our villages and towns affect

the landscape)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES

This relationship comes about when geography applies certain principles and
facts from other subjects to explain or solve certain geographical problems
or when these subjects apply geographical information to explain various
concepts.
Geography and Mathematics

Mathematical principles and formulae are used in Geography to calculate
distances, areas and population densities. E.g. use of graphs and pie charts.
Geographical knowledge about bearing and direction is in turn used by
mathematicians to calculate distances around the globe.
Geography and history
Historical geography exists as a branch that ways in which historical events
are affecting human economic activities. Geography attempts to map these
events.
History uses geographical tools like maps and charts to show movements of
people.
Geography and biology
While biology studies organisms, focusing on their anatomy, physiology and
behaviour, geography is interested in their distribution, factors influencing
the distribution and the influence of the biological organisms on human
activities.
Geography and physics
Physics studies matter, energy, heat, light, gravity and magnetism.
Geography focuses on heat from the sun as it is responsible for movement
of air, evaporation of water and distribution of moisture in the atmosphere.
The earths magnetic field, gravity and its vibrations, areas dealt with by
geophysicists, help geographers to understand the causes and effects of
earth quakes.
Geography and chemistry.
Chemistry studies substances, their composition and behaviour.
Geography applies chemistry in studying the chemical composition of, and
changes in rocks and soils.
Geography and agriculture.
Agriculture involves cultivation of crops and rearing of animals. Geography is
occupied with studying farming systems, their distribution and factors

affecting farming activities.
Geography and meteorology
Meteorology deals with atmospheric conditions of a pace and weather
forecasting.
The meteorological information is important to a geographer in classification
and mapping of climates. Climatology is the sub branch of geography that
deals with this.
Geography and medicine
While medicine is concerned with disease diagnosis, prevention and cure,
geography attempts to establish factors influencing spread of disease and
the diseases affect economic activities.
Geography and economics
Economics deals with the study of commodities, focusing on money and
trade.
Geography similarly focuses on the exploitation of resources, methods and
factors of production, movement of commodities and their consumption.
A MODEL SHOWING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER DISCILPLINES
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Task 1: with the help of your teacher, find some pictures and photographs that illustrate the different branches of Geography and create a wall display.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND EARTH

Introduction
The sun, moon and stars are commonly referred to as heavenly bodies.
The earth, the heavenly bodies and the sky make up the universe. The
universe has stars and a cluster of stars is known as a galaxy or nebula,
with each containing many stars.
Our galaxy in which the solar system exists is the Milky Way.
The solar system

Solar system refers to the grouping of heavenly bodies comprising the sun
and nine planets.
The sun is a star around which the planets and other heavenly bodies
revolve.
The solar system.
In our solar system, nine planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune, and Pluto), over 61 moons, many asteroids (mostly in a belt between Mars and
Jupiter), comets, meteoroids and other rocks and gas all orbit the Sun.
Important points to note
A star is a heavenly body possessing its own light which it transmits.
Planets are large and spherical celestial bodies in space which move
around a star such as the sun on their orbits.
An orbit is the path in space which the planet follows as it revolves
around the sun. The orbits of the nine planets are elliptical.
Each planet takes a different length of time to complete one revolution;

because the distance from the sun to each planet varies.
There are other smaller bodies found in the solar system. For example,
between planets mars and Jupiter, there are satellites known as
asteroids.
Some planet has their own satellites (moons) that revolve around them
The
relative sizes of the planets
THE RELATIVE SIZES OF THE PLANETS
Take note of the Plutos giant moon, Charon, beyond Pluto.
Mercury
It is the smallest and the nearest planet to the sun, with a distance of about
58 million kilometres from the sun.
It takes approximately 88 earth days to complete one revolution.
It has one satellite.
Venus.
Second planet from the sun with an average distance of 108 million
kilometres separating them.
It is one of the brightest planets in the sky and can be seen with the naked
eye.
It is structurally similar to the earth though it is slightly smaller.
It takes 225 earth days to revolve round the sun. it has no satellite.
Earth.
The planet on which we live, the only planet that supports life, is the third
from the sun.
The distance from the sun is 149 million kilometres.
It takes 365.26 days to complete one revolution around the sun.
It has only one satellite, the moon.
Mars.
It s fourth from the sun and is slightly smaller than the earth.
Its distance from the sun is 227.9 million kilometres and it takes 687 earth
days to complete one revolution.
It has two moons.
Between it and Jupiter there exist small heavenly bodies called asteroids.
Mars. Credit: NASA
Jupiter.
This is the largest planet and with a large number of satellites (sixteen).
It takes 12 earth years to revolve round the sun.
The planet has very thick layers of ice on its surface.
The distance from the sun to Jupiter is 778 million kilometres.

Saturn.
It is a unique planet that has a ring around it.
It is the second biggest planet in the solar system.
The distance from the sun is about 1427 million kilometres.
It takes 29 earth years to complete one revolution.
It has eighteen satellites.
Uranus.
The seventh planet from the sun.
It is roughly 4 times bigger than the earth.
The distance from the sun to Uranus is about 2870 million kilometres.
Because of its vast distance from the earth, very little is known about it.
Neptune.
It can only be seen using a powerful telescope.
It has eight satellites.
Pluto.
This is the farthest planet.
It is the smallest with an approximate size of 1/6 the size of the earth.
To complete one revolution round the sun, it takes 248 earth years.
OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES.
Natural satellites.
A natural satellite is any natural body that orbits around a planet. The solar
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system has over 61 satellites, varying in size.

The seven largest, each with a diameter of more than 2500 kilometres are;
a) The earths moon
b) The four Galilean satellites of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede and
Callisto) Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System.
c) Titan on Saturn
d) Triton on Neptune.
Asteroids.
These are planet-like objects and sometimes known as planetoids, located
between mars and Jupiter.
They are believed to be pieces of a planet that broke up or existing as
material that failed to form as planets when the solar system was forming.
They are over 1500 in number and also orbiting around the sun.
Their orbits are so erratic that the constantly collide with each other, and
even with planets. The erratic orbits are believed a product of Jupiters
Gravitative pull
Comets.
A comet is a heavenly body which orbits round the sun.
It is thought to be made up of a ball of ice with dust and frozen gases
forming its nucleus.
As the comet nears the sun the dust points away from the sun, giving the
comet a head and tail morphology.
The orbit of a comet crosses the orbits of planets and at one point it moves
so close to the sun.
Meteors.
Also known as shooting stars, they refer to a streak of light seen in the sky
on a clear night.
Meteors are a product of meteoroids that burn themselves out( meteoroids
are small bodies of matter which break away from their path in the solar
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system and enter the earths upper atmosphere at very high speed).
The burning out is due to great friction between them and the atmosphere,
caused by the high speed of entry into the earths atmosphere.
They burn up in the regions of between 75 and 115 kilometres above the
surface of the earth.
The much more brilliant meteors produced by larger meteoroids are known
as bolide.
Meteorites.
These are remnants of meteoroids that failed to burn up completely and
reached the earths surface.
They are products of meteoroids that enter the earths atmosphere at low
velocity and therefore minimal friction that cannot cause them to burn up.
Only 25% of their mass reaches the surface as the rest is burned up.
They vary in size from a few grams to 20,000 kg.
Sometimes very large meteorites landing on the ground cause formation of
craters.
THE EARTH.
Origin of the earth and the solar system
The two main theories are;
1. The passing star theory.
The theory was advanced by jeans and Jeffreys. The theory states that
the sun existed earlier than the planets.
A big star with greater gravitational pull than that of the sun passed
nearby and attracted large quantities of materials in form of gases from
the sun.
The materials split into portions as they cooled and condensed to form
planets.
They were then set into orbits around the sun. The smaller materials
formed the heavenly bodies like the moon and asteroids.
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As cooling continued, heavier materials collected at the centre and formed

the core of the earth. The less dense materials collected around the core
to form the mantle, then the crust.
2. The nebular cloud hypothesis.
The hypothesis Suggests that the solar system started out as a nebular
cloud, (a large, rotating cloud of dust and gas).
Due to acceleration in its rotation, Nebula thus flattening into a disk
oriented perpendicularly to its axis of rotation.
The planets and sun were concentrated from the dust and gasses in the
cloud by gravitational attraction.
The solar system formed when a rotating gas cloud, the result of at least one prior supernova,
began to collapse as a result of gravitational attraction.
Summary of other theories on earth origin.

1. The planets were spun off of the sun. This theory suggests that the
planets were spun off of the sun, and are thus essentially daughters of
the sun.
weakness
If this were the way that the solar system formed, then:
a. The sun would have most of the angular momentum
b. The sun would be less massive than it is.
2. The Big Bang theory. It presupposes the existence of a universeinitiating explosion.
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Light elements were formed during the early stages of the big bang, creating
a universe composed principally of hydrogen and helium.
Since then, the heavier elements are manufactured by fusion processes within stars or during spectacular
supernova explosions.
3. The biblical interpretation of earth origin. According to Bishop

Ussher, an Irish prelate, living in the middle seventeenth century, the
earth was created at exactly nine oclock on the morning of October 23rd
4004 BC by God who also created heaven.
Characteristics of the Solar System.
It is a Part of a Nebula
Most of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated in the sun.
98 percent of the angular momentum is found in the planets
Heavy noble gases (xenon, neon, Krypton) are rare on earth as

compared to space and the sun.
The Earth is layered with a thin crust, overlying a heavier mantle,

and centered with a nickel-iron core, the outer part of which is
molten, and the inner part of which is solid
The planets and sun each have a somewhat different density

suggesting different time and/or temperatures of origin.
Earth's Thermal Structure

The interior of the earth is very hot because of three heat sources
a) Heat of formation; the original heat is still retained long after material
broke away from the sun
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b) The weight of millions of tones of the crustal rocks that cover the
interior, thus generating pressures-caused heat.
c) Radioactive heat. There is constant explosion of radioactive materials
within the interior of the earth due to nuclear fusion, thus generating
heat.
The shape of the earth.

The shape of the earth is described as spherical, though not a perfect
sphere. It is slightly wider at the equator and flattened at the poles giving it
a shape called a geoid or oblate spheroid
Proofs that the earth is spherical.

The following arguments may be adduced in witness of the earths spherical
shape.
a) Circumnavigation, first accomplished by Magellans ship, the Vittoria,
provides concrete proof that the earth is round. Anybody traveling at
constant bearing, from any point on the earths surface will eventually
come back to the point of departure.
b) If the earth was flat, the sun would rise and set precisely at the same
moment over its entire surface and the angle at which the rays of the
sun strike the earth would be uniform. However, the sun rises east and
sets west, with the rays angle varying from 0 to 90 degrees, proving the
curvature of the surface.
c) The dip of the horizon is everywhere the same. Again the horizon is
always circular to an observer. It continues to expand with increasing
height. These are features characteristic of a sphere.
d) The altitude of the polar star increases regularly (1 degree higher for
every 110 km) as an observer travels from the equator to the poles,
indicating the earth is curved in a north-south direction.
e) In lunar eclipses, the earths shadow on the moon is always seen to be
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circular and the only geometrical form which at all times always casts a
circular shadow is a sphere. Thus the inference is the earth is round.
f) The sun and all the planets of the solar system have been observed to
be spherical bodies and, since the earth is merely one of the planets,
originating in the same way, it may be assumed to be, like the rest,
spherical in shape.
g) Apart from very slight differences in connection with Richers
experiment, the force pf gravity is practically the same the world over.
The force of gravity requires the earth to be spherical in form.
h) The Bedford Level experiment, performed in 1870 by A.R.Wallace, gave
practical proof that the earth is round. If three poles of equal height are
set up at equally spaced intervals on a water surface and the top of the
third is sighted from the first, the middle pole will be found to project
above the line of sight. This proves the curvature of the surface, which
is of 2m in 5km.
i) Examining photographs taken in space from rockets at very high
latitude-320km and more- shows the horizon as a curved line.
The size of the earth.

The latest calculation and satellite observations give the following
mathematical data for planet earth:
Approximate distance from the sun-149 560 000kilometres.
Polar circumference-39995 kilometres.
Equatorial diameter- 12756kilometres.
Inclination of the equator from the horizon-23
Length of day-24 hours.
Length of year-365.26 days.
Surface area of the earth-510 x 10 sq. kilometres
71% comprise water surface.
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The structure of the earth.
Structure and major chemical composition of Earth.
Earth's radius is about 6,371 km and the radius of the core is about 3,486
km (the inner core radius is about 1,217 km.
Earth's mass is approximately 5.973x1024 kg, and its mean density is 5.515
g/cm^3. The typical density of continental rocks is about 2.7 g/cm^3.
Crust accounts for less than one-half of one percent of the mass of the
planet.
The mantle accounts for about 84% of Earth's volume but the core contains
almost 70% of the planet's mass.
The interior structure of the Earth is layered. The Earth has an outer
silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is
much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.
Three Parts of Earth's Interior:
Cross sectional structure (Crust - Mantle
Core)
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1. Earths Crust: The crust ranges from 570 km in depth and is the
outermost layer. There are two different types of crust:
a) The thin oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (510 km). It
mainly consists of silica and magnesium; it is therefore called sima
(si-silica and ma-magnesium).
b) The thicker continental crust, underlying the continents and is less
dense. The main mineral constituents of the continental mass are silica
and alumina; it is thus called sial (si-silica, 6575% and al-alumina).
crust
NB;
The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the

lithosphere.
The crust-mantle boundary occurs as the Mohorovii discontinuity

or Moho.
2. Mantle
Mantle
Earth's Mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, and is the thickest layer of
the Earth. The mantle is composed mainly of olivine-rich rock.
The temperature of the mantle increases with depth. This steady increase of
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temperature with depth is known as the geothermal gradient.

Rocks in the upper mantle are cool and brittle enough to break under stress
and produce earthquakes, while rocks in the lower mantle are hot and soft
(but not molten) and flow when subjected to forces instead of breaking.
Convection currents exist in the mantle and cause motions of the tectonic
plates.
3. Core
core
Earth's Core is thought to be composed mainly of an iron (80%), and nickel

alloy and one or more light elements. many meteorites (which are thought
to be portions of the interior of a planetary body) are iron-nickel alloys.
Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts;
a) A liquid outer core extending to a radius of ~3,400 km. the
temperatures there are adequate to melt the iron-nickel alloy.it
surrounds the inner core.
b) A solid inner core with a radius of ~1,220 km. though its temperature
is higher than the outer core, tremendous pressure, produced by the
weight of the overlying rocks is strong enough to crowd the atoms
tightly together and prevents the liquid state. the inner core rotates
slightly faster than the rest of the planet
Sources of information on the internal structure of the earth
1 Observations of topography and bathymetry.
2 Observations of rock in outcrop samples brought to the surface from
greater depths by volcanic activity.
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3 Analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth.

