Vol. 10, No.

2, Winter 2013, 102-125

www.ncsu.edu/acontracorriente
The Narrative Is (Not the Territor!" #uis $ardo%a !
&ra'(n)s *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano and the
*uate+alan -evolution
.rian /avisson
0ississi11i 2tate 3niversit!
*uate+ala)s 1455 -evolution +ar6ed the end o7 thirteen !ears o7
dictatorshi1 8! 9or'e 38ico, and the e+er'ence o7 a decade o7 de+ocratic
and li8eral re7or+ that cul+inated in the 1assin' o7 the #e! de -e7or+a
&'raria in 1453. The 7irst actin' 1resident durin' this 1eriod, 9uan 9os:
&r:valo, a socialist who saw a clear se1aration 8etween 2oviet co++unis+
and the land-8ased 6o+unis+o he su11orted,1 undertoo6 the writin' o7 a
new constitution, and ho1ed to initiate land re7or+ as the 7oundation 7or
industriali%ation within the countr!. These re7or+s were later e;1anded
u1on 8! the 'overn+ent o7 9aco8o <r8en%, who too6 control o7 the nation


9os: #uis Vald:s 3'alde writes" =>&r:valo? ar'u+enta8a @ue ha8,a una
di7erencia entre 6o+unis+o ! co+unis+o. /esde su 1ers1ectiva, el co+unis+o
esta8a re1resentado 1or el Aartido $o+unista de 0oscB ! el leninis+o, +ientras
@ue el 6o+unis+o era una ideolo',a 1ol,tica de+ocrCtica, cu!o 1ro1(sito era la
Dde7ensa de los intereses de los tra8aEadores ! los e;1lotados del +undo), ! sus
1rinci1ios en7ati%a8an el Dnacionalis+o ! la so8eran,a, ! se atrev,an a cuestionar a
Fstados 3nidos)G (13H.
1
/avisson 103
7ollowin' elections in 1450, and who =result( ser un re7or+ista +Cs radical
@ue &r:valo !, 1or ende, un +oderni%ador +Cs co+1ro+etido, lo @ue a su
ve% 7acilita8a @ue en a@uellos 1recarios tie+1os 1ol,ticos del continente se
le viera co+o a un revolucionarioG (Vald:s 3'alde 15H.
The re7or+s enacted durin' the 1eriod o7 the *uate+alan
-evolution, which ended with the invasion o7 the countr! 8! $arlos $astillo
&r+as in 1455, 7ind their roots in the unionista stru''les in the late 1410s.
This +ove+ent drew to'ether the e77orts to reesta8lish the 1olitical lin6s
8etween the $entral &+erica nations that e+er'ed shortl! a7ter
inde1endence in 1I21 with the anti-dictatorial stru''le a'ainst 0anuel
Fstrada $a8rera, and +an! o7 its leadin' 1artici1ants included !oun'
intellectuals such as $le+ente 0arro@u,n -oEas, 0i'uel <n'el &sturias,
and #uis $ardo%a ! &ra'(n, who would later 8e seen as 6e! +e+8ers o7
*uate+ala)s literar! 'eneraci(n del 20. While the unionist 1lat7or+ 7ailed
to reunite the $entral &+erican states, the +ove+ent)s 7oundation 1roved
si'ni7icant once a'ain in the 1455 -evolution, as 2er'io Tischler Vis@uerra
writes"
Fl hecho +Cs si'ni7icativo de la reco+1osici(n de 7uer%as 7ue el
desarrollo de un lidera%'o nacional @ue tuvo 1or 1rota'onistas
1rinci1ales a los estudiantes ! los +aestros, es decir, a la 1arte
ilustrada de los sectores +edios. /icho lidera%'o se 1las+( en un
+ovi+iento @ue arrastr( a la +a!or 1arte de la 1o8laci(n nacional a
la dinC+ica 1ol,tica en torno a la candidatura del /r. 9uan 9os:
&r:valo. (201
None o7 these three writers had direct involve+ent in the 1455 -evolution,
as &sturias was servin' in $on'ress 8ut was not active in the revolutionar!
+ove+ent, and 8oth 0arro@u,n -oEas and $ardo%a were livin' in e;ile in
0e;ico. The ideals o7 land re7or+, however, re+ained central to their
ideolo'ical desires 7or the nation, and would 1rovide the 7oundation 7or the
national 1roEects that e+er'ed in their literar! and 1olitical writin's.
The 1455 -evolution was 7urther+ore si'ni7icant 7or $ardo%a, as it
ena8led hi+ to chronicle his return to and relationshi1 with *uate+ala,
and unite the ideals o7 histor!, +!th, land, and indi'eneit! which he saw as
7unda+ental in co+1rehendin' 8oth the nation and the -evolutionar!
1eriod. The central wor6 o7 this 1eriod, *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano,
is descri8ed 8! 0arc Ji++er+an and -aBl -oEas as the =@uintessential























































The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 105
e;1ressionG o7 $ardo%a)s Indian-centered view o7 *uate+ala (1K.
Ji++er+an later descri8es it as =a wor6 which constituted a virtual +acro-
te;t totali%in' the nation)s literar! e;1ression and critical anal!sis,
1resentin' and e;1lorin' *uate+ala)s social and cultural 1rocesses and
1ro8le+sG (#iterature and -esistance 2. The +ove toward totalit! is
intri'uin', and I 7ind it di77icult to dis1ute the notion that $ardo%a atte+1ts
to esta8lish a totalit! o7 the nation throu'h this wor6, as the *uate+alan
-evolution 1rovided a clear 8ac6dro1 throu'h which a 7unda+entall!
Indian-centered view o7 the nation could 7inall! a11ear. *uate+ala, las
l,neas de su +ano carries the notion o7 a cultural and 1olitical totalit!
7urther, thou'h, in e;1lorin' the a8solute connection 8etween the
indi'enous co++unit!, the land it inha8its, and $ardo%a)s own 1resence
within the nation.
The 1oet in this case 8eco+es the 6e! +ediatin' ele+ent, and
throu'h his 1resence, the wor6 raises a crucial !et overloo6ed and easil!
reductive @uestion" what does $ardo%a +ean when he invo6es
=*uate+alaGL I 1ose this @uestion s1eci7icall! to wor6 throu'h the
relationshi1 8etween the nation and the 1oet, as a +eans o7
co+1rehendin' the structures o7 e;ile and return, as well as the cultural
and territorial concerns that $ardo%a invo6es throu'hout the wor6. In
e77ect, the 1oet a11ears inca1a8le o7 s1ea6in' o7 the cultural le'ac! o7 the
indi'enous 1o1ulation, this co++unit!)s atte+1ts to overco+e re1ression
and underdevelo1+ent 7ro+ the ti+e o7 the con@uista until the 1450s, and
the central issues o7 land control and a'rarian re7or+, without a concerted
e77ort to 8rea6 the idea o7 =*uate+alaG down to its a8solute root. Throu'h
the literar! 1rocess in which he en'a'es his ho+eland, $ardo%a re1resents
the nation throu'h 8oth territorial and s1atial +odes,2 and I will ar'ue
8elow that this s1lit in the identit! o7 the nation a11ears as the onl! wa! o7


The ter+ =s1aceG re7ers here to the cultural 1roduction and identit! o7 the
nation, and not to an a8stract idea o7 location. Mi-Nu Tuan)s 1heno+enolo'ical
a11roach to s1ace and 1lace 1rovides that" =)21ace) is +ore a8stract than D1lace.)
What 8e'ins as undi77erentiated s1ace 8eco+es 1lace as we 'et to 6now it 8etter
and endow it with valueG (K. I 7ind this a11roach li+itin' in ter+s o7 deter+inin'
national identit!, and instead turn to Oenri #e7e8vre)s s1atial theor! that indicates
that =(2ocial s1ace is a (social 1roductG (Aroduction 2K. This a11roach allows 7or
a clear division 8etween 'eo1olitical 8orders and cultural ideas o7 national identit!,
while still allowin' 7or the structure o7 7eelin' to lin6 the individual to a national
consciousness.
2