4 Measurements of the gravity field of the Earth.
5 Experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures
characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.
MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH

There are two types of earth movements;
a) Earth rotation.
b) Revolution.
EARTHS ROTATION
The term Earth rotation refers to the spinning of our planet on its axis. One
rotation takes exactly twenty-four hours and is called a mean solar day.
Earth Rotation
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Figure 6h-1: Earth rotation. From the North Pole the rotation appears to move in a
counter-clockwise fashion. Looking down at the South Pole the Earths rotation appears
clockwise
Through 360, the earth takes 24 hours to make one rotation. This
implies that for every 15 of rotation, it takes one hour or for every four
minutes, it takes 1
EFFECTS OF ROTATION.
1. Day and night. The Earths rotation is responsible for the daily cycles of
day and night.
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DAY AND NIGHT-
NIG
HT.
ILLUSTRATION
DAY

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2. High tide and low tide. A tide is a rhythmic rise and fall of sea level
caused by the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun upon the
rotating earth.
3. Deflection of winds and ocean currents. As the earth rotates from
west to east, winds and ocean currents are deflected. In the southern
hemisphere, they are deflected to the left. In the north, they are
Earth Rotation-effects
deflected to the right.

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4. Time difference between longitudes. The rotation of the earth causes

a difference in time of 1 hour in every 15 interval between longitudes.
This is because the earth takes 24 hours to go through 360. Through
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1the earth takes 4 minutes.

Places on same longitude record same time known as local time. Local
time at Greenwich Meridian (longitude 0) is called the Greenwich
Mean Time.
Any movement westwards from GMT witnesses a loss of 4 minutes in
every 1. Towards the east, one gains 4 minutes in every 1
Calculation of time using longitude.

Time calculation involves finding the difference in degrees of the longitudes
of the two given points.
This difference is then multiplied by 4 minutes, the time taken by the earth
to rotate through 1.
Determine if the place whose time you are finding is found on the east or on
the west of Greenwich Meridian. If on the east, add the time to the given
time. If on the west, subtract.
Standard time and time zones.
Time zones are the internationally agreed divisions of the world into zones,
each approximately 15wide with regular intervals across the oceans and
irregular ones over land.
The irregularities over land are to avoid splitting any one country into
different time zones as this could create confusion
The world has 24 time zones.
The time recorded by countries in the same time zone is called standard
time.
International Date Line.
This is the line following approximately longitude 180 except where it has
to cross through a group of islands or a country. Where it curves, the aim is
to avoid splitting a country or islands belonging to one country into different
time zones.
On crossing this line, one loss or gains a day.
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The world time zone map.
World time zones

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REVOLUTION.
The orbiting of the Earth around the Sun is called an Earth revolution. This
takes 365.26 days to complete one cycle.
The Earth's orbit around the Sun is oval or elliptical causing the Earth's
distance from the Sun to vary over a year.
This variation in the distance from the Sun causes the amount of solar
radiation received by the Earth to annually vary by about 6%.
Tilt of the Earth's Axis
The Earth's axis is not at right angles to this surface, but inclined at an angle
of about 23.5 from the perpendicular. .
The following diagram is an illustration of the earths axial tilt
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The Earths rotational axis is tilted 23.5 from the red line drawn
perpendicular to the ecliptic plane.
The relative position of the Earth's axis to the Sun change during revolution.
Annual change in the position of the Earth in its revolution around the Sun.
The results;
a. It causes the seasons, by controlling the intensity and duration of
sunlight received by locations on the Earth. The four resultant seasons
are spring, summer, autumn and winter. The seasons are mainly
experienced in the high and mid latitudes
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b. It results in the solstices and equinoxes.

The solstices.
Figure 6-5-The solstices.

During the June solstice (summer solstice) the Earth's North Pole is tilted
23.5 degrees towards the Sun.
This phenomenon keeps all places above latitude 66.5 degrees N in 24 hours
of sunlight, while locations below latitude of 66.5 degrees S are in darkness.
During the December solstice (winter solstice), The North Pole is tilted
23.5 degrees away from the Sun.
On this date, all places above latitude 66.5 degrees N are now in darkness,
while locations below latitude 66.5 degrees S receive 24 hours of day.
The equinoxes.
Figure 6-6 the equinoxes.:

During the equinoxes, the axis of the Earth is not tilted toward or away from
the Sun.
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Temperature changes during the equinoxes

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On September 23rd, also called the autumnal equinox neither pole is tilted
toward or away from the Sun.
In the Northern Hemisphere, March 21st marks the arrival of the vernal
equinox or spring when once again the poles are not tilted toward or away
from the Sun.
Day lengths on both of these days, regardless of latitude, are exactly 12
hours.
c. Annual changes in the height of the Sun above the horizon
The annual change in the relative position of the Earth's axis in relationship
to the Sun causes the height of the Sun or solar altitude to vary in our skies.
This variation is due to the annual changes in the relative position of the
Earth to the Sun.
Figure 6h-11: Variations in solar altitude at solar noon for the equator during the June solstice, equinox, and December solstice
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d. Varying length of day and night

The axis of the earth is inclined to its ecliptic plane at a certain angle.
If the axis of the earth was perpendicular to the elliptical plane, all parts of
the earth would receive equal nights and days at all times of the year.
However, variations are witnessed governed by the apparent position of the
overhead sun.
For example in December, the north experiences longer nights than the
south because the sun is overhead in the south.
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FIELDWORK
INTRODUCTION
Fieldwork is a scientific approach through which geographical knowledge and
skills can be acquired practically in the field.
The field is the major source of primary geographical information (data).
Types of field work.

1. Field excursion.
This is a field trip, study trip or a study tour where students are taken out of
school to visit areas in the vicinity or places far away.
It serves the function of;
a) Reinforcing what is learnt in the classroom with practical experiences
by seeing and observing.
b) Helping to gain more geographical knowledge of the area visited.
c) It helps in identifying and appreciating the existence of geographical
features, human activities and the scenery.
d) It helps in Identifying problems of geographical interest which may
form a subject for discussion at a later stage.
2. Field research.
A more advanced fieldwork involving problem solving approach.
For example, by a medical team concerned with a disease outbreak.
3. Field study.
It is a study conducted within the neighbourhood and involving group or
individual collecting information to achieve pre-set objectives.
Data collected is analyzed and conclusions drawn.
Teaching of Fieldwork in Geography is based on three-fold study approach
namely:
1. Observation
2. Recording and interpretation
3. Making of generalizations based on this approach
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Note the following:

1. Studies in local geography should be based on direct observation in the
field.
2. Distant places or regions, landscapes must be brought in the classroom
and given reality by adopting studies similar to these in the field i.e.
through use of sample studies.
Aim of field work:
1. The aim of field work in geography is to:
2. Enable students develop skills of information gathering, interpretation
and writing for future reference.
FIELDWORK GUIDE
Preparation of Fieldwork
For any field work study to be undertaken the following is crucial:
1. Need for adequate planning
The success and failure of the fieldwork study will largely depend on how
well pre-field preparations were made.
Thus, both technical and organizational decisions should be considered.
Technical Decisions/steps followed

These include the following:
a) Identifying the topic to work on.
b) Identifying the area where to carry out fieldwork.
c) Setting up the objectives of the study
d) Formulation of hypothesis.
e) Conducting a pilot study/pre-survey of the fieldwork area.
f) Determining methods to be used in carrying out fieldwork.
g) Determining the equipment(s) to be used in the field.
h) Seeking permission to carry out fieldwork.
i) Actual field work.
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Step 1: Identify the topic

What to note:
The topic of study is an important guide, gives direction in carrying out

field work. It is sometimes referred to as the problem.
First identify the subject matter.
Design the topic to establish the scope (what to study)
Identify the area of study (where to look for data from)
Think of the most informative and appropriate area for the topic. It can
be even the current topic being covered in class.
The teacher finds suitable study area. E.g. A study of rocks around the
school.
Step 2: Identifying the area where to carry out fieldwork.

What to note;
The area where carry out the study has to be chosen carefully to
ensure success of the study.
The area must contain sufficient information and within a convenient

distance.
Step 3: Set specific objectives of the study

What to note
Objectives summarize what is to be achieved by the study and should

address key factors of the topic.
Students are led to suggest short and precise instructions to facilitate

the collection of data in the field.
They should be in a logical sequence.
The objectives are intended to direct the students activity towards

acquiring specific skills.
Objectives should be stated in action verbs that are specific enough to

be achieved.
A standard objective should start with the words to find out to
30
investigate, to identify
Examples:
ACTION VERBS
AVOID VAGUE VERBS (ABSTRACT)
To: Identify
To: -
Describe
Know
Find
Appreciate
Determine
Understand
Establish
Study
Investigate
These vague verbs do not direct students activity towards acquiring
Compare
specific data.
Calculate
Analyse, etc.
Illustration.
Topic:
The growth and development of urban markets: A case study of Kimilili
market in Bungoma County.
Objectives
These are exact statements of the activity and what is supposed to be
observed.
The objectives of the study are as follows:
a) To locate Kimilili market.
b) To draw a sketch map showing site of the market.
c) To explain factors for establishment of the market.
d) To identify problems facing the market in the contemporary period.
e) To find out how the market is dealing with these problems, etc.
Step 4: formulation of hypothesis.
What to note
A hypothesis is an idea, guess or suggestion from which reasoning or

explanation is sought. Or it is a statement of an outcome which is
31
anticipated.
It can be a tentative answer or the proposed solution to the problem

which the study is designed to test or prove.
A hypothesis can be stated in a declarative or substantive form.
E.g. the majority of the goods sold in the market are vegetables.
A hypothesis can be stated in positive form or in a negative form (null

hypothesis).
It can also be stated in a question form.
A good hypothesis should be simple but not obvious. It must leave room
for acceptance or rejection of the suggestion.
Step 5: re-connaissance/Pilot study

What to note
Pilot study is a pre-survey, or collecting of preliminary information. I.e.
students and teachers visit the area of study well in advance;
a) To familiarize with the area and save time during the actual study.
b) To judge and gauge how the actual fieldwork could be conducted.
c) To gather general information and relevant documents from officials.
d) To help one in deciding on the appropriate methods of data
collection.
e) To determine the appropriate routes to be taken.
f) Helps in assessing the suitability of the area as a source of the
information you require.
g) Helps in identifying the problems that are likely to be experienced.
h) It is possible to assess the cost of the study and plan for it
appropriately.
i) It helps in formulating relevant objectives and hypothesis. They can
be revised after the pre-survey.
j) It helps in general planning and preparation of a work schedule.
32
Step 5: preparation for the study.

What to note
The kind of preparation you make depends on the type of fieldwork you
intend to make.
The main purpose of planning is to take note of points and activities that
would be relevant for the fieldwork exercise such as;
a) Decide on the methods of data collection.
b) How much time to spend on each activity.
c) Seek for official permission to carry out fieldwork through proper
channels, i.e. school administration and administration officials of the
area of study. Letters must be written seeking for official permission.
d) Prepare questionnaires (handout, Magnetic compass, tape measures,
Writing materials like pens, pencil, ruler, note books etc).
e) Make budget for fieldwork exercise if there is need and pass it on to
relevant authorities.
f) Fix the date for fieldwork and a program for fieldwork to be put in
place.
Step 6: Determine the different methods (skills) to be used in
fieldwork to collect data
Some of the basic commonly used methods in geographical fieldwork studies
include:
a) Direct observation.
b) Recording.
c) Map orientation and reading.
d) Interviewing.
e) Sampling.
f) Pacing.
What to note
Methods should be relevant to the topic of study and objectives.
33
Methods of data collection should be identified and described.
Explain the procedure taken to use the method.
Information (specific data) obtained by the using a given method should

be brought out.
Step 7: Identify the tools and equipment to be used in the collection

of data.
Examples:
Stationary pens, pencils, and clip boards, note book, base map.
Measuring equipment- tape measure, foot-ruler, and magnetic compass.
Step 8: Briefing (coordination).
This specifies the details on how you are going to operate (operational plan)
This involves telling students what is expected. It involves the following: a) Reviewing the topic to work on.
b) Revising the objectives of the study, specifying how individual
objectives are to be achieved.
c) Describing the methods of recording data e.g. note making, filling
tables, sketching and drawing, interviewing and filling questionnaires,
observation , team work and consulting each other.
d) Emphasizing how to approach people in a polite way to maintain good
relationship and high standards of discipline while in the field.
e) Grouping the students into working teams (team work)
f) Assigning students different responsibilities to do.
g) Announcing the procedure of the trip (programs).
h) Warning/cautioning students against possible problems but also
stimulating their curiosity, so that they set off prepared to collect data.
Step 9: Actual fieldwork (collecting relevant data)
This is the stage of collecting data practically, the students go in the field
and apply the knowledge and methods, identified and discussed in the prefieldwork preparations to collect the geographical data (information) about
34
the area.
Note that:
a) Students assemble to receive equipment and handouts.
b) The teachers role is to guide and supervise students during the
fieldwork to ensure effective collection of data. The purpose of teachers
supervision is to help achieve the objectives of study.
c) In the field, the first thing to do is to introduce /notify your presence to
relevant authorities or management by producing the letter that you
used to seek permission during your pilot study.
d) The best way to start fieldwork is identifying a strategic position where
you can see all you want to study.
e) Ideally, you should start with map orientation.
f) Periodically, review the topic and objectives to ensure that data being
collected is relevant.
g) Teachers offer guidance to students. By moving from student to student
or group to group to see whether they are doing the expected, also
entertain questions from students.
h) At the end of each activity the teacher may review the aspects, posing
stimulating questions to help the students re-organize the information
according to objectives.
Step 10: Follow up activities (analyzing data and presenting results
of fieldwork)
The main purpose of follow up exercise is to re-organize and discuss results,
concerning the topic and the objectives of fieldwork as spelt out from the
beginning.
What to note
a) Students discuss and compare data (is sharing information through
discussion).
b) Polish up diagrams and sketches drawn during the study.
35
c) Organize the data, analyze and interpret the data and show the different
relationships.
d) After compiling each group reports their findings (data presentation).
e) Students write a report on the entire fieldwork exercise.
f) Report writing (this is data analysis according to objectives)
The report should include:
The topic of study
The objectives
Methods used while carrying out fieldwork.
The findings as per objective and appropriate sketches and diagrams
are used to illustrate information.
Problems faced while carrying out fieldwork.
Conclusion draw meaningful conclusions and recommendations as
based on the topic and findings.
3. Map orientation and map reading.
With the help of a topographical survey map students relate or compare the
map with the actual landscape. Orienting is using a compass to indicate
direction (magnetic note).
What to note.
Students should be able to locate where they are. Find the position (i.e.
grid reference) direction and distance, and also recognize how features
are represented on the map.
Students should work in groups for free discussion and help each other
(team work).
Students should understand the language of the map (identify symbols).
Students work from the ground to the map, drawing well-labeled

sketches and infilling of maps related to map reading and orientation.
36
METHODS USED IN FIELDWORK

Methods of data collection.
1) Direct observation (visual observation)
Direct observation is to see and identify patterns and interrelationships.
This method gives opportunity to record what is seen directly.
The method serves well in a situation where the phenomena being
understudied cannot communicate back. E.g. rocks, soil, rivers and
vegetation.
Advantages of the observation technique.
I) The data obtained is reliable since it is first-hand information.
II) One collects only what is relevant to the study.
III) It is time saving because you do not have to look for data in many
places.
Disadvantages.
I) It has an element of subjectivity because the data may be the findings
of only one persons observations.
II) The choice of spots to gather data from may be an individuals choice
and preference, which may be biased.
III) Data on past activities may not be available during the study.
IV) Where the required information may have changed with time, one can
make wrong conclusions.
V) Visual disabilities may reduce the effectiveness of the technique.
VI) It involves a lot of traveling which makes it tiresome or expensive.
2) Interviewing.
Interviewing is when questions are asked to respondents and answers
received from them to obtain information about desired geographical aspect.
An interview may be conducted face to face or on telephone.
Below are some of the guidelines on how to achieve a conducive atmosphere
for an interview;
37
a) Approach people politely.

b) Create a warm and friendly atmosphere for respondents.
c) Assure the respondents that the information they give remains
confidential.
d) Avoid unnecessary interruptions during the interview.
e) Do not suggest answers. Let all the answers come independently from
the respondents.
What to note.
Interviewing is the method used to collect information, which cannot be
obtained by observation, especially the economic and social factors.
For example:
1. Historical background
2. Statistical figures
3. Problems and solution prospects etc.
Advantages of the interview technique.
a) It gives first-hand information through direct responses from the
resource persons.
b) The interviewer can seek clarification from the respondent in case of
ambiguity in answers.
c) The interviewer is free to seek for more information by initiating
further discussions or by asking other questions.
d) Information can also be obtained from people who cannot read or
write.
e) The interviewer has the opportunity to create a good rapport with the
respondent and this would ensure that reliable answers are given.
f) The interviewer can also gauge the accuracy of the responses.
Disadvantages.
a) It is time consuming since the interviewer has to handle one person
at a time.
38
b) It is expensive and tiresome since the interviewer has to move to

different places to meet the respondents.
c) It can easily be prone to language barrier where the interviewer and
the respondent do not speak the same language. Use of interpreters
might distort some information.
d) Where resource persons may have forgotten, information on events
in the past may be unreliable.
e) The respondent may sometimes through exaggeration give wrong
information or even deliberately mislead.
3) Administering questionnaires.
This is a system of data collection where the researcher gives out a rigid
questionnaire to the people in the field. The questions are prepared in
relation to the objectives and hypotheses of the study.
Characteristics of a good questionnaire.
a) It should have questions in a simple language.
b) The questions should be short and clear.
c) They should be arranged in a logical sequence.
d) Questions that touch on a respondents privacy should be avoided
Advantages of using a questionnaire.
a) Comparison can be made easily since similar questions are used for all
respondents.
b) The data obtained is first hand.
c) The physical appearance of the conductor of the field study is not
necessary since questions are straight forward.
d) A lot of information can be collected within a questionnaire if the
questions are well prepared.
e) It saves time since all respondents are handled at the same time.
Disadvantages.
a) Some respondents may write down inaccurate answers thus rendering
39
the data inaccurate.

b) Data analysis may become difficult in a case where different answers
are obtained for the same question.
c) Some questionnaires may be returned unfilled or not returned at all in
case of a posted questionnaire. This may be in case of lazy or
uncooperative respondents.
d) Where there is a language barrier or in case of illiteracy, the technique
would not be useful.
4) Content analysis
This is a technique employed to collect data from secondary sources like text
books, magazines, newspapers, census reports, statistical abstracts, atlases
etc.
The techniques employed in content analysis include;
a) Reading and extracting relevant information.
b) Watching films.
c) Viewing photographs.
d) Listening to audio tapes using tape recorders.
Advantages of content analysis.
a) It is easy to get data especially if it is already analyzed.
b) It is cheap because it does not involve extensive traveling.
c) It saves time since all the required information may be obtained in one
place like the library.
d) It is possible to get old data because it is already stored in various
sources.
Disadvantages.
a) It may be difficult to verify the accuracy of available data.
b) The data may be irrelevant to current trends because it is out of date.
c) Up-to-date information may not be readily available.
40
5) Collecting samples.
Where there may be necessity to collect more information on items like
rocks, crops, vegetation and soils, than what may be gathered in the field,
their samples may be collected for further testing in laboratories.
6) Measuring.
Where it might be necessary to gather information on distances, heights,
areas, or depths, measurements may be taken and the results recorded.
Sometimes estimations may be taken where accurate measurements are
impossible.
7) Pacing
Pacing is a method of measuring using ones stride.
What to note
The strides made should be equivalent to a specific unit for example metre
foot.
Strides are therefore used to estimate sizes and distances.
8) Photographing
Some information in the field may be captured on film or video using
cameras.
9) Sampling
A sample may be regarded as a specimen or a small portion of a whole or a
bigger population, or part of the area under study taken to show what the
rest is like. For example, it could be a percentage of total population to be
interviewed or soil sampled rock type etc.
What to note
Sampling method is useful when a questionnaire is used and when it is

impossible to get the views of everybody.
Where the area under study is too large, the selection of a

representative sample (10% of the total population) is necessary.
Types of sampling techniques.

a) Random sampling. It is the technique that involves choice of places to
41
be used as bases for study randomly. For example through dividing

the study area into imaginary squares using lines then picking the
study area through some kind of raffle.
b) Systematic sampling. This method is applied where distribution of
phenomenon is even. E.g. a forest of cypress trees.
c) Stratified sampling. In this method, the study samples are selected
according to their groups or classes especially in the case of objects.
E.g. sampling on the basis of age groups, sex, or size of the farms.
Methods of data recording
The information collected should be written down in a systematic and
understandable manner. It involves note taking, drawing field sketches such
as maps, panoramas, transect (cross section), filling in base maps and
tables (tabulating), etc.
a) Note taking. This involves writing notes about what you see in the field
(observation). It is also used during interviews or lectures in the field.
b) Filling in questionnaires. The interviewer may opt to fill answers in
the open-ended questionnaire.
c) Tallying. This is used where measuring is employed as a way of
collecting information. There is the use of strokes which may be vertical
or inclined. A group of five strokes represents an occurrence of five
similar items.
d) Drawing Cross sections and maps. This is a way of recording
information, it helps students to recognize and describe relief and land
use on the landscape. Cross sections help students to illustrate
relationships between, slopes, soils, vegetation (physical landscape) and
land use (human activities).
e) Sketching. Information observed in the field about landforms, land use
or a farm may be summarized by drawing a sketch. Sketches should
have the following: Title/ Heading, key (man made feature and physical
42
feature), and compass direction.

f) Tabulation. Tables can be drawn and the data filled in systematically.
g) Photographing. When photographs taken in the field are processed,
the should be clearly labeled so that they are not mixed up during
storage. Photographing is a technique of data collecting as well as data
recording.
h) Tape recording. Conversations and interviews can b recoded on audio
tapes using a tape recorder. This is useful in a case where the
interviewer does not need to keep on interrupting the interview or
discussion.
i) Labeling samples. Collected samples are put in polythene bags for
safe keeping and storage. Each of the bags should be labeled clearly.
Methods of data analysis.
This involves analyzing the data collected through;
a) Discussing the findings from the field.
b) Individuals or groups giving their reports through group leaders.
c) Calculating percentages means medians and modes.
d) Putting data into groups or categories.
e) Data classification.
f) Laboratory testing of samples carried from the field.
Problems encountered in the field.
1) Language barrier.
2) This is a common problem especially when using the interview and
questionnaire techniques. A lot of data may not be collected if the
interviewer and the interviewee do not speak the same language. Where
the respondent deploys an interpreter, a lot of information may be
distorted.
3) Illiterate respondents.
4) Some respondents may not understand the questions because they are
43
illiterate. Where they attempt to answer the questions, they may give
wrong information.
5) Hostile people. Owners of farms may be unhappy with trespassers.
Those to give information may be unwilling thus making then fieldwork
unsuccessful.
6) Lack of data. Sufficient data may be lacking or incomplete in the selected
areas.
7) Bad weather. Weather can change while in the field, to become very hot.
Heavy rains may also interfere with the study.
8) Accidents in the field. This may happen due to poor handling of
equipment. The researcher can also fall thus getting injured.
9) Noise. E.g. in market places
10) Attack by wild animals, especially where the study is carried in bushy
areas. E.g. snakes and insects.
11) Inaccessibility of some areas. Some barriers like swamps, muddy
areas, rivers, steep slopes, deep slopes and deep valleys may hinder
accessibility to vital information.
Geographical significance of fieldwork.
The findings or results may help us to understand the geography of the area
in the following ways:
Update the information about the area of study (current situation).
Highlight the new problems facing the people in the area (threats).
Shows new solutions and prospects of developing the area

(opportunities).
Help
in the understanding of geographical relationship existing in the
area.
44
MINERALS AND ROCKS

Minerals
Minerals are inorganic substances occurring naturally at or beneath the
surface of the earth with a specific internal structure and a definite chemical
composition.
Most Minerals are formed from more than one element and majorly from
oxygen, potassium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, sodium, calcium and
silicon. Others like diamond, gold and silver are formed from only one
element. Minerals like sulphur have no crystals.
Characteristics of minerals.
1) They have different degrees of hardness with talc the softest while
industrial diamond being the hardest.
2) Some minerals aggregate into distinct shapes.
3) Some minerals like gold, silver, copper and diamond have only one
element while others like bauxite have more than one.
4) Minerals can be opaque, translucent or transparent.
5) Minerals have different textures (feel).
6) Minerals have specific colours, for example, gold is yellow and copper is
brown.
7) Minerals have luster. This refers to the surface appearance of a mineral
as it reflects light.
8) Minerals have different degrees of tenacity, meaning , they can be
described as brittle, elastic, ductile or flexible.
9) Minerals differ in streak. This is the Colour that a mineral leaves when it
is rubbed against a hard surface.
Mineralscan form under a variety of conditions, such as:
a. During the cooling of molten materials (steel, from lavas, igneous
rocks).
b. During the evaporation of liquids (salt, sugar, reference to evaporites).
45
c. The cooling of liquids (saturated solution).

d. At high temperatures and pressures new crystals may grow in solid
materials (diamonds from coal, metamorphism) .
Minerals can be classified into several groups according to their chemical
composition.
These groups are:
1) Elements (carbon [diamond], sulfur, zinc, gold, etc.)
2) Halides (element and halogen, such as chlorine, bromine, or iodine; one
example is table salt [sodium chloride])
3) Oxides (element and oxygen, e.g. hematite [iron oxide])
4) Sulfides (element and sulfur, e.g. pyrite [iron sulfide], galena [lead
sulfide])
5) Elements and complex ions (ion not just a single charged atom), common
examples are:
a) Carbonates (CO32-) (calcite, egg shells)
b) Sulfates (SO42-) (gypsum)
c) Silicates (SiO44-) (feldspar, quartz)
Rocks.
A rock is a substance that is an aggregate of mineral particles
It may be made of particles of one mineral only or a combination of two or
more minerals.
Classification of rocks
Rocks are classified according to their mode of formation and appearance.
Three rock types exist;
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Igneous rocks are produced when molten magma cools and solidifies.
46
The magma may solidify within the earths crust forming intrusive igneous
rocks or on reaching the earths surface forming extrusive igneous rocks.
Some igneous rocks like granite cool slowly forming large crystals. Others
like basalt cool rapidly and thus contain small crystals.
INTRUSIVE ROCK TYPES
Intrusive rocks crystallize from magmas that have been intruded into the
earth's crust at depths far below the surface.
The edge of the intrusive rock (the chill zone) is usually very fine grained
because it is here where the most rapid cooling took place.
Intrusive rocks that were formed deep in the earth's crust are called
plutonic rocks. They are generally coarse grained (mineral grains greater
than 1 millimeter in diameter).
Those formed near the surface are called hypabyssal rocks. They can be
found in features like dykes and sills
Intrusive rocks according to the relative amounts of feldspars, quartz, and
ferromagnesian minerals. e.g.;
Gabbro contains a high percentage of ferromagnesian minerals and
about 25 to 50 percent silica, making it dark green, gray, or black.
Gabbro is the most common intrusive rock in oceanic crust.
Diorite is an intermediate rock and has more silica and plagioclase
feldspar and less ferromagnesian minerals than basalt;
Granite is a felsic rock and the most silicious of the extrusive rocks,
containing at least 65 percent silica (mostly in feldspar minerals
and quartz;
Ultrabasic rocks are almost completely composed of ferromagnesian
minerals, mostly olivine and pyroxene. They contain less than 45
percent silica and are thought to be derived from the mantle. A
typical ultrabasic intrusion is called a peridotite.
47
ACIDIC(FELSIC
INTERMEDIATE
BASIC
ULTRABASIC
EXTRUSIVE/VOLCANIC ROCKS
The kind of rock extrusive lava makes is largely dependent on the chemistry
of the venting magma.
Basalt, andesite, and rhyolite.
Basalt, similar to Gabbro.
Andesite is similar to diorite.
Rhyolite is similar to granite. Its chemistry gives it a tan, pink, or
cream color.
Dacite has a composition that falls between those of andesite and
rhyolite it has slightly less potassium feldspar and quartz and slightly
more ferromagnesian minerals than rhyolite.
Intermediate extrusive rocks.
More general terms for these rocks are basic, acidic, and intermediate.
Basic rocks they have about 35 percent silica and high amounts of
iron, magnesium, and calcium and are dark in color.
A common basic rock is basalt.
Acidic rocks are rich in silica, potassium, sodium, and aluminum and
48
contain only small amounts of iron, magnesium, and calcium.

Typical felsic rocks are dacite and rhyolite. Acidic magmas are the
most viscous because of their high silica content.
Intermediate rocks, such as andesite, fall between the basic and

acidic classifications.
Ultrabasic extrusive rocks. Consist almost entirely of

ferromagnesian minerals and have no feldspars or quartz.
They contain less than 45 percent silica; a komatiite is a typical
Ultrabasic extrusive rock that is mostly olivine and pyroxene, with
lesser feldspar.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
These are layered or stratified rocks formed at or near the earth's surface in
response to the processes of weathering, erosion, transportation and
deposition.
Sedimentary Cycle (Figure)
Key Processes in the sedimentary cycle.