/avisson 105
+ediatin' the nation throu'h the author)s 1resence, as con7i'ured throu'h
the e;ilic e;1erience that 7ra+es the te;t.
The -eturn 7ro+ F;ile
*uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano o1ens in e;ce1tionall! concrete
ter+s, with the descri1tion o7 $ardo%a)s entrance into *uate+ala across the
land 8order with 0e;ico. The 7irst sentence o7 the wor6 reads" =Fl 20 de
octu8re de 1455 estall( la revoluci(n @ue esta8a trans7or+ando a
*uate+ala, ! el 22 cruc: la 7rontera.G Oe continues later on the sa+e 1a'e,
s1ea6in' o7 the 7riends who crossed with hi+" =$on ellos ! un 7usil en la
+ano, volv, a +i tierraG (H. Ois entrance into *uate+ala a11ears with a
7lourish, e+1hasi%in' his own connection to the -evolution and the
i+1lication o7 a desire to ta6e u1 ar+s in the stru''le. 0arro@u,n -oEas
would later s1ea6 rather 'lowin'l! o7 the wor6)s 1oetics, 8ut would
decidedl! undercut this vision the 1oet 'ives o7 hi+sel7 in his readin' o7
$ardo%a)s te;t"
$ardo%a ha8,a vivido la +a!or 1arte de la vida entre 'ente
va'a8unda, 'entu%a de ca7:, revolucionarios de 1acotilla. *ente @ue
hace ver8al+ente la revoluci(n, @ue 1rende 7ue'o a la +echa de las
'randes e;1losiones, sin darse cuenta de lo @ue hace, de lo @ue va a
ocasionar. (1553
This is 1erha1s unsur1risin' considerin' 0arro@u,n)s 1olitical traEector!,
which saw his or'ani%ation o7 the unionist stru''les in the 1410s and 20s,
7ro+ which $ardo%a was uninvolved, and his 1u8lic o11osition to 1ositions
ta6en 8! the &r:valo 'overn+ent, o7ten aired in the 1ress.
$ardo%a +a6es a 7urther curious +ove with re'ard to his e;ile at the
close o7 the entire wor6, writin' as the 8!-line" =&nti'ua *uate+ala, 1453P
0:;ico, 1455, de nuevo en el e;ilioG (522. Oe would li6ewise +a6e e;1licit
+ention o7 his e;ile in the 1rolo'ue to his #a -evoluci(n *uate+alteca
























































0arro@u,n does not a11ear to have +aintained a strained relationshi1
with $ardo%a, and thus I ta6e this state+ent on its 7ace value. 0arro@u,n was
a+on' the leadin' or'ani%ers o7 the anti-Fstrada $a8rera +ove+ent in the late
1410s, and other +e+8ers o7 the *eneraci(n del 20, such as &sturias or the lesser-
6nown $:sar I%a'uirre, wrote a'ainst the dictatorshi1, si'ned docu+ents in
1rotest, or 1artici1ated in student rallies. $ardo%a, in contrast, a11ears to have
8een lar'el! silent durin' this 1eriod, 1erha1s in 1art due to his relative !outh.
0arro@u,n)s state+ent a8ove 1ossi8l! a11ears as a res1onse to $ardo%a)s lac6 o7
1olitical en'a'e+ent in the 1410s, !et there is nothin' to indicate that his return to
*uate+ala 1re7i'ured a +ilitaristic turn.
3

The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 10K
7ro+ 1455, the wor6 written i++ediatel! 7ollowin' *uate+ala, las l,neas
de su +ano. There he states" =Aara nadie serC e;traQo @ue 1or ha8er vivido
aQos 7uera de +i tierra, 1recisa+ente 1or ello, ha!a tenido ta+8i:n la
1ers1ectiva del @ue no se ha 7or+ado 1or co+1leto en el C+8ito nativoG
(10. Nro+ 1420 until 1455, $ardo%a lived outside o7 *uate+ala, !et in his
writin's 1recedin' the *uate+alan -evolution, there is little +ention o7 an
overwhel+in' 7eelin' o7 e;ile, whether durin' his ti+e in 0e;ico in the
1430s, or durin' his student e;1eriences in Aaris in the 1420s. The
8io'ra1hical and literar! si+ilarities 8etween $ardo%a and &sturias have
8een 7re@uentl! cited, !et little has 8een co++ented on re'ardin' their
si+ilar treat+ent o7 e;ile durin' this 1eriod. 5 &sturias co++ented in
conversation with #uis #(1e% <lvare% that 7or the students at the Instituto
Nacional $entral 1ara Varones, where 8oth he and $ardo%a were educated
as !ouths, there was no stron' 7eelin' o7 co++onalit! with *uate+ala, and
that the! instead res1onded ne'ativel! to the a11roach ta6en 8! the
Fstrada $a8rera re'i+e durin' the !ears o7 World War I"
Ra nosotros los estudios @ue ha8,a+os hecho nos hac,an ser
aliad(7ilos, so8re todo 1or lo @ue Nrancia si'ni7ica8a co+o 8andera
de li8ertad. F+1e%a+os, 1ues, a a'itarnos, lo @ue era +u! raro,
1ero no 1od,a la dictadura su1ri+ir al'unas de nuestras
+ani7estaciones hacia la #e'aci(n de Nrancia. #le'C8a+os cantando
la 0arsellesa, con la 8andera 7rancesa, ! as, ,8a+os entrando en la
vida 1ol,tica. (5K
$ardo%a would write in his auto8io'ra1h! Fl -,o, novelas de ca8aller,a, in
a section titled =/escu8r, +i tierra en Furo1aG" =#eEos de las 7ronteras, s(lo
la civili%aci(n +a!a +anten,a actualidadS 1aulatina+ente, +e inici: en ella
! desa7orado a7ir+: @ue los 'rie'os, +a!as de Furo1a, 7ueron tristes co+o
los +,os 1or@ue inventaron calendariosG (203.
I7 this state+ent a11ears trite, it at the sa+e ti+e esta8lishes a
stron' idea o7 how e;ile +ani7ests itsel7 throu'h the su8Eect. $ardo%a
re7lects the ina8ilit! to draw a stron' sense o7 *uate+alan identit! throu'h
his 1ro;i+it! to the nation and the resistance he 7elt to the re'i+e that
surrounded hi+ as an adolescent. .! esta8lishin' distance 7ro+
























































/ante #iano)s treat+ent o7 the two writers is a+on' the +ore critical
a11roaches to the lin6 8etween the two writers. 2ee the cha1ter o7 his Visi(n cr,tica
de la literatura 'uate+alteca titled =$ardo%a ! &sturiasG (1I5-4I, which concerns
$ardo%a)s readin' o7 &sturias)s wor6 in 0i'uel <n'el &sturias, casi novela.
5

/avisson 10H
*uate+ala, he discovered 1ieces o7 the world that he could co88le to'ether
to construct his own sense o7 national a77init!. Terr! Fa'leton)s e;1loration
o7 e;ile in the conte;t o7 Fn'lish literature re1eats this idea, re+ar6in' on
=the ina8ilit! o7 indi'enous Fn'lish writin', cau'ht within its 1artial and
one-sided attach+ents, to Dtotalise) the si'ni7icant +ove+ents o7 its own
cultureG (F;iles 15. $ardo%a thus esta8lishes his relationshi1 to *uate+ala,
a nation 7ro+ which he 7eels estran'ed, throu'h the co++onalit! its
indi'enous 1o1ulation shares with *ree6 culture, which he 6nows 8etter.
Ois studies under *eor'es -a!naud, the Nrench anthro1olo'ist who
educated 8oth hi+ and &sturias in the 1420s, allowed hi+ a stron'er sense
o7 cultural attach+ent to the 0a!an civili%ation, and thus to co+1rehend
and 7ind e;1ression throu'h indi'enous +odes o7 literar! and cultural
1roduction.
$ardo%a)s e;1eriences in Aaris and later in 0e;ico in this re'ard
ena8le hi+ to en'a'e the indi'enous 1o1ulation o7 *uate+ala and the
connection he 7eels with his native countr!, thou'h lar'el! outside o7 the
identit! o7 an e;ile. Arior to 1455, his literar! and Eournalistic 1roduction
8ears traces o7 *uate+alan identit!, as he invo6es 0a!an art and literature
with 7re@uenc!, thou'h within his 1oetic wor6s o7ten in constellation with
Furo1ean culture. While in 0e;ico, where he writes articles and essa!s
concernin' 0e;ican art and artists, histor!, and 'eneral re+ar6s o7
indi'enous aesthetics, the =*uate+alanG $ardo%a scarcel! a11ears. This is
not entirel! sur1risin', as he would re+ar6 in 1455, in an article titled =/iEo
el 'uate+altecoG" =$ono%co 0:;ico P! lo cono%co 8ien 1or@ue lo @uiero
co+o +i se'unda 1atriaG (*uate+ala con una 1iedra adentro 15H. This
clai+ to 0e;ican identit! is well-7ounded considerin' his entrance into
0e;ican intellectual societ! in the 1430s. Oe +aintained a close 7riendshi1
with &l7onso -e!es, corres1onded with Tctavio Aa%, wrote 7or $uadernos
0e;icanos, and 7ocused his ener'ies on 1ro+otin' 0e;ican culture.
&+on' his closest 7riends durin' this ti+e was &r@ueles Vela, li6ewise a
*uate+alan who resided in 0e;ico 7or the +aEorit! o7 his li7e and was a 6e!
+e+8er o7 the Fstridentis+o +ove+ent 7ounded 8! 0anuel 0a1les &rce.5
























































&r@ueles Vela)s association with the *eneraci(n del 20 is so+ewhat
aw6ward 8io'ra1hicall!, as he was educated at the Instituto de Varones
de Triente,
5

The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 10I
It was not until his return in 1455 that the sense o7 e;ilic e;1ression
too6 root in his writin's, dis1la!ed +ost clearl! throu'h *uate+ala, las
l,neas de su +ano. Aro8le+aticall!, thou'h, there is a stron' sense o7
$ardo%a 8ein' less than 7orthri'ht in his relationshi1 to his ho+eland. Oe
returned in 1455, as he states in the te;t, crossin' the 8order with 0e;ico
on Tcto8er 22nd. /urin' the 1eriod o7 the *uate+alan -evolution, he did
not re+ain consistentl! within the nation. &s he descri8es in his
auto8io'ra1h!" =/e 1455 a 1455, (la d:cada civili%ada 1arte la viv, 7uera,
no 1or +i 'usto" el 'o8ierno 1re7er,a +antener+e a distanciaG (K35. This
distance was +ore a 1olitical calculation on the 1art o7 the 'overn+ent,
rather than an e;1licit ideolo'ical se1aration. In late 1455 he traveled to the
2oviet 3nion to serve as the *uate+alan a+8assador in 0oscow,
re+ainin' throu'h Ne8ruar! 145K. Oe had 1reviousl! turned down an o77er
8! &r:valo to serve as a+8assador to 0e;ico, which he reEected 8ecause, he
e;1lained, =necesita8a vivir en +i tierraG (-,o K15. Oe returns to
*uate+ala, 8ut 8! Nove+8er o7 that !ear he is sent to .o'otC in a
+inisterial 1osition. Oe 1asses late 145H and earl! 145I in $hile, s1endin'
ti+e with Neruda and leavin' twice to visit Vene%uela and $olo+8iaUto
the latter to re1resent *uate+ala at the Novena $on7erencia
Aana+ericana. It is durin' this visit to $olo+8ia that the =.o'ota%oG
occurs, in which 1resident 9or'e Fli:cer *a!tCn is assassinated. -e1ulsed
at this event, he returns to Nrance, 7eelin' that =no ha8,a sitio 1ara +, en
1a,s al'uno de &+:rica #atinaG (K5I, and re+ains there 8etween &u'ust
145I and 1450. In 1451 he returns to *uate+ala, and 8! 1453 he has
returned, +ore or less de7initivel!, to 0e;ico, where he or'ani%ed the
2ociedad de &+i'os de *uate+ala in 1455, shortl! 8e7ore the 7all o7 the












































































































































alon' with his 8rother /avid, hi+sel7 also a writer associated with the +ove+ent.
&r@ueles)s 1lace o7 8irth is 7urther+ore in dis1ute, as it is not clear whether he was
8orn in *uate+ala or in Ta1achula, $hia1as. Oe did reside in *uate+ala durin'
his childhood, and li6e $ardo%a and &sturias, lived in Aaris 7or a ti+e durin' the
1420s, where he and $ardo%a +et. Ois literar! 1roduction 1laces hi+ closer to the
*eneraci(n del 20 than other writers such as $arlos 2a+a!oa $hinchilla, as his
earl! writin's dis1la! +uch o7 the 7or+al inventiveness seen in the wor6s o7
$ardo%a or &sturias.


/avisson 104
-evolution, and atte+1ted to secure su11ort 7ro+ the 0e;ican +ilitar! to
de7end a'ainst the overthrow o7 <r8en%.K
The *uate+ala that is Not *uate+ala
The chronolo'! descri8ed a8ove 1resents two intri'uin' issues that
receive no direct +ention or resolution in *uate+ala, las l,neas de su
+ano" 7irst, that $ardo%a did not reside in *uate+ala 7or the +aEorit! o7
the -evolutionar! 1eriod that he descri8es in the wor6, and second, that
des1ite the 7eelin' o7 e;ile that e+er'ed 7ollowin' the $astillo &r+as
invasion in 1455, he would clai+ that he continued to reside in *uate+ala
7ollowin' the overthrow o7 the <r8en% 'overn+ent. I 7ind it essential to
esta8lish a resolution to these issues in ter+s consistent with $ardo%a)s
literar! 1roduction durin' the 1450s, and not to dis+iss the+ as deli8erate
o87uscations o7 his 8io'ra1h!. While 0arro@u,n +aintains that $ardo%a
was ha11! to alter the details o7 his entrance into his ho+eland, a +uch
+ore si'ni7icant issue a11ears re'ardin' the nature o7 *uate+ala within
the author)s consciousness. Aart o7 this 8rea6 a11ears earl! in *uate+ala,
las l,neas de su +ano, which contains an ela8orate descri1tion o7 the
countr!)s 'eo'ra1h!. Oere, a+idst discussion o7 the +ountains, rivers, and
valle!s, he states o7 the eastern 1art o7 *uate+ala" =0uchos 1ue8los de
oriente tra8aEan 1ara el 7errocaril, 1ara la 3nited Nruit $o+1an!, esa
D*uate+ala) 'rin'a @ue no es *uate+alaG (21. This 7inal clai+ a11ears
+uch +ore si'ni7icant u1on reachin' the end o7 the wor6, co+1osed
7ollowin' the overthrow o7 the <r8en% 'overn+ent, at which 1oint $ardo%a
en'a'es in a 1ole+ic a'ainst the a''ression o7 the 3nited 2tates and
nei'h8orin' countries and the invest+ent o7 7orei'n 'rou1s such as the
3nited Nruit $o+1an! (3N$T. The a''ression a'ainst the 3N$T earl! in
the te;t, however, is wholl! consistent with the role it 1la!ed in *uate+alan
1olitics and the e77orts o7 the 'overn+ents o7 &r:valo and <r8en% to
























































This chronolo'! is 1ieced to'ether 7ro+ what he descri8es in Fl -,o. The
1iece+eal co+1osition o7 this wor6, a colla'e o7 1ieces written when the! occurred
and included ver8ati+, and other cha1ters written in the 14I0s 7ro+ +e+or!,
+a6e a de7initive chronolo'! di77icult to +aintain. It a11ears as a s!nchronous
auto8io'ra1h!, 1resentin' i++ediate recollections and re+e+8rances lon'
1assed, all on the sa+e historical 1lane, and in conse@uence can scarcel! 1rovide
an a8solute 7oundation 7or a diachronic stud! o7 $ardo%a)s li7e or wor6s.
K