1. Transportation the main Transporting medium usually is water and
more rarely wind or glacial ice.
2. Deposition it occurs when energy necessary to transport particles is
no longer available. Deposition involves gentle settling of mineral
grains. It can also be result of chemical precipitation due to changing
conditions.
3. Lithification - Involves several steps All taken together are termed
Diagenesis; Diagenesis is the alteration of the mineralogy and/or texture of
49
sediments at low temperatures and pressures. There are three main processes
operating.
a. Compaction - involving the close-packing of the individual grains

by eliminating the pore space and Squeezing out of entrapped
water.
b. Cementation - Precipitation of chemical cement from trapped
water and circulating water.
c. Recrystallization - Growth of grains in response to new
equilibrium conditions.
Origin of Sedimentary Material
Derived directly from pre-existing rocks. Ex. quartz.
Derived from weathered products of these rocks. Ex. clay.
Produced by chemical precipitation. Ex. calcite.
First two processes result in Clastic rocks. Third produces nondetrital or

chemical sedimentary rocks.
Minerals of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Clay - Important constituent of mudstones and shales.
2. Quartz - Most abundant constituent of sandstone.
3. Calcite - Chief constituent of limestone. Precipitates mainly from
seawater.
4. Dolomite CaMg (CO3)2 - Most important constituent of dolostone.
5. Feldspars - Occur in sedimentary rocks formed by very quick
deposition and burial allowing no time for feldspars to alter to clay.
6. Iron oxides and sulfides - Chemical precipitates dictated by the
environment at the site of deposition.
7. Salts and gypsum - Chemical precipitates occurring in restricted
sedimentary basins under arid climatic conditions.
8. Volcanic Debris - Glass and other pyroclastic material incorporated into
sediments.
50
9. Organic Material - Forms coal and gives color to black shales.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
There are three kinds of sedimentary rocks:
1) clastic,
2) chemical,
3) Organic.
1) MECHANICALLY FORMED/CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
Form from the consolidation of broken or fragmented grains as gravel, sand,

or clay (sediment) derived from the weathering and breakdown of rocks. The
Rock appears grainy.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to the grain size of the
sediment and the kinds of rock fragments that make up the sediment as
follows;
Wentworth Size Scale
Boulder
>256 mm
Cobble
64-256 mm
Pebble
2-64 mm
Sand
Conglomerate
1/16-2 mm
Sandstone
Silt
1/256-1/16 mm
Siltstone
Clay
<1/256>
Shale
Coarse-grained Clastic sedimentary rocks.

a) Sedimentary breccia. Contains an abundance of coarse, angular
fragments of gravel that were deposited very near the source area.
b) Conglomerate. Clastic rock made up of more or less coarse-grained,
rounded fragments, an appreciable percentage of which are pebble
size or larger.
51
c) Sandstone is a medium-grained rock that Consists primarily of grains

in the sand size range. Dominant mineral in sandstones is quartz.
FINER-GRAINED CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
a) Shale. It is the most common of the sedimentary rocks composed

primarily of fine-grained clay minerals and some silt. It is a smooth,
thinly layered rock that tends to split into flat sheets due to the micalike cleavage of clay minerals.
b) Siltstone. It is composed mostly of silt sized particles. It is rare
because the dominant mineral-quartz rarely gets any smaller than
sand size. They are thought to form by glacial grinding of sand-sized
quartz grains.
c) Mudstone. It is the finest-grained Clastic rock. It is not well layered
and contains more clay than does shale or siltstone.
2) NONCLASTIC /CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
They result from biological or chemical processes, generally under water.
Grains are interlocked through crystallization. They have igneous appearing
texture with very little open space. Examples;
a) Carbonates. These are sedimentary rocks made up of carbonate
compounds.
I. Limestone They are formed by the precipitation of calcite from
seawater. They mostly form in marine environments, but also in
caves as travertine in form of stalactites and stalagmites.
II. Dolostone/mineral dolomite. It starts life as limestone then is altered
to dolostone/dolomite. The process of dolomitization involves the
removal of calcium from the limestone by magnesium-rich solutions
and its replacement by magnesium.
III. Trona. Hydrated sodium carbonate
b) Sulphates and chlorides. Also termed evaporates. Formed by partial to
complete evaporation of seawater in enclosed basins. For example rock
52
salts-mainly sodium chloride and gypsum which is a hydrated calcium

sulphate.
c) Silicates. Formed when silica in sea water is deposited on the sea bed
followed by accumulation and compaction. E.g. Chert (are flint, agate,
and jasper). This is a hard, glassy sedimentary rock composed of silica
that precipitated from water.
d) Ironstones. Deposition of iron oxide in water followed by compression
leads to formation of rocks such as limonite(common iron ore) and
hematite( a red ferric oxide)
3) ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
Rocks formed by the accumulation of organic material derived from remains
of dead plants and animals such as polyps.
Organic sedimentary rocks are further classified into;
a) Calcareous rocks. Formed from hard parts of shells and skeletons of
marine creatures. For example limestone and chalk.
b) Ferruginous rocks. Formed from precipitation of hydrated iron oxide
from water. E.g. ironstone.
c) Siliceous rocks. They are formed from organisms whose skeletons are
rich in silica. E.g. Diatomite. They are found in places that were once
under water.
d) Carbonaceous rocks. This are Rock composed of lithified plant
material. E.g. Coal has as its major component accumulations of
organic remains from plants.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
When rocks are subjected to deep burial, tectonic forces such as folding, and
high pressures and temperatures, the textures and mineral compositions
begin to change.
Metamorphism is the solid-state transformation (no melting) of a rock
mass into a rock of generally the same chemistry but with different textures
53
and minerals. This process occurs particularly during earth movements.

Factors Controlling Metamorphism
a) Temperature and pressure. The intensity of the metamorphism
increases with increasing temperature and/or pressure.
b) Water. The amount of water available for metamorphic reactions
and the length of time involved influences metamorphism.
c) Geostatic pressure/confining pressure. It is the pressure that
is equally applied to all sides of a deeply buried mass of rock.
Geostatic pressure increases with depth.
d) Differential stress. It is usually the result of tectonic forces
applied to a body of rock from different directions. Generally, the
greater the differential stress, the greater the degree of stretching.
e) Compressive stress. In contrast, a compressive stress is
applied from directly opposite directions and compresses and
flattens the rock mass.
Types of Metamorphism
There are two major kinds of metamorphism: regional and contact.
a) Regional metamorphism/dynamothermal metamorphism. This
metamorphism involves rocks being exposed to high pressures and
temperatures. the following rock types are recognized:
54
b) Contact metamorphism/thermal metamorphism. It is the process

by which the country rock that surrounds a hot magma intrusion is
metamorphosed by the high heat flow coming from the intrusion. The
zone of metamorphism that surrounds the intrusion is called the
metamorphic aureole (or halo)
Metamorphic Rock Types

a. Gneiss formed from granites.
b. Hornblende formed from augite.
c. Slates. Formed from clay and mudstone
d. Marble formed from limestone
e. Quartzite formed from sandstone.
f. Graphite formed from coal.
Nb; metamorphic rocks tend to be harder than the original rock, hence more
resistant to erosion.
Some metamorphic rocks can further be subjected to heat or pressure to
result in other forms of metamorphic rocks. E.g. graphite changes to
crystalline diamond.
55
The Rock Cycle
Distribution of rocks in Kenya.
Igneous and sedimentary rocks are the most dominant types of rocks in
most parts of Kenya.
Regions that have been widely affected by Vulcanicity have volcanic

rocks.
Those areas that have not been affected by Vulcanicity are covered by
sedimentary rocks.
Below the surface, there exists a complex basement system of rocks

which is of an ancient metamorphic nature.
Regional distribution of rocks in Kenya.

Central, northern and rift valley regions
These are areas that have been affected by Vulcanicity and

therefore the main rock type is volcanic.
In southern Turkana, however, metamorphic rocks are common.

Basalt rocks are found in Nyandarua ranges.
Sedimentary rocks are found in the inland lake basins like Lake
Naivasha, lake Magadi, and Lake Nakuru.
The coast and north-eastern Kenya.
The coast is characterized by sedimentary rocks particularly from

Shimoni on the southern coast to Kiunga on the northern coast.
56
In the north-east of Kenya, a series of sandstones and siltstones

are common.
Along the coast particularly near the shore, limestone is the major
rock. Gypsum rock is found in a small section of Malindi.
Fringing coral reef rocks extend along the shore from the south to
the north.
Quartzite rocks are found in some parts of Tana River, Kilifi and
Kwale Counties.
Western Kenya and nyanza.
The regions have the oldest rocks in Kenya and mainly granite and
gneiss. Sedimentary rocks are found in the lake region due to
river deposition.
In central and northern Nyanza, alternating bands of sandstone

and mudstone are found. Around the Mount Elgon region, volcanic
rocks are found.
Eastern Kenya.
The region mostly has metamorphosed rocks of varying origin. For

example schist and gneiss in parts of Kitui, quartzites and marble
in parts of Machakos.
Some slightly young rocks are also found in these areas. The Yatta
plateau is a volcanic outcrop with volcanic rock.
Significance of rocks.
a) Rock weathering produces soils that are important in the growth of crops
like coffee, cotton and sugarcane. These crops have great commercial
values.
b) Rocks aid in storage of underground water. The water bearing strata in
the ground are called aquifers. This is very important in water circulation
and formation of springs that are important for human water supply.
c) Some rocks can be used for fuel. E.g. coal. Even mineral oil and gas
57
formation is associated with sedimentary rocks.

d) Various salts are obtained from rocks. Tunisia and morocco for example
have the largest deposits of rocksalt.
e) Some sedimentary rocks yield chemicals like nitrates, potash or
phosphates important in the manufacture of fertilizers, dyes and
medicines.
f) Granites and limestones are used for building purposes. Limestone is also
used as a raw material in cement manufacturing. Rocks like granite,
dolerite and Gabbro are used in road construction.
g) Some rocks form fascinating features that are tourist attractions. For
example the crying stones in western Kenya at ileho.
h) Minerals occur in different rock types. For example gold, copper, lead, tin,
silver, zinc, diamond, aluminum, manganese etc. which are used in
various ways.
58
Part two;
FORM TWO WORK.
Topics covered
Internal land forming processes
1. Folding.
2. Faulting.
3. Vulcanicity and landforms.
4. Earthquakes.
59
INTERNAL LANDFORMING PROCESSES.

The forces, which produce physical features, are of two types: internal
forces and external forces.
The processes operating inside the earths surface are called endogenicendogenetic processes.
These forces cause earth movements.
EARTH MOVEMENTS.
Definition;
These are movements which are lateral and vertical, exerting great forces of
tension and compression and taking place very slowly to eventually produce
features like the rift valley escarpment etc.
There are two basic types; Horizontal and Vertical movements.
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENTS. (Lateral or orogenic movements)
These operate along a horizontal plane within the crustal rocks causing the
earths rocks to stretch, shorten or shear.
a) Stretch; when the crustal rocks are subjected to forces moving away
from each other along a horizontal plane, it causes tension or strain
within the rocks since they are being pulled apart.
Tensional process
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b) Shorten; when crustal rocks become compressed due to forces pushing

towards each other, this result in the shortening of the earths rocks.
60
Compressional process.
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10
c) Shear/tear. When the forces are operating in the same direction and
exerting strengths of different magnitudes in the rock layers, the top
layers move forward more than the lower layers.
force
force
force
Shearing; horizontal forces moving in the same direction
d) Or when tectonic forces are operating in opposite direction but moving

past each other with unequal strength, the rocks may be displaced
horizontally by slipping past each other.
Lateral displacement
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14
61
lm
ove
me
nt
Cru
st a
lm
ove
for
ce
me
nt
Shearing; horizontal forces moving in opposite direction.
forc
Cru
st a
force
force
force
Crustal
rocks
force
Shearing; horizontal forces moving

force in the same direction
VERTICAL MOVEMENTS
(Epeirogenic/Epeirogenetic)
Shearing; horizontal forces moving in the same direction
force
These are movements operating along the radius of the earth (from the
interior towards the surface vise versa).
The effect of vertical movements is that crustal rocks are either pulled
downwards (subsidence or downwarping) or pushed upwards (uplifting
Illustration of vertical earth movements
or upwarping),
a. Vertical movement towards the surface
Upwarping.
Uplift.
Crustal
rocks
Faults .
Vertical forces
Crustal
rocks
Vertical forces
Faults.
b. Vertical movement inwards

Crustal
rocks
Crustal
rocks
Downwarping.
Sinking.
Faults.
Faults.
Vertical forces
Vertical forces
n of vertical earth movements

c. Vertical
movement
Or even shear
in a vertical
direction.
vement towards the surface
d
Crustal
Uplifte
rocks
Uplift.
Crustal
rocks
Faults .
Vertical forces
causing uplifting and tilting
k
ed bloc
and ti lt
Faults.
Faults.
Crustal
rocks
Greater force
Lesser force.
Faults.
vement inwards
Crustal
rocks
Crustal
rocks
g.
Sinking.
Faults.
Faults.
Vertical forces
es
movement causing uplifting and tilting

ck to
@ Cheloti-tiIntroduction
lted blo
d and
Upli fte
Geography, Earth, Solar system and Internal land forming processes.

Crustal
rocks
62
Faults.
Faults.
Vertical forces
Vertical forces
The sunken or uplifted land may also be tilted.

c. Vertical
movement causing uplifting and tilting
tilted
d and
e
t
f
li
p
U
block
Crustal
rocks
Greater force
Faults.
Lesser force.
Faults.
Causes of earth movements.

The following have been suggested as causes of earth movements;
i.
Movement of magma within the crust.
If a line of weakness occurs in the sima rocks, the magma, from the upper
mantle, may move to invade the earths crust causing vertical or horizontal
displacement of crustal rocks. Vertical movement will cause land to be
uplifted.
MAGMA MOVEMENT AND ITS EFFECT

Lines of weakness
MAGMA MOVEMENT AND ITS EFFECT

Lines of weakness
Crustal rocks of sial.

sima
sima
Magma reservoir
Magma reservoir
Upper mantle.
Upper mantle.
Section of the earth with formed weak lines in the crust
Section of the earth with formed weak lines in the crust

Uplifted
Uplifted
landland
Crustal
rocksrocks
of sial.of sial.
Crustal
Magma
Magma
displacing
displacing
rocks
rocks
Magma movement through the weak line
Magma movement through the weak line
Magma reservoir
Magma reservoir
Upper mantle.
Upper mantle.
Magma displaces rocks of the crust
Magma displaces rocks of the crust
63
ii.
Gravitative pressure.
The escape of large quantities of magma from the upper mantle to the
surface during Vulcanicity leaves behind large cavities or voids.
(a) Gravity pulling crustal rocks inwards.
Gravity.
Due to Gravitative pressure, the
crustal rocks which are above
the cavities move inwards to fill
up the voids. This movement
may cause the surface to form
depressions or sunken sections.
sima
Cavity/void
Depression.
Upper mantle.
Crustal rocks pulled

in
Outline of former void
(b) Crustal Rocks crumble into void

iii.
Convectional currents in the mantle.
The currents cause the molten rocks to circulate in a cyclical manner since
they move from inside the mantle, towards the upper surface of the mantle
and then horizontally, finally vertically inwards.
Sima.
Sial.
surface Sinking
Convectional
currents
Convectional
currents
As the currents move horizontally beneath

the sima, they exert a frictional drag
on the crustal rocks causing them to
also move horizontally. At a point of
convergence of the currents beneath
the crust, the rocks directly above the
point move vertically inwards.
Mantle.
Arrows in the sima show resultant rock

movements
iv.
Isostatic adjustment.
The weight of the sial layer on the sima is in a state of equilibrium known as
Isostacy.
The deposition of the eroded materials on the sea bed and emptying of melt
water into the sea causes the sima layers to be depressed (sink) into the
64
mantle.
This sinking disrupts the balance maintained by the sial and the sima layers.
The continental masses have to rise since they are lighter.
This is what is called the Isostatic adjustment.
Evidence of this is found along the Scandinavian coastline with raised
beaches (rising at a rate of 30cm in 30 years-) due to massive ice melt in
the Pleistocene period
The following two theories are important in understanding folding, faulting
and Vulcanicity.
1. The theory of continental drift.
In 1912 a German Scientist called Alfred Wegener proposed that all the
continents were once stuck together as one big land mass called Pangaea,.
The landmass was surrounded by a great ocean, panthalassa, whose floor
was mainly a mass of sima, until about 200 million years ago.
During the late pre-Cambrian period, Pangaea broke up to form two land
masses, Laurasia, and Gondwanaland, separated by a fairly narrow Ocean
called Tethys (present day Mediterranean).
During the Mesozoic era, Laurasia broke up into two; the Laurentian Shield
and Fennoscondia.
65
Gondwanaland broke into a series of continents such as Africa, Australia, the

Americas, Antarctica and the sub continent of India. Africa and India later
drifted northwards to their present positions.
Wageners explanation was that as the continents moved, the leading edge
of the continent would encounter resistance and thus compress and fold
upwards forming mountains near the leading edges of the drifting
continents.
Evidences in support of the continental drift theory.
a) The continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean seem to fit together like a
giant jigsaw puzzle: If you look at a map, Africa seems to snuggle
nicely into the east coast of South America and the Caribbean Sea.
b) Palaeoclimatology reveals that the landmasses of southern Africa,
eastern South America, India and Australia could have been joined and
were all located near the South Pole. (Ancient glaciation is
recognizable in all).
c) The location of major coalfields in the southern hemisphere (about
latitude 30S in Chile, South Africa and south-Eastern Australia) and in
the northern hemisphere between 40N and 55N is an indicator that
these areas were once located around the Equator before drifting
apart. Coal is only formed from large areas of tropical forests that
were later buried.
d) The same geological structure could be traced from one continent to
the other across wide stretches of oceans. Rocks of similar structure,
ages and origin occur in southeast Brazil and South Africa.
e) Palaeomagnetic dating. Rocks become magnetized in the direction
of magnetic north at the time of solidifying. By examining the
magnetism of very old rocks, it is possible to place the position on the
earths surface where they were formed. Palaeomagnetic studies
indicate that the present continents developed from a single continent.
66
The breaking up of this continent occurred in the Mesozoic period.

f) The cape folds of South Africa resemble those of Buenos Aires in
Argentina. Both sets of folds have an east west trend and a similar
geological structure, an indicator that they must have formed when
the two continents were still one.
g) It has been proven that the red sea was formed by crustal
separation/rifting. Its shores exhibit evidences of having undergone
lateral displacement.
h) A study of the mid-Atlantic ridge reveals a chain of ocean mountain
ranges extending the whole length of the Atlantic Ocean bed. The
ranges are made up of volcanic rocks of recent origin. This means that
mountain building process is still taking place to fill the gap left when
two continents moved apart.
The plate tectonics theory.