The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 110
esta8lish control over the land. H $ardo%a continues i++ediatel! a7ter"
=Fntre los r,os, el 0ota'ua, nave'a8le en 1arte ! cu!a cuenca es tan 7:rtil
co+o la del NiloUse'Bn 2!lvanus *. 0orle!U, en donde la 3nited Nruit
$o+1an! ha 1uesto sus estandartes,G and shortl! therea7ter, descri8in' the
hi'hlands that stretch to Fl 2alvador" =#a selva avan%a 1or todas 1artes,
detenida su +archa 1or los 8os@ues si+:tricos del 8ananoUVa! 3nited
Nruit $o+1an!WU, con sus 'randes hoEas anchas de +il ocres ! +il verdes,
@ue acuQan el sol en los raci+osG (21-22.
&s $ardo%a esta8lishes the 1resence o7 the 3N$T as the =other
*uate+ala,G he 1resents an a+8i'uit! that si+ilarl! underscores the
+eanin' o7 *uate+ala 7or hi+ in 1ersonal ter+s. The idea o7 the =other
*uate+alaG indicates the central con7lict o7 his e;ile and his return as a
stru''le 8etween the territorial e;1anse o7 the nation, which is o7 a8solute
si'ni7icance to hi+ within the te;t, and the cultural idea o7 *uate+ala. Ois
insistence on writin' the 'eo'ra1h! o7 the nation in its co+1le;it! 1rovides
a 7oundation 7or all that is to co+e in the wor6, as its 7irst one hundred
1a'es lead 7ro+ 'eo'ra1hic descri1tion to *uate+ala)s +!thic histor! and
its cultural develo1+ent. This wor6s 8oth 7or and a'ainst $ardo%a)s overall
a11roach to the te;t, as he atte+1ts to totali%e the nation 8! +ediatin'
histor!, +!th, 1olitics, and culture throu'h the territor! o7 *uate+ala, as
indicated 8! Ji++er+an a8ove, !et this territorial inte'rit! a11ears
co+1ro+ised al+ost i++ediatel!. What 7ollows, then, is a stru''le within
the te;t over the totalit! o7 *uate+ala as a conce1t, as he 'ra11les
internall! with the +ental s1ace o7 *uate+ala.I
























































$ardo%a)s #a -evoluci(n *uate+alteca 'ives a +ore e;1licit treat+ent o7
the 3N$T in *uate+ala, descri8in' the +ono1ol! the 3N$T held over a'ricultural
1roduction due to its ties to the International -ailwa!s o7 $entral &+erica and the
$o+1aQ,a &'r,cola *uate+alteca, and tracin' these ties 8ac6 to the dictatorshi1 o7
Fstrada $a8rera. Oe e;1lains this relationshi1 in the 7irst cha1ter, =9onCs en el
vientre del +onstruo,G 14-55. & +ore conte+1orar! a11roach can 8e 7ound in
Vald:s 3'alde)s Fstados 3nidos" Intervenci(n ! 1oder +esiCnico. Oere the
involve+ent o7 the 3nited 2tates is 7iltered throu'h the econo+ic interests o7 9ohn
Noster /ulles leadin' the 32 to 1rovide 1rotection to the 3N$T. 2ee his si;th
cha1ter, =X*uate+ala hacia el co+unis+oL,G 213-25K.
I #e7e8vre de7ines +ental s1ace as" =a social (8ut not i++ediatel! 1olitical
consensusR that includes the re1resentations o7 the 2tate that 1eo1le constructP
con7used or clear, directl! lived or conce1tuall! ela8oratedG (2tate 225. In his
conce1tion o7 1olitical s1ace, #e7e8vre indicates that +ental s1ace is rooted in 8oth
social
s1ace and the 1h!sical, national territor!, and thus is the +ost i++aterial
H

/avisson 111
$ardo%a)s e77ort to tie to'ether the various +ani7estations o7
*uate+ala)s identit! ends with hi+ leavin' unresolved in an! s1eci7ic wa!
what he +eans 8! =*uate+ala.G This +ove is dou8tless convenient in
1ractical ter+s, 8! ena8lin' the writer to s1ea6 o7 the a8stract idea o7
nation 7iltered throu'h the +ore concrete +ani7estations he 7inds in
e;1lorin' the countr!)s identit!. &t the sa+e ti+e, and 1erha1s unwittin'l!,
it 8e'ins to wor6 toward the lar'er @uestion o7 the 7unction o7 national
ontolo'!. Throu'h the de8ate over totalit!, this issue ta6es on a 1ro7ound
si'ni7icance. Terr! Fa'leton writes in The Ideolo'! o7 the &esthetic o7 the
turn ta6en 8! &dorno to resolve the 1articularit! o7 Yant)s conce1tion o7
totalit!"
What +i'ht undo the Dtotalitarian) i+1lications o7 Yantian
aesthetics is the idea o7 a77init! or +i+esisUthe non-sensuous
corres1ondences 8etween dis1arate 7eatures o7 the arte7act, or +ore
'enerall! the 7iliations o7 8oth 6inshi1 and otherness 8etween
su8Eect and o8Eect, hu+anit! and nature, which +i'ht 1rovide an
alternative rationalit! to the instru+ental. Tne +i'ht even na+e
this +i+esis alle'or!, that 7i'urative +ode which relates throu'h
di77erence, 1reservin' the relative autono+! o7 a set o7 si'ni7!in'
units while su''estin' an a77init! with so+e other ran'e o7
si'ni7iers. (35K
This conce1tuali%in' o7 alle'or! easil! ena8les one to co+1rehend how the
nation serves as an alle'or! 7or +uch +ore +inute, and o7tenti+es +ore
si'ni7icant, social 1rocesses. *uate+ala 8eco+es one such alle'orical
re7erent, with a utilit! that e;ists 1recisel! 8ecause it re@uires no a8solute
consistenc!. It instead o77ers a 8roader narrative re'ardin' the nation, one
that is rou'hl! consistent with its territorial e;1anse, and e+8od!in' the
cultural e;1ression o7 that 1lace)s inha8itants.
The crucial turn ta6en 8! $ardo%a in the o1enin' o7 *uate+ala, las
l,neas de su +ano a11ears to +e to 8e the conEunction o7 his territorial
entrance into the nation and its lac6 o7 territorial inte'rit! due to the
1resence o7 the 3N$T. The te;t o1ens with an atte+1t to draw the +a1 o7
the nation, ena8lin' the reader to trace the 'eo'ra1h! o7 the countr!, and
thus to understand the 7unction o7 the land in 7ilterin' culture and histor!.
The co+1lication arises s1eci7icall! throu'h the alle'orical use o7












































































































































7or+ o7 1olitical s1ace. It nevertheless 1rovides the 7oundation 7or understandin'
how s1ace is 1roduced within a national or 1olitical structure.


The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 112
=*uate+alaG when re7errin' to the 'eo'ra1h! o7 the countr!, !et its
resolution is not insur+ounta8le. It is in 1rinci1le an issue o7 se+antics, as
$ardo%a atte+1ts to inscri8e the territor! with his own ideolo'ical
a11roach to nation. &l7red Yor%!8s6i, s1ea6in' o7 'eneral se+antics !et in
a +anner wholl! ade@uate 7or this de8ate, indicates two o7 the central
1re+ises o7 his theor!" that =the +a1 is not the territor!G and =the +a1
does not cover Dall) o7 territor!G (24. These 1oints are crucial in
co+1rehendin' the alle'orical si'ni7icance o7 nation. The identit! o7 nation
and nationalis+ 1rovides a convenient shorthand 7or wor6in' throu'h
lar'er 1rocesses, and 8eco+es e+8edded in identit! throu'h narrative
structures. Ftienne .ali8ar addresses this conce1t in -ace, Nation, $lass,
writin'"
The histor! o7 nations, 8e'innin' with our own, is alwa!s alread!
1resented to us in the 7or+ o7 a narrative which attri8utes to these
entities the continuit! o7 a su8Eect. The 7or+ation o7 the nation thus
a11ears as the 7ul7ill+ent o7 a D1roEect) stretchin' over centuries, in
which there are di77erent sta'es and +o+ents o7 co+in' to sel7-
awareness. (IK
This t!1e o7 narrative ties directl! into the national territor!, as .ali8ar
a77ir+s, as 1art o7 a 1roEect o7 constructin' the nation in ter+s o7 its
1resent condition rather than ori'inatin' throu'h the ter+s o7 its 1ast.
$ardo%a +a6es this +ove central to his own 1roEect, o1enin' *uate+ala,
las l,neas de su +ano with the actualit! o7 the *uate+alan -evolution
7acilitatin' his entrance into the nation, and closin' the wor6 with the
7ailure o7 the -evolution.
The +ani7estation o7 this 7or+ o7 nationalis+, however, lies in the
cru; 8etween the territorial identit! o7 the nation and the narrative 1laced
coincident with that territor!. 0a11in' the nation thus 8eco+es essential
to the te;t. I would ar'ue that it is li6ewise crucial, thou'h o7ten
overloo6ed, in ter+s o7 re'ular ontolo'ical identit!. *eor'e W. White
clai+s that =culture is ine;trica8l! intertwined with the conce1ts o7 1lace
and territor!, not deter+inisticall! 8ut as hu+an constructs the+selvesG
(3, and 7urther+ore, that =1lace and territor! re1resent si'ni7icant as1ects
o7 national identit!G (10. In the revised edition o7 his now-canonical
treat+ent o7 national 7or+ation, .enedict &nderson 7ollows this sa+e line
in a +ore li+ited wa! as he writes o7 the totali%in' 7unction o7 Furo1ean-

/avisson 113
st!le +a1s in dictatin' the e;1anse o7 the nation-state (1H0-HI. &nderson)s
anal!sis o7 +a1s, however, owes considera8l! +ore to the role o7 'eo'ra1h!
in deter+inin' the 8oundaries o7 the nation-state in 'eo1olitical ter+s,
whereas it is the 7unda+entall! d!na+ic nature o7 the hu+an construction
o7 'eo'ra1h! and 1lace that are o7 concern in resolvin' e;1eriences
'er+ane to the 1resent discussion, such as e;ile.
$ardo%a)s use o7 territor! e+er'es as the 1rinci1le +eans o7
wor6in' throu'h the -evolutionar! 1eriod in *uate+ala, and in turn, as
the onl! wa! o7 resolvin' the alle'orical stru''le he en'a'es earl! in the
te;t. To 7ind a +eans o7 resolvin' this stru''le, I turn once +ore to
Fa'leton)s discussion o7 totalit!, here concernin' the wor6s o7 .enEa+in"
#i6e the co++odit!, the +eanin' o7 the alle'orical o8Eect is alwa!s
elsewhere, eccentric to its +aterial 8ein'S 8ut the +ore 1ol!valent it
8eco+es, the +ore su11le and inventive 'rows its 7orensic 1ower in
deci1herin' the real. The alle'orical si'ni7ier shares in a sense in the
7ro%en world o7 +!th, whose co+1ulsive re1etitions 7oreshadow
.enEa+in)s later i+a'e o7 an historicis+ 7or which all ti+e is
ho+o'enousS 8ut it is also a 7orce to 8rea6 o1en this 7etishi%ed
real+, inscri8in' its own networ6 o7 D+a'ical) a77inities across the
7ace o7 an inscruta8le histor!. (Ideolo'! 32H
Indeed, in order 7or the +eanin' o7 a totali%in' structure such as the nation
to e+er'e 7ro+ the alle'or! around which it is constructed, it +ust succeed
in showin' its +ediatin' ele+ent. This ele+ent, +issin' in a si+1le
+eta1hor 8ut clearl! at sta6e 8etween the individual and the nation,
1rovides the 7oundation u1on which the dialectic o7 sel7 and nation, or
+ore a8stract ideas such as inside and outside, can 8e overco+e. This
arran'e+ent thus de1ends 1recisel! on the +eans o7 constructin' the
totali%ed nation as alle'or!, and not u1on 1articular ele+ents such as the
reco'nition o7 8orders or the recitation o7 national histor! or culture.
$ardo%a +ar6s this relationshi1 in a8solute, concrete ter+s at the
o1enin' o7 *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano, esta8lishin' his own crossin'
o7 the 8order near Ta1achulo, 0e;ico to allow 7or a resolution to the
e;1ression o7 e;ile. /ecades later he would reveal his co+1rehension o7 the
+eta1hor o7 nation and the li+itations o7 e;ilic discourse. Oe would write
in 14I2, in a 1iece co+1iled in Fl -,o and titled =XZu: es ser
'uate+altecoLG" =Fl e;ilio es la diver'encia entre la i+a'en ! la realidad.
Fntonces, esa silenciosa con7rontaci(n 1ertina% es lo esencial" ! no ha!























































The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 115
e;ilio 1uesto @ue vivi+os una +etC7ora. *uate+ala, so! tu Ai'+ali(nG
(HI5. 4 That sa+e !ear he would li6ewise write in his treat+ent o7
&sturias)s li7e and wor6s, 0i'uel <n'el &sturias, casi novela, that" =#os
De;ilios) de &sturias nunca e;istieron, 7ueron voluntarios, sie+1re 1od,a
volverG (1I5. These 1assa'es reveal a static understandin' o7 the nation, in
ter+s o7 8oth 8orders and ontolo'ical identit!, indicatin' that the idea o7
return i+1lies the crossin' o7 7i;ed 8orders and the restoration o7 national
identit!. *uate+ala 8eco+es a +eta1hor o7 1lace and territor!,
overla11in' it in its entiret!. In this re'ard, the later $ardo%a indicates that
the +a1 is the whole o7 the territor!.
It would a11ear, however, that this a11roach to nationalis+ is not
consistent with his earlier career. In 1451, writin' in Fl Nacional, he would
co+1ose a 8rie7 article titled =Notas so8re 1oes,a ind,'ena,G in which he
states" =Fn el s,+8olo, en el +ito, 7or+a ! 1ala8ra estCn +Cs allC de s,
+is+as, o si @uer:is, ! esto +e 1arece +Cs e;acto, se encuentran en su
naturale%a verdadera" la del encanta+iento. #la+ar las cosas 1or su
no+8re es o8ra de toda 1oes,a aut:nticaG (Tierra 5I2-I3. This a11roach
to 1oetics 1re7i'ures the understandin' o7 nation that e+er'es in
*uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano. $ardo%a states 1lainl! that the overla!
o7 lan'ua'e u1on d!na+ic social structures, which is easil! e;tenda8le to
the nation, re@uires that the lan'ua'e not tra1 the structure into a8stract
7or+s. &nd 7ollowin' this sa+e a11roach, it underscores the necessit! o7
+aintainin' the shi7tin' a11roaches to these structures as 1art o7 a
diachronic a11roach to cultural 1roduction. (This 8eco+es the 1ro8le+atic
Euncture in the reliance on $ardo%a)s auto8io'ra1h! to esta8lish his
relationshi1 to the nation durin' the 1450s, which trou8lin'l! a11ears to 8e
the 1re7erred +ethod o7 treatin' this 1eriod o7 the author)s li7e.
&s $ardo%a writes his entrance into *uate+ala on the o1enin' 1a'e
o7 *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano, it would a11ear that the nation e;ists


#ucrecia 0:nde% de Aenedo esta8lishes that this section was written
+uch a7ter $ardo%a)s return and su8se@uent e;ile, in 14I2. The auto8io'ra1h! as a
whole 1resents essa!s, articles, s1eeches, and 7ra'+ents written throu'hout
$ardo%a)s li7e, +a6in' it di77icult to deter+ine the diachronous shi7ts in the
author)s relationshi1 to the nation throu'h the various e;1eriences o7 dis1lace+ent
in his li7e. 0:nde% de Aenedo 1rovides the sources 7or the auto8io'ra1h!)s
selections in 0e+orie contracorrente, KK-KI.
4

/avisson 115
as +eta1hor, with the a8solute +ar6er o7 his crossin' on dis1la!. Oowever,
he 1resents the nuance o7 this entrance as he +oves dee1er into the
countr!. Oe has esta8lished territorial coincidence with the nation at the
te;t)s o1enin', !et his destination is not the territorial e;1anse o7 the nation
s1eci7icall!, rather &nti'ua, *uate+ala, the cit! o7 his 8irth. Oe will enter
this 1lace with the va'ue =i+a'en de +i a8uela +aternaG in his thou'hts
(32, and it is onl! u1on reesta8lishin' his 1h!sical relationshi1 to this
1lace that he en'a'es the culture and histor! o7 the nation as a whole. Arior
to this 1oint he is ca1a8le o7 esta8lishin' the nation)s 'eo'ra1hic identit!,
!et this e+er'es as +ore a +ar6er o7 territor! than cultural identit!. Oe
1resents the reader with the division o7 the nation due to the 1resence o7
the 3N$T in the east, and even here there is a sense that the idea o7
*uate+ala is so+ethin' +uch +ore si'ni7icant than its territorial e;1anse
or its econo+ic control. This 'rounds the +ove to histor!, as the +ar6ers o7
territor! or no+inal identit! 1rove insu77icient.
The /issolution o7 Ti+e
The later cha1ters o7 *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano are heavil!
+ediated 8! ti+e and histor!, !et $ardo%a care7ull! 8rea6s 7ro+ an! notion
that the historical account 8e uni+1eacha8le. In the words o7 &na #orena
$arrillo"
$ardo%a i'noraU! no 1retende sa8erUla +etodolo',a del
historiador, de +odo @ue su 1ers1ectiva ! su discurso
historio'rC7ico 1ende de su 1ersonal +irada al 1asado, de la
reela8oraci(n ! resi'ni7icaci(n de la e;1eriencia hist(rica @ue
reali%a. Fsta reela8oraci(n se e;1resa en la 7or+a en @ue ta+8i:n
conoce ! co+1rende la historia a trav:s de su lectura =en 1ri+era
1ersonaG @ue se enla%a a la escritura auto8io'rC7ica de su 1ro1io
te;to. (154
This turn to the 1ersonal when re1resentin' the 1ast is +ore than a +ere
rhetorical strate'!, as $arrillo)s anal!sis shows. It allows $ardo%a to discuss
events stretchin' 7ro+ well 8e7ore the author)s own li7e, such as the
con@uista, in 1ersonal ter+s, thus creatin' a uni7ication o7 the historicall!
1ast e;1erience o7 the *uate+alan 1eo1le with the concerns 7or the 1eriod
o7 the *uate+alan -evolution that 'rounds the te;t. Fven while he
esta8lishes the histor! o7 the nation as one as1ect o7 the e;1ression o7























