This theory was an improvement of the continental drift theory.
The theory suggests that The Earth's surface is made up of a series of
large plates called tectonic plates. These plates are in constant
motion traveling at a few centimeters per year, caused by
convectional currents beneath the plates, within the mantle.
67
The major plates of the world.
The plates are separated from one another by the following distinct
boundaries;
1)CONSTRUCTIVE BOUNDARIES/DIVERGENT PLATE

BOUNDARIES
These are locations where plates are moving away from one another
They are majorly found rising convection currents which push up on
the bottom of the lithosphere, lifting it and flowing laterally beneath
it.
This lateral flow causes the plate material above to be dragged along
in the direction of flow.
Illustration.
a) Divergent Plate Boundary - Oceanic:
When a divergent boundary occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, the

Extensional forces stretch the lithosphere and produce a deep fissure.
68
Pressure is reduced on the super-heated mantle material below.

It responds by melting and the new magma flows into the fissure.
The magma then solidifies into a ridge. A Mid Ocean Ridge is formed.
Effects include;
a. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge; due to fissure eruptions.
b. There is also shallow earthquake activity.
c. Creation of new seafloor and a widening ocean basin.
b) Divergent Plate Boundary - Continental:
When a divergent boundary occurs beneath a thick continental plate, the

pull-apart is not so strong.
It creates normal faults on both sides of the rift and the central blocks slide
downwards to form a rift valley.
Earthquakes occur as a result of this fracturing and movement.
As the rift grows deeper it might drop below sea level allowing ocean waters
to flow in. This will produce a narrow, shallow sea within the rift. If rifting
continues a new ocean basin could be produced.
E.g. The East Africa Rift Valley is in a very early stage of development.
The Red Sea is an example of a more completely developed rift.
Other Effects that are found at this type of plate boundary include;
a. Shallow earthquake activity along the normal faults.
b. Volcanic activity sometimes occurs within the rift..
2)COMPRESIONAL /DESTRUCTIVE/COVERGENT PLATE

BOUNDARIES.
Convergent plate boundaries are locations where lithosphere plates are
moving towards one another resulting in plate collisions to produce
69
earthquakes, volcanic activity and crustal deformation.

a) Convergent Plate Boundary - Oceanic and Continental Plates:
When continental and oceanic plates collide the thinner and denser
oceanic plate is forced down below the continental plate, into the mantle
in a process known as "subduction".
At a depth of about 100 miles (160 km), a process of partial melting of
the subducting plate material begins, due to the high temperatures.
Partial melting at depths of 160km
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56
An example is the Nazca Plate is subducting beneath the South

American plate eventually producing The Andes Mountain Range of
western South America.
Effects of a convergent boundary between an oceanic and continental
plate include:
a. A zone of shallow earthquake activity along the continent margin.
b. An ocean trench immediately off shore of the continent.
c. A line of volcanic eruptions a few hundred miles inland from the
shoreline.
d. Destruction of oceanic lithosphere.
70
b) Convergent Plate Boundary - Oceanic:
When a convergent boundary occurs between two oceanic plates, the

older plate will subduct because of its higher density.
The subducting plate, at a depth of about 100 miles (150 km) begins to
melt to form Magma.
The newly-created magma rises to the surface and forms volcanoes.
The volcano may grow tall enough to reach the surface of the ocean
creating an island arc or chain.
With continued development the islands grow larger, merge and an
elongate landmass is created.
In Japan, the Aleutian Islands and the Eastern Caribbean islands of

Martinique, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines are examples of
islands formed through this type of plate boundary.
Effects that are found at this type of plate boundary include:
a. A zone of progressively deeper earthquakes.
b. An oceanic trench.
c. A chain of volcanic islands.
71
d. The destruction of oceanic lithosphere.
c) Convergent Plate Boundary Continental.
In such a boundary, a powerful collision occurs since the two thick

continental plates have a density that is much lower than the mantle,
which prevents subduction.
The intense compression can cause extensive folding and faulting of
rocks within the two colliding plates.
The Himalaya Mountain Range is the best active example of this type of
plate boundary. The Indian and Eurasian plates are currently in collision.
Millions of years ago India and the Tethys Ocean sat on a tectonic plate moving northwards towards Asia at a rate
72
of 10 centimetres per year. The Tethys oceanic crust was being subducted under the Asian Continent. The ocean
got progressively smaller until about 55 million years ago when India 'hit' Eurasia. The plates welled up to form
the High Plateau of Tibet and the Himalayan Mountains. The continental crust under Tibet is over 70
kilometers thick. North of Katmandu, the capital of Nepal, is a deep gorge in the Himalayas. The rock here is made
of schist and granite with contorted and folded layers of marine sediments which were deposited by the Tethys
Ocean over 60 million years ago
The Appalachian Mountain Range is an ancient example of this collision type.

Effects found at a convergent boundary between continental plates include:
a. Intense folding and faulting.
b. A broad folded mountain range.
c. Shallow earthquake activity.
d. Shortening and thickening of the plates within the collision zone.
3)TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES
Transform Plate Boundaries are locations where two plates slide past one
another. The fracture zone that forms a transform plate boundary is known
as a transform fault.
San Andra's fault
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72
This boundary is conservation zone/transform boundary because

plate is neither created nor destroyed.
73
An example of such a
boundary is the San Andreas Fault in California.
Effects found at Transform faults include;
Recurring earthquake activity and faulting.
NB; Volcanic activity is normally not present because the typical magma
sources of an upwelling convection current or a melting subducting plate are
not present.
FOLDING AND FAULTING

Introduction.
Earth movements can cause folding and faulting of the sedimentary rocks.
Lateral forces of compression cause folding while either lateral or vertical
forces of tension or compression cause faulting.
FOLDING
This is the process of crustal distortion which causes the rocks to bend
upwards or downwards.
The process occurs in fairly young sedimentary rocks and can be caused by
tectonic plate movement and subduction, volcanic activity, and intrusive
igneous activity.
A fold can be defined as a bend in rock that is the response to
Compressional forces. Folds are most visible in rocks that contain layering.
The process of folding
The magnitude of folding depends on:
74
a. The nature of the rock material. They must have the ability to deform
under pressure and heat.
b. Temperature. The higher the temperature of the rock the more plastic
it becomes.
c. Pressure. Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock.
If it does, fracturing occurs.
d. Time. Deformation must be applied slowly.
The nature of folds
Axis.
Tro
u
Limb
gh
Cr
es
t
Axial plane
The layers of rock which bend up form an up fold or anticline.

Those which bend down form a down fold or syncline.
The sunken parts are called synclines.
The uppermost part of the upfold is called a crest.
The lowest part of the syncline is called the trough.
A line drawn vertically through the centre of the anticline is called the axis of the fold.
The rock layers on both sides of the axis, Dipping in opposite directions is called limbs.
Types of folds
A number of different folds have been recognized depending on the strength
of the Compressional forces and the nature of sedimentary rocks involved.
1. Simple symmetrical folds.
Also known as anticline folds, the folds are formed by Compressional forces
of equal magnitude/ weak to moderate in strength.
An anticline is a convex up fold in rock with the rock beds (or limbs) dipping
evenly away from the center of the structure.
75
A simple fold
Figure 10l-3: simple symmetrical/Anticline fold. Note how the rock layers dip away from
the center of the fold are roughly symmetrical .
2. Asymmetrical folds.
These fold types develop where one of the Compressional forces involved is
slightly stronger than the other.
The greater pressure results in anticlines and synclines that are inclined
and asymmetrical.
One limb is steeper than the other. The limbs are asymmetrical about the
axis.
Asymmetrical folds.
A symmetrical fold
Axis.
Limb.
Limb.
These illustration shows two
anticline folds which are
inclined. Also note how the
limbs on either side of the fold
center are asymmetrical.
One limb is steeper than the other.
76
Synclinal folds in bedrock, near Saint-Godard-de-Lejeune, Canada. (Source: Terrain Sciences Division
- Canadian Landscapes).
3. Isoclinal folds
This is a group of folds which are packed together. The limbs are in an
almost parallel position and they dip in the same direction
The folds may be vertical or inclined.
Fig. - Inclined Isoclinal folds, eroded. (Willis).

4. Overfolds
These are asymmetrical folds caused by a very strong force pushing against
a very resistant rock. The anticline will be pushed over the limb of the next
77
fold.
An over fold
5. Recumbent folds.
These are Overfolds which are completely pushed over one side to a
horizontal position.
A recumbent fold develops if the center of the fold moves from being once
vertical to a horizontal position.
Recumbent folds are commonly found in the core of mountain ranges and
indicate that compression and/or shear forces were stronger in one
direction.
Figure 10l-7: Recumbent fold.
6. The nappe or overthrust folds.

When pressure is very great, a fracture occurs in the fold and one limb is
pushed forward over the other limb forming an overthrust fold.
78
We sometimes call the combination of a fault and a fold in a rock an

overthrust fault.
An over thrust fold
7. Anticlinorium and synclinorium complex.

A land surface may undergo initial minor folding creating a series of minor
folds.
Later on, major folding may occur on the same land surface to create bigger
folds.
Each of the new upfolds, characterized by minor upfolds and downfolds
superimposed on it is called the Anticlinorium while the major downfold is
called a synclinorium.
Form at ion of m inor f olds on t he s urf ace

Surface with min or fold s
Fo rce s of co mp re ssio n
79
A n Anticlinorium and synclinorium are formed

Anticlinorium.
Synclinorium.
compression
compression
Features related to folding.

1) Rolling plains
If the Compressional forces are weak, the landscape may be turned into
gently sloping anticlines and very wide synclines. Such a landscape is
described as a rolling plain.
A rolling plain.
Gentle upwarp.
shallow downwarp.
2) Ridge and valley landscape.

Where the Compressional forces are stronger and uneven, the landscape
could be transformed into a series of asymmetrical folds.
The anticlines form upfolds while the synclines form valleys.
Where these surface rocks are resistant, the uplands will form ridges with a
gentle back slope (dip slope) and steep scarp-like slope on the opposite side.
80
gh
m
m
m
m
Tro
u
Traolle
ughy
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
Cre
st
es
lop
e
Sc
arp
-lik
lan
Cdreor
stridg
e
m
m
m
m
Up
dips
lope
3) Inter-montane plateaus
During formation of Fold Mountains, the middle part of a region may resist
folding.
The two sets of fold mountains enclose an area which is unaffected by the
folding process.
This area is called an inter-montane plateau. E.g. the Chotts plateau
between the Tell Atlas and the Sahara Atlas of Algeria.
4) Inter-montane basins.
When inter-montane plateaus are forming, some parts of the plateaus may
subside to form basins.
For example, the Chotts plateau has numerous inter-montane basins with
some occupied by salty lakes.
5) Synclinal valleys.
These are broad and shallow valleys having gently sloping basins and formed
as a result of folding. These valleys/basins may contain water to form lakes.
6) Depressions
These are depressions of the crust that have occurred over a large area due
to down warping caused by vertical earth movements.
7) Escarpments.
When folding takes place on a rock mass, the extended steep limb from the
anticline forms an escarpment.
81
8) Fold Mountains
Examples of Fold Mountains are the Alps, Atlas and the Himalayas.
Formation.
It is explained through the following theories;
a) Plate tectonics theory.-Andes mountain formation
Fold Mountains are created by uplift and folding of two tectonic plates as
they move towards each other and collide at a Compressional plate margin.
The Andes are an example of Fold Mountains formed at a destructive plate
margin through Nazca Plate (oceanic) colliding with the South American
Plate (continental).
The Himalayas were formed due to the collision of the Indian plate and the
Eurasian plate.
b) The continental drift theory.-Himalayas formation.
As the continents were drifting apart, India drifted northwards against a
rather static Eurasia.
The crust, together with the sediments between was squeezed by the
Indian subcontinent against Eurasia resulting in the formation of the
Himalayas Mountains.
c) The convectional currents theory.
As the currents move horizontally beneath the sima, they exert a
frictional drag on the crustal rocks causing them to also move
horizontally along.
When the continental coasts are pulled towards each other due to the
effects of these currents, the sediments between the coasts are squeezed
into folds.
d) The contraction theory.
The theory presupposes that during the formation of the earth, the surface
rocks cooled and contracted faster than those of the interior. Since the
interior rocks were cooling slowly, the surface rocks started wrinkling in
82
order to fit on the cooling and contracting interior rocks. The wrinkles
became Fold Mountains.
Weakness of the contraction theory.
I) The amount of wrinkling that resulted in high mountains would
have been more than the earth could accommodate.
II) Fold Mountains are made of sedimentary rocks which formed many
years after the earth was formed
Stages in the formation of fold mountains with reference to the Alps
and the Atlas.
Initially, there was the formation of an extensive depression called a
geosynclines on the surface of the earth.
The depression was filled with water, forming a sea.
The intensive erosion of the surrounding landmasses led to deposition of
sediments in the geosyncline in layers.
Weight caused by sediment accumulation led to further subsidence of the

geosyncline leading to more accumulation of sediments and later originating
forces of compression that drew landmasses together.
The forces could also have been triggered off by convectional currents in the
mantle, which pulled the continental crust towards the geosyncline.
83
Mountain features developed at the continental edges of the geosyncline

because these parts were closer to the origin of the forces.
E.g. Fold Mountains like the Alps add Atlas border large oceans and sea
which were part of the ancient geosyncline.
The atlas mountains of North-West Africa

Spain.
Madeira.
Canary islands.
1
2
S
rn
e
t
es
ah
.
a ra 5
Tell atlas.
2.
Sahara atlas.
Algeria.
Libya.
Mali.
Mauritania.
1
Tunisia.
o.
cc
o
r
o 4
3
4
Rift atlas.
middle atlas.
Niger.
5
Anti atlas.
High atlas.
NB: the process of folding was not significant in East Africa and therefore
didnt create any significant land forms. In east Africa, the crust consists of
hard basement rocks which fracture when folded.
84
However minor folds are found at the boarder between Uganda and
Tanzania/Karagwe where layers of mudstone were compressed into a U
shape.
There is also some folding in the layers of limestone on the East Africa coast.
Folding is evident in Bukaba region in the North of Tanzania.
Fold mountain formation periods.
The process of fold mountain formation is called Orogenesis. The fold
mountain building period is called Orogeny.
Geologists have recognized four orogenies that were separated by periods
of calm, during which intense erosion and deposition took place;
I) The Charnian Orogeny. The first Orogeny, dating back to the
Precambrian period. Mountains formed during this period no longer
exist since they were eroded to form plateaus like the Deccan plateau
of India, the Russian platform of Siberia, the Laurentian shield of North
America and the African block.
II) Caledonian Orogeny. This occurred during the late Silurian period.
Mountains formed included the Akwapim Hills in Ghana and the Scottish
highlands of Caledonia. Most of these mountains have been reduced to
hills and plateaus.
III) Hercynian Orogeny/ the Armorican Orogeny. Occurred during the
late carboniferous period and early Permian period. Mountains formed
included the Armorican in north western France, cape ranges of South
Africa, the Appalachians of North America and Urals of Europe.
IV) Alpine Orogeny. Occurred during the Paleocene period and is the
latest. The mountains formed include the Atlas of Africa, the Alps of
Europe, the Himalayas of Asia, the Rockies of North America and the
Andes of South America.
World distribution of Fold Mountains.
The high mountain chains of the Alps, the Rockies and the Himalayas are
85
examples of Fold Mountains.