The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 11K
*uate+ala that e+er'es on 1ar with cultural 1roduction or 'eo'ra1h!, it
cannot in an! wa! esca1e the historical 1oint o7 its co+1osition. It is
entirel! a 1roduct o7 the *uate+alan -evolution.
Nro+ this 1oint o7 ori'in, however, $ardo%a does de+onstrate a
8rea6 with the diachronic +ode o7 historical re1resentation. There is clear
corres1ondence to the idea o7 the =lea1G o7 histor! 1resented in the
historio'ra1hic wor6s o7 Walter .enEa+in. In the 15th section o7 =Tn the
$once1t o7 Oistor!,G .enEa+in writes" =Oistor! is the su8Eect o7 a structure
whose site is not ho+o'enous, e+1t! ti+e, 8ut ti+e 7illed 8! the 1resence
o7 the now. Thus, to -o8es1ierre ancient -o+e was a 1ast char'ed with the
ti+e o7 the now which he 8lasted out o7 the continuu+ o7 histor!G
(Illu+inations 2K1.
10
This lea1 into the 1ast, which can 8e
+isa11ro1riated 8! a rulin' class (in .enEa+in)s use, 1rovides the sa+e
7oundation 7or $ardo%a)s wor6 7ro+ a 1osition 8oth o7 1ower and o7
wea6ness. In e77ect, he o1ens the te;t 7ro+ the 1osition o7 1rivile'e and
closes it 7ro+ a 1osition o7 resistance. In either case, however, he is directed
8! the stru''le 8etween the nation and its cultural s1ace, +ediated 8! the
conEunction o7 his 1olitics, his e;ile, and the 1olitical stru''le 'overnin' the
nation. I would ar'ue that even +ore si'ni7icant than an! o7 these ele+ents
is the s1atial relationshi1 he holds with *uate+ala.
This +ediation throu'h s1ace 8eco+es +ost clear throu'h the
lar'er re7lection on the divide 8etween *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano
and #a -evoluci(n *uate+alteca, where the swee1in' view o7 the cultural
si'ni7icance o7 *uate+ala 8eco+es re1laced i++ediatel! 8! the 1recise
detailin' o7 the 7ailure o7 the -evolution. It is 1laced in +uch 8roader
causal detail, however, within *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano itsel7. The
te;t)s third cha1ter, concernin' what is e77ectivel! a la8or histor! o7 the


This te;t was ori'inall! translated into Fn'lish as =Theses on the
Ahiloso1h! o7 Oistor!,G the title 8! which it is 8etter 6nown. In the ori'inal
.enEa+in writes" =/ie *eschichte is *e'enstand einer Yonstru6tion, deren Trt
nicht ho+o'ene und leere Jeit sondern die von 9et%t%eit er7[llte 8ildet. 2o war 7[r
-o8es1ierre das anti6e -o+e eine +it 9et%t%eit 'eladene Ver'an'enheit, die er aus
de+ Yontinuu+ der *eschichte herauss1ren'teG (*2 I" H01. The e+1hasis on the
=9et%t%eit,G or =now-ti+e,G o7 histor!, 'ives e+1hasis to the view o7 =whole
lan'ua'e,G which li6ewise rein7orces the notion 1resent here, o7 the i+1ossi8ilit! o7
understandin' either the 1ast or the historical or literar! te;t throu'h an! view 8ut
that o7 the 1resent. It is 1recisel! throu'h this constellatin' o7 the 1ast that the
1resent is 'iven sha1e
and +eanin'.

10

/avisson 11H
nation, indicates in its 7ourth section, on =#a revoluci(n li8eral en 1IH1,G
the 7irst evidence o7 the end o7 the later *uate+alan -evolution. $ardo%a
writes" =#a suEeci(n del ca+1esino se hi%o +Cs violenta ! se 7ortaleci( la
econo+,a de una 1e@ueQa clase social @ue vive del tra8aEo de la in+ensa
+a!or,a. (#a -evoluci(n de Tctu8re de 1455, con la re7or+a a'raria,
e+1e%a8a a +odi7icar a 7ondo esta situaci(nG (324.
Oere it is si'ni7icant to +ention that $ardo%a)s re7erence to the 1455
-evolution re7ers to the entiret! o7 the revolutionar! 1eriod, and not +erel!
to its o1enin' sta'es.11 Oe 1roceeds to discuss the 1resence o7 a lati7undio
within the conte;t o7 the 1IH1 re7or+s which re+ained intact 7ollowin'
the+, and in conse@uence"
Naci( 1arte de una nueva 7ero% oli'ar@u,a @ue, a la 1ostre, 7ue la @ue
co+8ati( la destruida -evoluci(n de octu8re de 1455-Eunio de 1455.
Fl =li8eralis+oG ratero de los aut(cratas se torn( radical+ente
reaccionario !, en casos, 1eor @ue el conservatis+o, 1or@ue entre'(
al 1a,s al ca1ital +ono1olista !an@ui @ue ha diri'ido nuestra vida.
(330
The historical 'roundin' o7 the te;t, that ta6es not onl! a su8Eective 8ut
also a diachronic understandin' o7 histor!, 8eco+es overt here where it
was lar'el! i+1lied 8e7ore. The author s1ea6s o7 a chain o7 causalit! leadin'
7ro+ the rise o7 the landholdin' classes in *uate+ala 8e'innin' with the
con@uista, throu'h atte+1ted li8eral re7or+s in the 14th centur!, and to the
events surroundin' the land re7or+s o7 the *uate+alan -evolution in the
1450s.
The conse@uence o7 the end o7 the -evolution in 1455 is 1ara+ount
in *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano lar'el! in ter+s o7 the outloo6 the te;t
1rovides at its close. With no clear 6nowled'e o7 how $ardo%a intended to
























































/ecreto 400, also 6nown as the #e! de -e7or+a &'raria, was 1assed 8!
9aco8o <r8en% in 1452. It le'islated the redistri8ution o7 lands owned 8! the
3N$T, 8ut not 8ein' utili%ed 7or the 'rowin' o7 cro1s, to indi'enous landowners.
&ll new landowners were re@uired to use the land 7or a'rarian 1ur1oses and
activel! 1roduce their cro1, or 7ace the land 8ein' redistri8uted to new landowners.
Nor as +uch as $ardo%a discusses the -evolution as a +ar6ed event in *uate+ala,
las l,neas de su +ano, #a -evoluci(n *uate+alteca 1rovides a clearer sense o7 the
develo1+ent o7 this and related laws, as well as the res1onse to the+ 8! the 3nited
2tates. Oe states at the o1enin' o7 this later wor6" =Fn este li8ro encontrarC el
lector tres ca1,tulos so8re la revoluci(n 'uate+alteca (20 de octu8re 1455-2H de
Eunio 1455 detenida ho! +o+entCnea+enteG (4. In this re'ard, there is a sense o7
eventualit! and a reco'nition o7 the 1ro'ressive nature o7 the develo1+ent o7 the
revolutionar! 1eriod that is not +ade as clear in *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano.
11

The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 11I
co+1lete the wor6 1rior to the $astillo &r+as invasion, it is di77icult to
co+1rehend the entiret! o7 its e77ect u1on the wor6. It is, however,
i+1ossi8le to discount the a8undance o7 direct re7erences to the -evolution
and to $astillo &r+as, and its e77ect u1on the a'rarian and territorial
identit! o7 the nation 7ollowin' 1455. $ardo%a closes the third cha1ter
+erel! 12 1a'es a7ter the 7irst re7erence to the end o7 the -evolution,
endin' the cha1ter with a discussion o7 the e77ects o7 the invasion u1on
nation and indi'eneit!"
#a historia de la conciencia de lo ind,'ena en *uate+ala nos
de+ostrar,a la de8ilidad de su inte'raci(n co+o naci(n. No ha sido
una naci(n" ha sido un 7eudo. #o actual se co+1rende va'a+ente
+ientras no se cono%ca @ue la estrecha relaci(n @ue e;iste con el
1asado no es la l('ica ! nor+al. Fste 1asado no es 1asado, sino
1arcial+ente" es 1resente, ! estC vivo, +u! vivo entre nosotros ! en
nosotros. Aor ello desli%a+os con tanta sencille% en el tie+1o !, 1ara
+a!or claridad, Eu%'u: conveniente no evitarlo ni 8uscarlo, sino
ceder al declive natural. $eder a la realidad. (351-52
The atte+1t at closure within this 1assa'e draws an e;1licit connection
that trian'ulates 8etween $ardo%a, the indi'enous 1o1ulation, and the
nation. The 8rea6 with the nation, which here a11ears e;1licit, is thus
i+1lied 7or the author who stru''les to connect with a nation that no
lon'er e;ists 7or hi+. Oe is thus le7t with a lac6 o7 s1atial consciousness,
which he initiall! derives 7ro+ the lin6 8etween the indi'enous 1o1ulation
and the land. &s he esta8lishes clearl! at the te;t)s o1enin', the nation can
onl! e;ist throu'h this lin6, and thus it has 7ailed to +ateriali%e s1atiall!
with the end o7 the a'rarian re7or+s in 1455.
The Narrator and the Narrative as the #and
The 1oetic 7oundation o7 $ardo%a)s wor6 a11ears consistentl!
within its 7irst cha1ter, as he details his return. Ois e+1hasis in the later
sections on indi'enous literature, such as the Ao1ol Vuh or the #i8ro de
$hila+ .ala+, rein7orces the a8solute lin6 8etween indi'enous 1oetr! and
the nation, !et as the central 1oetic 7i'ure o7 the te;t, his own 1lace within
this construction is li6ewise esta8lished. Oe writes o7 the +e+or! o7 the
nation and the lost 1aradise he 7inds there, statin'"
#a as1iro 1ro7unda+ente. 0i aliento se i+1re'na de olor de
*uate+ala" cao8a ! tierra +oEada. 2o8re el 1echo, un ha% de +a,% !

/avisson 114
7lorecillas silvestres. 2oQa+os Euntos so8re la +is+a al+ohada,
estrella ca,da a +i lado. Fn ella na%co ! dese+8oco. 2o! la tierra
+is+a de +i tierra. (25
We 7ind here the central 1assa'e o7 the te;t)s o1enin', where $ardo%a
indicates that there is no land or nation without his own 1resence within
*uate+ala. It is not so +uch a state+ent o7 the 1ri+ac! o7 the 1oet or his
value as a detailer o7 the nation, or a clai+ o7 his centralit! in dictatin'
national identit! 7or other *uate+alans. Oere $ardo%a esta8lishes 8oth the
7oundational identit! o7 the nation, as one rooted a8solutel! within the
land, and the +ediatin' 1resence, the 1oet, that ena8les the land and the
nation to 8eco+e one.
Nollowin' the $astillo &r+as invasion, the te;t)s 7ourth cha1ter
returns once a'ain to the nation, now less in territorial ter+s and +ore as a
1roduct o7 ethnic and cultural identit!. Oere the author +a6es direct
re7erence to the !ear 1455, and it a11ears to have 8een co+1osed entirel!
7ollowin' the -evolutionar! 1eriod. In this section, he turns to the colonial
histor! o7 *uate+ala, 7ocusin' on the treat+ent o7 the indi'enous
1o1ulation 8! the 21anish, and the su8se@uent e;1loitation ad+inistered
8! the 21anish crown. The 7ra+ewor6 o7 colonial e;1loitation, however,
1resents less a colonial histor! o7 the nation than a dialectical 7oundation
7or the role o7 the nation in dictatin' the ontolo'ical identit! o7 its
1o1ulation. In this 1enulti+ate cha1ter o7 the 8oo6, $ardo%a turns once
a'ain to the land, here not e;tollin' the varie'ated 'eo'ra1hical and
natural wealth o7 the countr!, 8ut understandin' that there is no
*uate+ala without the lin6 8etween the land and the indi'enous
1o1ulation. Oe addresses this s1eci7icall! in the second section o7 the
cha1ter" =nada es verdadera+ente nuestro si olvida+os u oculta+os la
tierra 7ir+e de lo ind,'enaG (3H1. 2uch a clai+ turns i++ediatel! 8ac6 to
the relationshi1 8etween the indi'enous and the land stated in the second
cha1ter, addressin' the cultural le'ac! o7 the indi'enous 1o1ulation" =Fl
ho+8re ! el +a,% a1arecen Euntos, co+o condici(n sine @ua non 1ara la
vidaG (113. This contrast reveals the idea o7 loss that the end o7 the
-evolution 8rin's a8out" 7or the indi'enous 1o1ulation there is no
7unda+ental se1aration 8etween the land (and what it 1roduces and the
individual inha8itin' that landS the end o7 the -evolution and thus o7

The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 120
a'rarian re7or+ has e;1osed a crucial 8rea6 8etween the land and its
1o1ulation.
To 7urther e;1ose this conte;t, the sense o7 ti+e that e+er'es
throu'h the histor! o7 the nation is severed throu'h the lin6 8etween land
and 1o1ulation. In connection with ideas o7 la8or, $ardo%a writes" =Aara el
ind,'ena el tie+1o no e;iste, casi no tiene valor al'unoG (3HI. Oe
continues" =#a tierra es 7unda+ental, a8rirla 1ara se+8rar +a,% ! 7riEol, @ue
constituirCn la a!uda +a!or cada aQoR. $o+o el +a,%, co+o las estaciones,
viven so+etidos a la rutina aQo con aQoG (3H4. Indeed, the indi'enous
1o1ulation survives within a c!cle o7 ti+e, and thus is not 8ound to the
chan'es i+1osed 8! the construction o7 an a8stract civili%ation, or one that
necessitates a turn to a new 7or+ o7 la8or not 8ound to the land. The
historical 7ra+in' o7 *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano 8e'ins with the
con@uista, 8ut +ore 1ower7ul 7or the *uate+alan 1eo1le is the +!thic
world housed in the cultural 1roduction o7 the nation.
The 8ro6en lin6 8etween land and the indi'enous 1o1ulation
a11ears see+in'l! irrevoca8le throu'h the 7ourth cha1ter in the te;t.
Where $ardo%a once s1o6e o7 an a8solute sense o7 national identit! as 1art
o7 the 'eo'ra1hic inte'rit! o7 the countr!, rooted within those 1laces 7ree o7
the control o7 the 3N$T, he now e;1lains that there is no nation to 8e
7ound" =$uando nos de+ocratice+os ! los ind,'enas sean de nuevo los
1rota'onistas de la historia, *uate+ala contarC co+o naci(nG (3I5. Tied
to this nation, however, is a sense o7 cultural ho+o'eneit! that he 7inds
essential in the esta8lish+ent o7 the nation)s ontolo'!. This identit! 'rows
increasin'l! nuanced in its 1resentation, 7urther+ore, as he contrasts the
1otential e+8odied 8! the *uate+alan -evolution with the course the
nation was on 1rior to and 7ollowin' the &r:valo and <r8en% 1residencies"
$on la -e7or+a &'raria, el 1a,s ha8r,a to+ado ruta
conocida" se ha8r,a atenuado el es1antoso contraste entre
o1ulencia ! +iseriaR. 2e enca+ina8a la creaci(n de una
naci(n ho+o':nea, con su acento no en lo rudi+entario !
1intoresco, sino en 1resencias @ue so8re1asan tales
li+itaciones. #os 7actores do+inantes, las necesidades @ue
crean ! las relaciones de sus +ecanis+os, estCn ca+8iando
la estructura de los +ercados re'ionales, de los +edios de
vida del 'uate+alteco. (3II