The atlas and the Alps were formed when the African plate was pushed
against a rigid European plate.
The Rockies and the Andes were formed as a result of the pacific and the
Nazca oceanic plates meeting with respective American continental plates.
World distribution of fold mountains.
Th
n
sia
us
R
m
e
Th atfor
pl
e
ie
ck
Ro
Ural mts.
s.
Alps.
Appalachians.
Atlas
.
Tropic of Cancer.
as.
Himalay
Akwapim hills.
de
An
s.
Tropic of Capricorn.
Cape ranges.
(Source: National Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration).
Significance of folding.
a) Fold Mountains generally receive heavy rainfall on the windward side.
The leeward side receives little rains.
b) Windward sides also support luxuriant forests due to the heavy rains.
The forests are a source of timber for furniture making and
construction. Trees also improve the water catchment capacity of the
soil.
c) The heavy rains together with snow on the windward give rise to
rivers that provide water for industrial and domestic use and HEP
generation
86
d) Cold winds descending to the lowlands on the mountain sides cause a

lot of harm to crops such as grapes in Europe. They lead to frost
formation.
e) Existence of mountains in the northern hemisphere influence human
activities. The south facing slopes of the Alps are warmer and favour
agriculture and settlement.
f) The process of folding could bring valuable minerals to the surface,
making them easily available for mining. For example on the
Appalachians (coal) and the Andes (copper and tin in Bolivia).
g) The mountainous landscape provides unique scenery, making such
areas attractive to tourists. E.g. the Swiss Alps.
h) Mountains may be a barrier to transport and communication unless
passes exist and are not covered with snow.
i) The ruggedness of mountain topography discourages settlement.
j) Fold Mountains sometimes cause crustal rocks to become weak
because faults develop in such rocks. The weak lines created act as
passages for magma, triggering off Vulcanicity. E.g. in the
Appalachians and Alps.
87
FAULTING
Introduction and definitions.
This is the process by which colder and brittle crustal rocks respond to large
tectonic stresses by fracturing or breaking.
A fault is a break, crack or a fracture in the Earth crust produced by vertical
and lateral movements within the earths crust.
Tension causes a normal fault, compression causes a reverse fault and
lateral movement produces a tear fault
Escarpments is a steep sided feature bordering a rift valley which develops
when faulting is accompanied by upward or downward movement of
adjoining parts of the crust.
Parts associated with a fault

Upthrow.
Heave.
Fault scarp
Throw.
Downthrow.
Faultline.
Hade.
Fault.
The land on one side of the fault displaced upwards is called an upthrow.
The one displaced downwards is called the Downthrow.
A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between
the fault plane and the Earth's surface.
Fault plane; the surface of separation of the land which is created by the
fault.
The rupture of the surface by a fault is called a fault scarp.
88
Throw; vertical displacement.

Heave; lateral displacement.
Hade; inclination of the fault to the vertical plane
location of some of the major faults located on the Earth.
Sa
nd
nA
Th
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hi n
R
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tV
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i
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lt
au
TThheeG
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Rififtt VVa
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lleyy..
sf
rea
s
Note that many of these faults are in mountainous regions
Types of faults.
Faults are named according to the type of stress that acts on the rock and
the nature of the movement of the rock blocks either side of the fault plane.
I. Normal faults/ extensional fault.
If the rocks are under tension, faults will be formed and the centre block
may sink down relative to its neighbors.
Normal faults are common in East Africa.
Formation of a normal fault
A.
Surface of
the earth
Rock
Layers
Rocks subjected to
tensional forces
leading to
development of
normal faults
Tensional forces
Upthrow.
B.
Fault plane
Downthrow.
89
Normal faulting is indicative of a region that is stretching due to tension

force.
II. Reverse faults/thrust faults.
When the strata or layers are compressed or pressed together the rocks will
crack and faults will be formed.
One block of rocks may override another.
Formation of reverse faults

A.
Surface of
the earth
Rock
Layers
Rocks subjected to
compressional forces
leading to
development of
reverse faults
Compressional forces
Downthrow.
upthrow.
Reverse fault
One block is pushed

over the other.
compressional forces.
Such faults are common in western Uganda. The Ruwenzori Mountain is an

example of a block mountain formed by thrust faults.
Reverse faults are also associated with "subduction" plate boundaries.
III. Shear or tear faults/the strike-slip or transform fault/wrench
faults
When lateral movement is taking place particularly during an earthquake,
90
tear faults may occur.

If a tear fault occurs across the course of a river, then the rivers course
may be slightly offset.
A well-known example of this type of fault is the San Andreas Fault in

California. Part of coastal California is sliding to the northwest relative to the
rest of North America - Los Angeles is slowly moving towards San Francisco
The San Andreas Fault, a right-lateral strike-slip fault caused the massive 1906 San Graben
faults.
Strike-slip faulting indicates neither extension nor compression, but

identifies regions where rocks are sliding past each other.
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Normal
Reverse
Transform
Faulting
Faulting
Faulting
Extension
Compression
Translation
Fault Type:
Deformation
Style:
Vertical
Force
Orientation:
Force Is
Largest
Vertical Force
Is Smallest
Vertical Force
Is
Intermediate
IV. Thrust faults

They are formed when strong Compressional forces push a block of land
over the other along a fault developed in a near horizontal position.
Thrust faults
JUNE 2011

QUICK REVISION
145
A thrust fault has the same sense of motion as a reverse fault, but with the
dip of the fault plane at less than 45.
V. Anticlinal faults
These are faults formed at the crest of an anticline due the stress exerted on
the rocks.
If no displacement of land occurs, such faults can be referred to as fissures.
92
Resultant features of faulting.
An upthrow block between two normal faults dipping away from each other
is called a horst. Low-angle normal faults with regional tectonic significance
may be designated detachment faults.
Depending on the strength of the forces and the nature of the rocks
involved, Faulting has produced a variety of physical features over the
surface of the earth;
1) Escarpments/Fault scarps.
Escarpments are steep cliff-like slopes, formed mostly during the formation
of the rift valleys.
When escarpments are eroded, they become fault scarps.
Examples of fault scarps in east Africa are Elgeyo, Nyandarua (or Aberdare) , Mau, Nandi and Nyando
scarps in Kenya, Butiaba, scarp in Uganda and Lake Manyara scarp in Tanzania. The worlds highest
scarp is the Ethiopian scarp.
93
2) Fault steps.
This is a landscape with a series of fault scarps formed due to displacement
of the land between a series of parallel faults to different levels.
The top part of the scarps resembles the steps of a house.
Step faulting resulting in fault steps
Fault steps
Parallel faults
An example of this type of features is seen at Kijabe-west of Nairobi and on the Elgeyo escarpment at Tambach.
3) Fault blocks. /Block Mountains

A fault block is formed when the middle block which is bounded by more or
less parallel faults is made to rise or is uplifted by the Compressional forces.
Examples are Nandi hills, Mau escarpment, Nyandarua (Arbadere) ranges in Kenya. The Danakil Alps of Ethiopia and the Karas
mountains of Namibia.
94
A horst is formed where a block of land bordered by two almost parallel

normal faults remains standing as the land on either side subsides.
Or two reverse faults develop causing a block of rock to be pushed up.
The best example of a block mountain in East Africa is mount. Ruwenzori
ranges. Others include Mathews ranges and Nyiru Ndoto in Northern Kenya.
4)
Tilt Blocks
Tilt blocks are formed when one side of the middle block is uplifted higher
than the other side.
The top of the middle block will not be flat but will be tilted.
e.g. west Kenya tilt block from Nandi hills towards Lake Victoria., and the Arbadere range-tilted eastwards, The
Ruwenzori Mountains is uplifted more on the western side.
5)Rift Valleys.
A rift valley is an elongated trough/valley formed between faults which are
almost parallel and bound by two in-facing escarpments. It is also known as
a Graben.
Examples. The Great Rift Valley of East Africa, the Benue Rift Valley of West
Africa, the Rhine Rift Valley in Central Europe, and the Baikal Rift Valley in
southern Siberia.
FORMATION OF RIFT VALLEYS.
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Rift valleys are thought to have been developed either from the action of
tensional forces in the crust or from the action of Compressional forces.
a) The tension theory on rift valley formation.
The theory suggests that forces of tension produced normal faults. The crust
between the two parallel faults subsided and produced the rift valley.
Theory 1 Tensional forces-illustrated
a) Tension forces act on the layers of rock.
b) Gradually two parallel faults appear and the central block begins to
subside (sink).
c) Land in between sinks in forming a rift valley. The land on either sides
stays in place.
After subsidence a depression with steep fault scarp sides i.e. a rift valley is
formed. It is trapped in position by later pressure.
96
b) The compression theory on rift valley formation.

This theory suggests that the forces of compression produced almost parallel
reverse faults. The crustal blocks outside the two faults rose up partially
over the middle block, thus producing the rift valley.
Theory 2. Compressional forces-illustrated
a) Layers of rocks are subjected to Compressional forces.
b) Faults develop and the outer blocks move upwards (Reverse faults are
formed).
c) Central block stays in place and a rift valley is formed
c) Formation by Anticlinal arching.

When vertical forces pushed the earths crust upwards, the ground arched
upwards.
Continued upwards pushing let to stress on the crest of the anticline which
97
eventually cracked into a series of cracks to form a rift valley.

RIFT VALLEY FORMED DUE TO MULTIPLE FAULTING CAUSED BY ANTICLINAL ARCHING
F- multiple faults on the crest of an anticline

Strong forces of uplift.
old surface rocks.
old granitic rocks.
F F F
F F F
If more upward force is exerted, then the outermost blocks will be pushed
much higher than the middle block.
The Rhine rift valley was formed in this manner.
THE GREAT RIFT VALLEY.
OR The Great East African Rift Valley.
It is also known as the Afro-Arabian Rift system.
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Rift valleys of East Africa are grouped as follows;

I) The Lake Turkana and Stephanie section extending into Ethiopia.
II) The Eastern/ Gregory rift valley which runs through Kenya from north to
the south into Tanzania.
III) The western rift valley that extends from Lake Tanganyika to north of
Lake Albert. It is closely associated with uplifted Ruwenzori horsts
between lakes Edward and Albert. Other lakes found in this section are
Lake Kivu.
IV) The Malawian section; it includes lake Rukwa, Ruaha and the Zambezi
Luangwa basins. Lakes here are lake Rukwa, Malawi and Chilwa.
THE GREGORY RIFT VALLEY.
This is the section with the most pronounced features of the Great Rift
Valley.
The section is named after a geologist J.W Gregory who carried out
extensive studies on this section. The features include pronounced fault
steps as high as 1000m from the valley floor.
For example; Elgeyo, Mau, Nyandarua and Ngurumani.
Step faulting can be seen at Tambach on the Elgeyo escarpment.
Width of the rift valley varies. In Lake Magadi area, it is 50km wide. To the
north of Lake Baringo, it is 10km wide.
Height of the valley floor also varies. At Lake Magadi area, it is 600m above
sea level. At Lake Naivasha, it is 1800m above sea level.
Depressions exist on the valley floor with some occupied by lakes. Numerous
rivers flow into these lakes.
Further minor faulting on the floor has resulted in smaller escarpments
within the valley.
Volcanic activity on its floor formed volcanoes like Longonot and Menengai
A series of adjacent faults here form a range and valley topography e.g. a
cross section between Ngurumani Hills and Kajiado or Kikuyu escarpment
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and Kedong Valley.