/avisson 121
This clai+ esta8lishes a contrast 8etween the econo+ic ho+o'eneit! that
a'rarian re7or+ intended to i+1le+ent, s1eci7icall! throu'h control o7 the
land, and the cultural ho+o'eneit! en7orced 8! the do+inant 1ower
structures, which in turn threaten to di+inish the identit! o7 'rou1s such as
the Zuich:, the $a6chi@uel, and the Ye6ch,, as the te;t indicates
i++ediatel! a7ter. What is 1ro1osed, then, is the e+er'ence o7 a
nationalis+ that is 7unda+entall! rooted in cultural localis+, while at the
sa+e ti+e en7orcin' a +acroecono+ic 1lan o7 econo+ic restructurin'. &s
he writes on the 7ollowin' 1a'e" =$reo, +Cs 8ien, en ca+8iar la cultura
do+inante de los terratenientes 1or +edio de la trans7or+aci(n de las
8ases econ(+icas se+i7eudalesG (3I4.
Nro+ Territorial to 21atial F;ile
The nationalis+ contained in *uate+ala, las l,neas de su +ano ties
stron'l! to the cultural identit! o7 the nation, a +ove that is not sur1risin'
due to $ardo%a)s a77init! 7or the indi'enous 1o1ulation and his atte+1ts to
1lace hi+sel7 on the sa+e level as that 'rou1. This ideal o7 nationalis+, one
that is si+ultaneousl! its 1re-$olu+8ian civili%ation and the 1oet hi+sel7
deter+ines his identit! as constantl! +ediated 8! ideas o7 cultural s1ace
and 1h!sical 1resence. The i+1lication o7 this turn corres1onds to what
.ali8ar descri8es as =7ictive ethnicit!,G which is =not 1urel! and si+1l!
identical with the ideal nation which is the o8Eect o7 1atriotis+, 8ut it is
indis1ensi8le to it, 7or, without it, the nation would a11ear 1recisel! onl! as
an idea or an ar8itrar! a8stractionG (4K. The desired union o7 1o1ulation
with nation 1rovides 7or an identit! that $ardo%a utili%es to su8vert the
$astillo &r+as 'overn+ent, wrestin' an! notion o7 *uate+ala out o7 the
hands o7 the civil structure and 1lacin' it 7ir+l! on the control o7 the land.
The su8version o7 this +ove a11ears at the close o7 the te;t, !et the $ardo%a
o7 the 8oo6)s o1enin' is not so nuanced as he atte+1ts to trace the lin6
8etween indi'enous culture, land re7or+, and the 1olitical circu+stance
that ena8led the restoration o7 land and native culture. What o1ens as a
1atriotic treatise closes as a conde+nation o7 *uate+ala as nation.
The author +a6es 1lain +ention throu'h the te;t)s close o7 the
1ro7ound e77ect o7 the -evolution)s 7ailure 7or the indi'enous 1o1ulation,

The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 122
!et it clearl! had a convoluted e77ect on the 1oet as well. It draws his e;ile
into star6 contrast with the idea o7 nation as +eta1hor 7or territor!. In
other words, $ardo%a is not at all consistent with res1ect to the territorial
con7licts 7acin' the e;iled 7i'ure, and this inconsistenc! is rooted as +uch
in the altered +indset that acco+1anies the end o7 the -evolution as in an!
deli8erate inconsistenc! on his 1art. The 1h!sicalit! o7 this shi7t is 1erha1s
+ost Earrin', as he 1laces his entrance into *uate+ala and su8se@uentl!
into &nti'ua so 1ro+inentl! in the o1enin' o7 the te;t. The star6est 1oint o7
chan'e occurs in the 7inal and 8rie7est cha1ter o7 the wor6, titled =/iEe lo
@ue he vivido.G It a11ears al+ost as an a7terthou'ht, a scant 10 1a'es in a
500-1lus 1a'e wor6, with its own dedication (=Aara #!aG, and 7ocuses
al+ost entirel! on $ardo%a hi+sel7. Nor one last ti+e, it 1resents a 7ocus on
his relationshi1 to the nation and the centralit! o7 the author within the
te;t, and it is here that his relationshi1 to the 1osition o7 the e;iled 7i'ure
and the sha1in' o7 nation throu'h s1atial and 'eo'ra1hic constructs co+es
into clearest 7ocus. Oe writes o7 his 7eelin's toward *uate+ala" =/esterrado
en +i 1atria, sin salir de ella,G and shortl! a7ter" =No s(lo ha! @ue vivir lo
@ue se escri8e sino ha! @ue su7rirlo. Necesidad a8soluta de una 1atria, de
+i tierra +,a ! su i+1rescindi8ilidad de 7unci(n ecu+:nicaG (515
$ardo%a)s 7eelin's o7 distance 7ro+ the s1irit o7 the nation lin6ed to the loss
o7 land 8! the indi'enous 1o1ulation and the stru''le o7 that 1o1ulation to
+aintain its cultural herita'e while at the sa+e ti+e stru''lin' under the
wei'ht o7 7orei'n intervention and local indi77erence, li6ewise esta8lishes
itsel7 here as a @uestion o7 'eo'ra1h!, 7acin' an! inner e;ile. Fven when
1h!sicall! within the nation, he 7eels cut o77 7ro+ what he co+1rehends as
*uate+ala, and it is that continual lon'in' 7or a nation that +i'ht acce1t
hi+ as its own that stri6es so hard at hi+.
The crucial clai+, thou'h, that he continues to reside in *uate+ala
even 7ollowin' the end o7 the -evolution, when we 6now that he had
alread! returned to 0e;ico 1rior to the $astillo &r+as invasion, dis1la!s
the 8rea6 8etween the territorial identit! o7 the nation, and the s1atial or
cultural co+1rehension o7 that nation. Ois cultural connection with
*uate+ala a11ears stron' even 1rior to his return in 1455, in 1articular
throu'h his e;1eriences in Aaris in the 1420s and the a77init! he 7ound with

/avisson 123
the indi'enous 1o1ulation. The 8e'innin's o7 the *uate+alan -evolution
a11ears to have awo6en even 7urther in hi+ the !earnin' 7or the ho+eland,
and to have united his cultural lon'in' with the territorial conce1tion o7
*uate+alaS he was a8le to turn the cultural s1ace o7 the nation into the
1lace he desired to re1ossess. Tn a 8roader scale, the revolutionar!
'overn+ent restored the lin6 8etween the territorial *uate+ala (the land
with the cultural *uate+ala (the indi'enous 1o1ulation, and $ardo%a
hi+sel7 could then 7ollow suit. &s he descri8es in *uate+ala, las l,neas de
su +ano, the nation)s stru''le since the colonial 1eriod to restore land to
the indi'enous 1o1ulation had never reached a 1oint o7 1otential until the
election o7 &r:valo, and 7ro+ this 1oint, its 1otential 7or union re+ained
intact, even when the an'er over the -evolution)s 7ailure do+inated his
+ind. The restoration o7 *uate+ala thus e;ists in dialectical 7or+, as a
s!nthesis o7 culture and territor!, esta8lishin' the s1eci7ic 1lace o7 the
writer as one that is alwa!s s!non!+ous with *uate+ala. The -evolution
+ediated the stru''le that 7aced the nation 7or the 1recedin' 7our
centuries, and the author in turn +ediates his own relationshi1 to the
nation u1on his return. Oe re+ains in *uate+ala in 1er1etuit!, e;iled 8ut
still within his ho+eland, even when residin' in a 1lace that is not
*uate+ala. &s he would state in =XZu: es ser 'uate+altecoLG decades later"
=Fl e;iliado nunca 1ierde su tierra. #a lleva consi'o, +Cs @ue en la +e+oria
en la i+a'inaci(n. #a i+a'inada es ,nti+a ! sutil, 1or real ! 1or i+a'inada.
Nunca conclui+os de recorrerlaS nunca nos 7ati'a+os de crearlaG (Fl -,o
HI5.
.i8lio'ra1h!
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.ali8ar, Ftienne and Wallerstein, I++anuel. -ace, Nation, $lass"
&+8i'uous Identities, trans. $hris Turner. #ondon" Verso, 1441.

The Narrative is (Not the Territor! 125
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3niversitaria =-odri'o Nacio,G $osta -ica" F/3$&, 14HK.
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/avisson 125
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