The Winam R. Valley in which the Winam or Kavirondo Gulf is found has a
North-East-South-West trend, which is a departure from the North-South
trend of the Gregory Rift Valley.
It is bound by the Nyando escarpment to the south. A series of fault blocks
are associated with the Winam Gulf. E.g. the West Kenya Tilt block defined
by the Kakamega/Nandi and Nyando escarpments.
The Kisii/ Sotik fault blocks bound by Kendu /Sotik fault to the north and
Soita-ololol fault to the south.
World distribution of features due to faulting.
Location of these features coincide with boundaries of tectonic plates
particularly extension and shear boundaries.
Extension boundary Areas experienced sea floor spreading. At Shear
boundaries, crust cracks forming two blocks which move laterally alongside
one another. E.g. the San Andreas fault.
The Great Rift Valley exists along a split on the African continent. The split
was an extension boundary that did not proceed further.
Other rift valleys in the world include the Rhine valley, the central valley in
Scotland and the Jordan valley.
Block Mountains like the Ruwenzori, Danakil Alps (Ethiopia), Karas (Namibia)
exist.
Tilt blocks like the ones in the Afar Triangle in Ethiopia.
Faultscarps like Butiaba in Uganda and Nandi Escarpment in Kenya.
Significance of faulting.
a)
Faulting may cause disjointing of land leading to disruption of

communication lines, water, and sewage and oil pipes.
b) Fault scarps can cause difficulty and extra expense in the construction of
these lines.
c) Faulting may cause a river to change direction and start flowing along a
100
fault line or even disappear into the ground.

d) Subsidence of land resulting from faulting can cause loss of life and
property.
e) Subsidence of land caused by faulting may also result in the formation
of depressions that may eventually fill up with water to form lakes. The
lakes can be useful in fishing, irrigation, transport and mining. This is
common on Lake Naivasha.
f) Faulting creates lines of weakness in the crust which become passages
for hot water from the ground to the surface in form of the hot springs
and geysers. These can be utilized for geothermal power production. An
example is Olkaria in Kenya.
g) Fault scarp slopes may expose underground water, resulting in the
formation of scarp springs which could be sources of clean water. These
can encourage settlement.
h) The resultant block mountains created through faulting receive a lot of
rain on their windward slopes. They therefore become sources of rivers
that provide water for irrigation, domestic and industrial use, as well as
generation of HEP. For example River Tana flowing from Arbadere
Range.
i) The heavy rains received on the windward slopes of Block Mountains
make the slopes suitable for agriculture and settlement.
j) Faulting has resulted in the exposure of minerals like Diatomite.
Minerals are a source of income for the country.
Problems faced by the people living in the Rift valley areas of East
Africa.
1. High temperatures lead to shortage of water.
2. Earthquakes (tremors) which destroy property
3. Little rainfall or drought in the Rain shadow areas
4. Poor means of transport and communication because of the steep
101
escarpments
5. Salty lakes because of high temperatures and high evaporation rates
6. Soil erosion and land slides especially on the steep slopes
102
VULCANICITY AND LANDFORMS

Vulcanicity is the process through which gases and molten rock are either
extruded on the earth's surface or intruded into the earth's crust.
Magma is the molten rock originating from the upper plastic layer of the
mantle. When it gets to the surface and loses its gases, it is known as lava.
Pyrocrasts are the ashes, cinders and small particles of magma during an
explosive volcanic eruption.
What causes Vulcanicity?
Deep inside the earth heat and pressure exerted by the crust cause rocks to
melt forming molten rocks known as magma, which is forced to rise along the
lines of weakness (fault lines).
Features formed:
on reaching the surface the magma which becomes lava, cools and solidifies
either on the earth surface forming extrusive volcanic features or magma
may solidify below the earths surface forming intrusive volcanic features.
103
Intrusive features:
These are formed when magma solidifies underground. The magma may
spread, accumulate or remain in the passage within the crustal rocks. The
features are also referred to as plutonic features.
The features formed depend on the viscosity of the magma and the nature of
the intruded rocks. E.g.
1) Dykes:
These are layers of igneous intrusion formed when magma solidifies into
vertical cracks, cutting across rock layers.
They could be vertical or slightly slanting depending on the nature of the
cracks.
Where a dyke is made up of a rock that is more resistant to erosion than the
surrounding rocks, and when affected by erosion, the dyke stands as a
ridge.
.
Examples of this type are Devils knuckles and Jambila in Transvaal province-S.A Along the Thyolo
escarpment in Malawi, on the Jos Plateau in Nigeria.
Where the dykes are softer than the surrounding rock, erosion creates a
furrow or trench across the land.
Examples of trench dykes are to the west of Lake Turkana in Kenya; at the
south Africa- Swaziland border forming the channel of river Ugutugulo, at
Lancers Gap near Maseru in Lesotho.
2) Sills:
They formed when lava solidifies in between rock layers.
104
The layer may be horizontal or slightly dipping depending on whether the

bedding planes of the intruded rocks are horizontal or are dipping.
After prolonged erosion, some Sills may be exposed as escarpments.
Where they occur across a river valley they cause water falls and rapids.
Examples are Thika and Thompson falls in Kenya, Karuma falls and Bujagali
in Uganda.
3) Laccoliths:
Dome shaped layers of magma formed when magma encounters rock more
resistant at its sides than its center.
After prolonged erosion, it may form upland.
4) Lopolith:
Bowl shaped layers of magma formed when magma encounters rock more
resistant at its center than its sides.
It can be exposed as a shallow basin. Examples are Arenas in Ankole.
105
5) Batholiths:
They consist of plutonic mass of magma which intruded the country rock.
They are dome shaped, formed at great depth and at times they are
exposed at the surface by denudational forces as Inselbergs.
Examples are Maragoli and eat Bunyore batholiths in Kenya, the Chimamora
Batholith-north east of Harare, the Chailla Massif in Gabon and the Stone
Mountain of Georgia.
Extrusive features
The following types of lava are responsible for formation of extrusive
features.
Lava material that moves to the surface differs in chemical composition.
This party explain the different types or shapes of volcanoes and nature of
eruption whether explosions or quite. For example:
a) Acidic lava: very thick, traps a lot of gas, water, rich in silica content
106
violent eruption and lava solidifies very quickly builds up steep cones.
b) Basic lava: this is a form of fluid poor in silica content flows for a very
distance before it solidifies; it builds up gently sloping cones, lava
plateau and plains.
c) Pyroclasts (Heated lava): when lava is heated, it breaks down into
small fragments or pieces (Pyroclasts), which usually falls to the
ground and form layers of Ash/cinder. Layers of ash mix with layers of
lava to form composite cones.
The features.
1) Volcanoes:
These are hills or mountains formed when magma erupts and piles up
around the vent until a cone is formed.
These are basically four types of volcanic cones.
Types of volcanic cones
a) Ash/cinder cone:
These are small but steep sided hills formed when explosive eruptions throw
lava high into the air, breaking it into small fragments or pieces known as
pyroclastics (fire rocks).
The erupted materials build up around the vent; layer after layer forming
steep sided cones.
Examples in Kenya are chyulu hills to the west of Mtito Andei, Abili Agituk, Nabuyatom and Murniau ash cones to the south of Lake Turkana
and Longonot. Teleki and Likaiyu to the south of Lake Turkana are cinder cones. The hills are characterized by a large crater /caldera at the top
because of violet eruptions.
The parasitic cones on mt. Kenya and Longonot arte ash cones.
107
b) Basic lava cone/basic lava domes/shield volcano.

This is a low lying hill with gently slopping sides formed when hot fluid lava,
with low silica content, flows and spreads out in flat layers before solidifying.
It is shaped like a shield and hence the name shield volcano.
Examples include Nyamulagira ranges on Uganda- Rwanda boarder, mt. Marsabit in Kenya,
Tukuyu Mountain in southern Tanzania.
c) Acid lava dome:
These are dome-shaped hills formed when thick lava rich in silica, solidifies
quickly on reaching the surface.
Examples sernal volcano domes in Tsavo national park in Kenya, the itasy Massif of Madagascar, the western side of Lake
Naivasha.
NB; Lava domes usually do not have craters (depressions) at their tops but the domes are instead known to form in the craters of
large volcanoes. Such craters are called tholoids.
108
d) Volcanic plug/volcanic neck.

The thick lava (viscous) lava, at times solidifies in the vent.
After prolonged erosion, the plug is exposed to the surface as a volcanic
plug.
Examples are the peaks of mt Kenya; Rangwe hills SW of Homa Bay existing as the
remains of Kisingiri volcano, the Tororo rocks in Eastern Uganda.
e) A composite cone: / strato volcanoes,

These are formed by alternating layers of lava and rock fragments hence
the name composite.
Formation.
An explosive period releases gas and ash and cinder layers.
Then the eruption changes to a quite period
Erupting lava then covers the top of ash layer.
When the cycle of ash and lave is repeated over and over in alternating
layers, a composite volcano is formed.
109
At times lava is diverted side ways from the vent forming dykes, Corrects or parasite cone
.Examples are Mt. Kenya, Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Mahambura in South west Uganda,
mount Cameroon in west Africa.
f) Plug domes/plug volcano/spine.

It is a column of very viscous acidic lava which sticks above the ground like
a pillar when a mass of very viscous acidic magma is forced out of the
110
ground in the shape of a rigid cylindrical column.
Plug volcano/spine
As soon as the column of stiff magma reaches the surface, it starts to cool
and harden as it vertically rises.
June-2011
Cheloti's slides for KCSE revision
36
The Devils tower in Wyoming State, USA.( SOURCE- Geographic Division. Samples)
The loose rocks in the line of weakness are thrown out due to high
pressure, and they accumulate around the vent.
For example, Hyrax and Fischers tower at Hells Gate near Naivasha,
Iharen in the Hoggar mountain of Algeria. Lassen Peak in California and
the Devils Tower in Wyoming State, USA.
g) Lava plateaus and plains.
A lava plateau is an extensive fairly level upland area which is elevated to
over 500 m above sea level and covered by lava flows.
It is formed as a result of quite eruptions, when lava moves out slowly along
cracks /faults.
The fluid lava flows for a very long times on the land, filling up depressions
and valleys, leveling the entire surface before it solidifies, forming lava
plateau.
Examples are; Uasin Gishu, Yatta, Laikipia and Turkana plateau in Kenya
and Kisoro lava plain in Uganda.
NB; Lava plains do not have thick lava covering. Their original surface is covered in lava
111
flows like lava plateaus, though not of great thickness. They are found at the foot of
highlands and mountains.
Examples are the Athi-Kapiti plains, Mwea plains and the Nyando plains
h) Crater-.
A crater is a funnel-shaped/circular depression which forms at the mouth of
a volcanic vent.
Craters are formed as follows
I) During the formation of a volcano.
When the outpouring of lava from the vent stops, the magma in the vent
cools and therefore contracts at the same time.
This contraction and subsequent withdrawal of lava/magma into the vent
creates a depression at the top of the volcano.
Examples are found on Mt. Marsabit, Ol Donyo Nyoike, Central Island of
Lake Turkana, Kilimanjaro, Ol Donyo Lengai and Mahambura.
When rainwater or snowmelt water accumulates in the depression, a
crater lake is formed.
Examples are lake paradise on Mount Marsabit, Lake Chala on the KenyaTanzania border and Lake Magadi in the Ngorongoro crater.
II) Formation due to a volcanic explosion at ground level.
Explosion craters are flat floor depressions formed when explosive
eruptions of gases blow off the rocks at the surface leaving a shallow
circular depression.
When explosion stops a ring crater or explosion crater is formed.
Water from rivers or underground may flow into the crater to form a
crater lake that is known as a Maar.
Examples are found in south-western Uganda between Lake George and
Lake Albert. E.g. Lake Katwe- a major source of salt in Uganda, L.
Nyamuruka, Kyamwiga, Nyungu, Nyamsingire, L. Munyanyang, L. Saka,
and Kyegere. Found in western Uganda, in Kasese, Kabarole and
Bushenyi districts.
112
III) Formation of craters through non-volcanic processes.

Through the impact of a meteorite falling on the earths surface from
space, a depression may be formed as it sinks into the rocks.
Meteor Crater, Arizona
Water from the rains, rivers, and underground may accumulate in it to

form a lake. E.g. the depression occupied by lake Bosumtwi-south-east of
Kumasi in Ghana.
i) Caldera/basal wreck.
It is an enlargement of a crater on top of volcano. It is a very large basinshaped depression surrounded by steep sides.
It may be formed in the following ways
I) Due to violent eruption.
After eruptions, a volcano is

formed and the magma in
the vent settles and
solidifies firmly sealing the
vent.
Formation of a caldera.
a short period of dormancy may follow

Then molten magma heats the gases and
steam beneath the volcano, which expand
and try to escape to the earth, thus
exerting a lot of pressure on the rocks
above.
As the pressure piles up, the volcano
explodes, blowing off its upper part (head)
113
Some fragments from the explosion fall

back on the slopes to build it up.
Others fall into the vent and are melted
by the magma.
Then a large depression called an
explosion caldera is formed.
Examples are found on Menengai, Suswa, and Longonot in Kenya, Napaka, and Sabino in Uganda.
Ngorongoro in Tanzania. Nyamulagira and Nyiragongo DRC, the caldera occupied by lake Toba on
Sumatra Island in Indonesia..
II) By cauldron or block subsidence.

When a volcano forms, the magma reservoir below the crust is left partly
empty creating a cavity called a cauldron or void.
The rocks of the volcano will exert pressure on the crustal rocks over which
they lie.
Weak lines develop in the crustal rocks making the volcano unstable.
The weight of the volcano overcomes resistance and its middle portion
subsides into the cauldron. This may be triggered off by an earthquake.
A large depression is left on top of the now lower volcano. This depression is
called a collapse caldera.
Examples of collapse calderas are Menengai near Nakuru, Embagai and Ngorongoro in northern
Tanzania, lake Shala caldera in Ethiopia, Krakatoa in Sunda Straits between Java and Sumatra in
Indonesia.
III). Formation by outward pouring.

A high volcano build by ash and other Pyroclasts may become unstable in its
mass due to the pressure exerted on the material beneath by the materials
at the top.
The materials at the base begin to spread outwards as the top of the volcano
collapses inwards. This creates a depression which forms a caldera.
An example is the Napak caldera in north-eastern Uganda formed due to the
collapse of mount Napak.
NB; the height of the new volcano after the formation of a caldera is much
114
lower than the original volcano.
Subsequent volcanic eruption but on a

minor scale, may result in the formation
of secondary cones inside the caldera.
An example is in Suswa, Meru
Gadames and Krakatoa calderas.
Wizard island in crater lake district of
Oregon is a secondary cone.
J) Lava dammed lakes.

These are formed when lava blocks channels. Water pools behind leading to
formation of lakes. Examples L.Bunyonyi and L. Mutande in southwest
Uganda.
K) Fumaroles, Solfatara and Mofettes.
A fumarole is a subsidiary vent on a volcano or a hole in the ground which
mainly emits gases or steam.
A Solfatara is a hole or subsidiary vent that emits steam and gases that are
composed mainly of sulphurous compounds.
Mofettes are vents/ holes that emit carbon dioxide gas and steam an
example is found at Kereita in the uplands area of Kenya at Eburu west of
Naivasha, at Ol karia in Kenya.
NB; the source of the gases is the chemical reactions that take place within the crustal rocks
when they are heated by magma. The minerals in the rocks determine the type of gases
which flow out.
L) Hot springs /geyser:

These are features produced when heated water in volcanic areas flow out
quietly in form of hot springs or erupt periodically shooting out water /steam
in the air as geysers.
a) Hot springs/thermal springs.
A hot spring is a place where hot water comes out of the ground.
115
The water may not be very hot but it may be at a higher temperature than
that of the normal water.
Formation.
Rainwater/river water enters the crustal rocks through cracks and holes upto
the hot rock location.
Magma or the hot rock itself heats the water, some of it turning into vapour.
Some of the water collects in chambers called sumps, within the rocks.
The steam builds pressure causing the water in the chambers to be
superheated.
The pressure forces the steam upwards towards the earths surface through
cracks and holes in the rocks.
As the steam is escaping to the surface, it heats the groundwater in the
surrounding rocks.
The ground water now under pressure finds its way to the surface quietly as
a hot spring.
Examples of hot springs are around the shores of Lake Magadi, Turkana basin and bogoria,
at mahi mahiu and lower slopes of Longonot
b) A geyser
This is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected
turbulently and accompanied by vapour and gases.
An erupting spring (geyser) at Haukadalur, Iceland.
Generally the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma. Surface water
works its way down to a depth where it contacts hot rocks.
116
The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of
hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent.
The formation of geysers specifically requires the following geologic
conditions.
a) Intense heat. The magma needs to be near the surface of the earth to
provide the heat needed for geyser formation.
b) Water. The water that is ejected from a geyser must travel
underground through deep, pressurized fissures in the earth's crust.
c) A plumbing system that includes a reservoir to hold the water while
being heated, fractures, fissures, porous spaces and sometimes
cavities.
d) Constrictions in the system are essential to the building up of pressure
before an eruption.
E.g. Geysers in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States.
Examples in East Africa are Kitagata in Bushenyi, Sempaya in fort portal (Uganda), in the
Rungwe mountain ranges in Tanzania, at Ol Karia, south-west of Lake Naivasha, at the
western shores of Lake Bogoria.
Types of Volcanoes
1. Active: This is a volcano that has erupted within the last 500 years and
still shows signs of activity.
2. Dormant: This is a volcano that has not erupted within the last 500
years but still shows signs of activity such as hot springs. An example
is Mt. Kilimanjaro.
3. Extinct: This is a volcano that has not erupted within the last 500
years and shows no signs of activity. An example is Mt. Kenya, mt.
Elgon.
117
Distribution
of the and
World's
Volcanoes
Distribution
of volcanoes
volcanic
features.
June-2011
Cheloti's slides for KCSE revision
80
Advantages of Vulcanicity
1. Volcanic mountains and lava plateau provide fertile volcanic soils which
support agriculture, e.g. Arabic coffee is grown on mountain Elgon,
Mufumbiro, Kenya and Kilimanjaro, coffee earns the country foreign
currency and provides employment, and other crops grown include
wheat, tea, pyrethrum, maize, bananas, vegetables, and Irish
potatoes.
2. The highland areas are densely settled. This is due to the fertile soils
and cool climate, e.g. Bugishu, Kigezi, Kenya and Kilimanjaro
highlands. In addition some of these areas have large towns like
Kabale, Mbale, Moshi, and Nairobi. This has led to development of
commercial activities.
3. The volcanic features especially mountains are tourist attractions. They
provide sporting activities like mountain climbing. They generate
income in form of foreign exchange and provide employment to local
people.
118
4. Volcanic mountains influence climate, lead to formation of geographic

or relief rainfall which is important for agriculture. Some mountains
are ice capped. They are a source of many rivers, which provide water
for domestic use and generate hydroelectric power.
5. There are forest reserves on the slopes of mountains like Elgon,
Mufumbiro Kenya, and Kilimanjaro which are valuable source of timber
and firewood. The forests also act as wildlife conservation areas e.g.
Bwindi impenetrable forests, has the largest population of gorillas,
which promote tourism.
6. Lava or magma is rich in minerals e.g. Tororo rock volcanic plug is a
source of limestone for the cement industry. Iron, tin and uranium are
found in the Mufumbiro ranges. Lake Katwe which is an explosion
crater is a centre for salt mining. The Kimberlitic rock in Tanzania is
centre for gold mining. Minerals provide revenue and employment.
7. Hot springs or Geysers are potential source of geothermal power
(electricity).in Kenya, the Olkaria Geothermal Power Station near Lake
Naivasha in Kenya, generates electricity.
8. There is fishing in lava-damned lakes, which provides food and
employment.
9. The intrusive features Batholiths, dyke, sills, laccoliths and Lappolith
once exposed to the surface as Inselbergs have the following
advantages;
a) Good sites for quarrying. They are sources of stones used for
construction.
b) Sills and Dykes once crossed by rivers create waterfalls which are
good for hydro power generation.
c) They are tourist attractions.
119
Disadvantages of Vulcanicity
1. Volcanic features especially mountains are communication barriers due
to steepness.
2. It is very expensive and risky to construct roads and railways in the hilly
areas.
3. Volcanic eruption leads to loss of lives and property.
4. Heavy rainfall and steepness lead to soil erosion, mass wasting and
landslides which are common in Kigezi and Elgon areas.
5. Mountains act as barriers to rainfall especially on the leeward side (rain
shadow areas) this causes aridity.
6. Intrusive features like sills and dykes form waterfalls and rapids which
hinder navigation of rivers.
7. Where there are Inselbergs and Batholiths make agriculture practicing
difficult.
120
EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is the shaking of the earth caused by the sudden release of
energy from rocks under tectonic stress.
The scientific study and interpretation of earthquakes is called seismology.
Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists.
We call the "point" (or region) inside the earth where an earthquake
originates the hypocenter or seismic focus.
An earthquake begins when the earth around a fault slips suddenly, releasing an enormous amount of energy.
The point on Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter is called the
epicenter.
Practically, the epicenter is most important for societal impact, as it marks the position
where energy release, and thus shaking, is largest. The position of maximum energy release
is actually the focus, but if this region lies deep in the Earth, the effect at the surface may
121
be minor.
Earthquakes that are less violent are referred to as earth tremors.

An earthquake beneath the ocean results in huge waves called seismic sea
waves (tsunamis) that devastate coastlines.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES.
The causes are categorized as natural and human causes.
Natural causes.
a) Tectonic movements. The boundaries between moving plates are
called faults. When plates in motion lock temporarily and release
energy as the rocks fracture, this generates an earthquake. Such
earthquakes are called tectonic earthquakes. This are common in
Japan ( the pacific plate is moving towards the Eurasian plate)
b) Vulcanicity. Magma movements within the earths crust causes sudden
displacement of crustal rocks. Violent volcanic explosions and emission
of gases can also shake or shatter rocks. Suck earthquakes are
common in Kenya in the Great Rift Valley and in the ring of fire in
Japan.
Ring of Fire
This is the area in the Pacific where subduction is occurring. As the plates of North and South
America move west and the Asia moves east, they are overriding the Pacific Ocean Plate.
Also sudden eruption of molten magma under the oceans can cause earth
tremors as the water on the ocean floor expands violently.
122
c) Gravitative pressure. Due to Gravitative pressure the crustal rocks

which are above the voids left by escaping magma move inwards to fill
the cavities. As the crustal rocks sink due to this pressure, the ground
shakes.
d) Isostatic adjustment. When erosion and melting of large masses of ice
takes place on the continental masses, the continents become lighter
and therefore rise. The deposition on the sea bed causes the sima
layers to be depressed (sink) into the mantle. This sinking disrupts the
balance maintained by the sial and the sima layers. This triggers off
earthquakes. E.g. in the mid-west and east coast of USA, and parts of
Canada.
e) Radioactivity in the mantle. Where the activity is localized in parts of
the mantle, it results in excessive energy release, sometimes
explosively, sending shock waves outwards into the crustal rocks
resulting in earthquakes.
Human causes..
a) Underground nuclear test. When nuclear bombs are detonated
underground, they trigger off immense vibration of the earth in the
region where they go off.
b) Movement of trains. A passing train generates vibrations as it rolls on
its rails. These shockwaves can be felt in the neighbourhood of the
railway.
c) Use of explosives. During quarrying or construction, explosives are
sometimes used to blast the rocks. The explosives trigger off
vibrations which are felt in the area surrounding the explosion site.
d) Construction of large reservoirs. Weight of water in man-made lakes
(reservoirs) can reactivate dormant faults, triggering off tremors. For
example around Lake Mead, behind Hoover dam on River Colorado in
the USA. Also Lake Kariba, behind Kariba Dam on river Zambezi has
123
caused earthquakes of up to 5.8 magnitudes.

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES.
The shockwaves originating from the focus are also called seismic waves
There are three types of seismic waves: P and S body waves and surface
waves.
Body waves radiate outward from the focus in all directions and travel
through solid rock.
1. Primary waves.
A P body wave (primary body wave) is a Compressional (longitudinal)
wave that induces the particles in the rock to vibrate back and forth in the
same direction the wave moves.
These are the fastest waves which are recorded first.
These waves can pass through gases, liquids and solids.

2. Secondary waves.
S-waves represent a brief shear motion between atoms, which relax and are
passed on.
They cause the rock to vibrate at right angles to the direction of wave travel.
They move like loops in a taut robe shaken at one end.
124
They only pass through solids.

3. Surface longitudinal waves.
These are the slowest seismic waves and travel outward on the earth's
surface from the epicenter much like ripples do from a stone thrown into
water.
ce
Surfa
s
wave
Body
waves
focus
These are the waves responsible for most of the damages due to
earthquakes. They cause the surface rock particles to shake, even causing
buildings to collapse.
They exist in two types;
a) Rayleigh waves. Named after the person who first predicted them in
1887 (Lord Rayleigh III), they cause the surface rock particles to move
125
in elliptical orbits.
Rayleigh waves
Plane of propagation
b) Love waves. Also named after an oxford mathematician A.E.H. Love

who first recognized them, the waves cause surface rock particles to
move in a horizontal manner and at right angles to the direction of the
wave.
Love waves.
Plane of propagation
Important points to note about earthquakes.

Earthquakes can occur anywhere between the Earth's surface and about
700 kilometers below the surface. Based on their depth, earthquakes
can be described as shallow, intermediate, and deep focus.
Shallow earthquakes are between 0 and 70 km deep; intermediate
earthquakes, 70 - 300 km deep; and deep earthquakes, 300 - 700
km deep. In general, the term "deep-focus earthquakes" is applied to
earthquakes deeper than 70 km.
Areas with deep focus earthquakes record higher earthquake
magnitudes and are more disastrous.
The velocity of all waves increase with depth to the Gutenberg
discontinuity. Earthquakes travel faster in denser materials.
Measurement of earthquakes.
Seismometers.
Seismic waves are detected with a seismometer, which contains a
suspended pendulum-like mass that is kept as motionless as possible.
The seismometer is connected to a seismograph, which records the
motion of the mass during an earthquake as a series of squiggly lines
126
called a seismogram (a graph-like record on which the impulses are

recorded)
Seismographs - Keeping Track of Earthquakes
Reading and interpretation of seismic waves are made from the

seismogram.
The location, depth, and strength of an earthquake can easily be
calculated from the seismograph data.
Illustration of a Seismogram showing a compression (up) on the first arrival.
127
A typical seismogram (Figure).

.
There are times of wide swings of the recorder against
a background of small amplitude. Amplitude is the
technical term for the distance between the average
background and the maximum swing of the needle. The
pattern falls into two components: an initial series of
swings followed by slowly diminishing activity, then a
second wave of greater amplitude. If the station is
sufficiently close to the earthquake source region, the
needle continues to move even after this second wave
of activity. These pulses of activity record different types
of waves that emanate from an earthquake.
Those arriving first are called P-waves, for Primary
waves, whereas the second pulse of waves are
predictably called S-waves.
The strength of an earthquake is measured by its intensity and magnitude.

Intensity
Intensity refers to the effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface. The
modified Mercalli scale ranks intensity from 1 to 12 according to the
amount of resulting damage.
128
The maximum observed intensity generally occurs near the epicenter.

This system is not however totally accurate because;
a. The amount of damage is often proportional to the type of design
and construction of buildings, and the bedrock on which the
buildings sit.
b. Intensities cannot be assigned to earthquakes in uninhabited areas
because there is little physical damage that can be quantified.
Magnitude
Magnitude is the measure of the amount of energy given off by an
earthquake.
By analyzing the seismic waves, the magnitude, or the amount of energy
released by the earthquake, can be determined.
The Richter scale is a numerical scale that lists earthquake magnitudes in
logarithmic increments from about 2 to 8.6the highest value ever
recorded on the scale.
For example, an earthquake that is a 3 on the Richter scale has a vibration
ten times bigger than that for a 2. The difference in energy released is even
larger: a Richter 3 is about thirty times more powerful than a Richter 2.
Effects of earthquakes.
a) Structural damage and fire. Surface trembling from seismic waves
often damages buildings. Depending on the severity of the earthquake,
gas mains may break, starting numerous fires.
b) Mass-wasting events. Ground motion may trigger landslides and
other rapid mass-wasting events that result in loss of life and damage
to buildings. This happened in the Loess county of China in 1920 and
1927.
c) Rocks can be permanently displaced during an earthquake. Fault
blocks may move vertically, forming a new scarp along the fault plane.
Horizontal movement can tear apart roads, pipelines, and any other
129
structures that are built across the fault zone.

d) Seismic sea waves/ tsunamis. If the sea floor suddenly shifts
upward or downward, the sudden displacement of water results in
seismic sea waves, or tsunamis, resulting in widespread coastal
damage.
e) Earthquakes can cause violent motions of the earths surface.
f) Parts of the sea floor can be raised or lowered. E.g. in 1923, a part of
Sagami Bay in Japan was raised by as much as 213m. In 1899, parts of
the coastal rocks in Alaska were uplifted by 15m by an earthquake.
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes mostly occur in seismic zones.
Areas which are not prone to earthquakes are called aseismic zones.
Earthquakes occur in well-defined belts that correspond to active plate
tectonic zones.
The main seismic zones of the world include;
a) The circum-Pacific belt (also called the Rim of Fire) hosts
over 80 percent of the world's shallow and medium-depth
earthquakes and 100 percent of the deep earthquakes.
b) Other earthquake zones are the Mediterranean-Himalayan
belt and the mid-oceanic ridges that split the crust at the
bottom of the world's oceans.
c) Plate boundaries and associated earthquakes. Distribution
plots reveal that many earthquakes are associated with andesitic
volcanic action and oceanic trenches that occur over subduction
zones in the circum-Pacific belt.
d) A belt across southern Europe and south-east Asia including the
Himalayas.
e) Along the boundaries of tectonic plates.
130
Some Destructive Earthquakes

Date
December 26,
2004
May 22, 1927
December 16,
1920
September 1,
1923
December 28,
1908
November 1,
1755
Location
Sumatra
Deaths
Magn. Comments
280,000
9.1
200,000
8.3
China,Gansu
200,000
8.6
Japan, Kwanto
143,000
8.3
China, near
Xining
tsunami (NOAA); about

dozen countries affected
Large fractures
Major fractures,
landslides
Great Tokyo fire
Deaths from 70,000 to
Italy, Messina
70,000
7.5
100,000 (estimated);
earthquake and tsunami
Portugal, Lisbon
70,000
8.7
Great tsunami
NB
THIS WORK IS ALSO AVAILABLE IN POWERPOINT SLIDES
CONTACT 0208002451 OR +254722402641
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MADE EASY AND INTERESTING

Illustrated lesson notes for key topics in physical geography

Part one; form one and two work.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Geography is the study of how man interacts with the environment.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The earth in relation to the solar system.

The shape of the landscape (called Geomorphology)

Weather (called Meteorology)

Climate (called Climatology)

The location of plants and animals (called Biogeography)

Rocks (called Geology)

2) Human geography deals with man's economic activities such as

Historical geography (How land use has changed over time)

Cultural geography (How land is used in different cultures)

Demography (the effect of changes in population)

Economic geography (How man creates wealth from the environment)

Social geography (How changes in society affect land use)

Political geography (How politics affects land use)

Settlement geography (How changes in our villages and towns affect

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Geography and Mathematics

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

occupied with studying farming systems, their distribution and factors

Physical and biological sciences

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND EARTH

The solar system

The solar system.

Important points to note

A star is a heavenly body possessing its own light which it transmits.

An orbit is the path in space which the planet follows as it revolves

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Each planet takes a different length of time to complete one revolution;

THE RELATIVE SIZES OF THE PLANETS

Take note of the Plutos giant moon, Charon, beyond Pluto.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Mars. Credit: NASA

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The distance from the sun to Jupiter is 778 million kilometres.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

system has over 61 satellites, varying in size.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

As cooling continued, heavier materials collected at the centre and formed

Summary of other theories on earth origin.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

3. The biblical interpretation of earth origin. According to Bishop

Characteristics of the Solar System.

Most of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated in the sun.

98 percent of the angular momentum is found in the planets

Heavy noble gases (xenon, neon, Krypton) are rare on earth as

The Earth is layered with a thin crust, overlying a heavier mantle,

The planets and sun each have a somewhat different density

Earth's Thermal Structure

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The shape of the earth.

Proofs that the earth is spherical.

ILLUSTRATED TEACHING/LEARNING NOTES ON KEY TOPICS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The size of the earth.

Approximate distance from the sun-149 560 000kilometres.

Polar circumference-39995 kilometres.