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p
-Geometrical light rays
-Mapping
Mapping angle to position
-Cylindrical lenses
Is geometrical optics the whole story? Geometrical optics (ray optics) is the
simplest version of optics.
No We neglect the phase
No. phase. ~0
0
Also, our ray pictures seem
to imply
p y that,, if we could
just remove all aberrations,
we could focus a beam to a
point and obtain infinitely
good spatial resolution. Ray
Not true. The smallest optics
possible focal spot is the >λ
wavelength, λ. Same for the
best spatial resolution of an
image. This is due to
diffraction, which has not
been included in
geometrical optics.
Rayy Optics
p The Optic Axis
A mirror deflects the optic axis into a new direction.
This ring laser has an optic axis that scans out a
axis rectangle.
xin, θin
Ray Matrices
The Ray
For many optical components, we can define 2 x 2 ray matrices.
Vector xout, θout An element’s effect on a ray is found by multiplying its ray vector.
its position, x
θ Ray matrices
R ti
its slope, θ can describe
x Optical system ↔ 2 x 2 Ray matrix
simple and com-
plex systems.
Optical axis
⎡ xin ⎤ ⎡A B⎤ ⎡ xout ⎤
⎢θ ⎥ ⎢C D ⎥⎦
⎢θ ⎥
⎣ in ⎦ ⎣ ⎣ out ⎦
These parameters define a ray vector,
⎡x⎤
which will change
g with distance and as ⎢θ ⎥
the ray propagates through optics. ⎣ ⎦ These matrices are often (uncreatively) called ABCD Matrices.
Ray
y matrices as ∂x ∂x
For cascaded elements, we simply multiply
xout = out xin + out θin ray matrices.
derivatives ∂xin ∂θin
Since the displacements and ∂θout ∂θ
angles are assumed to be small, θout = xin + out θin
we can think in terms of partial ∂xini ∂θin ⎡ xin ⎤ ⎡ xout ⎤
derivatives. ⎢θ ⎥ O1 O2 O3 ⎢θ ⎥
⎣ in ⎦ ⎣ out ⎦
spatial
∂xout ∂xout
∂xin ∂θin ⎧⎪ ⎡ xin ⎤ ⎞ ⎫⎪
magnification
⎡ xout ⎤ ⎛ ⎡ xin ⎤
⎡ xout ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ xin ⎤ We can write ⎢θ ⎥ = O3 ⎨O2 ⎜ O1 ⎢θ ⎥ ⎟ ⎬ = O3 O2 O1 ⎢θ ⎥
⎢θ ⎥ = ⎢C D ⎥ ⎢θ ⎥ these equations ⎣ out ⎦ ⎩⎪ ⎝ ⎣ in ⎦ ⎠ ⎭⎪ ⎣ in ⎦
⎣ out ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ in ⎦ in matrix form.
form
∂θout ∂θout angular
Notice that the order looks opposite to what it should
∂xin ∂θin magnification
ifi ti
be, but it makes sense when you think about it.
n1 n2 z
at the height xin, then z=0 z ⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
Othin lens = Ocurved Ocurved =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
θ1 = θin+ θs and θ2 = θout+ θs interface 2 interface 1 ⎣(n − 1) / R2 n ⎦ ⎣ (1/ n − 1) / R1 1/ n ⎦
θ1 = θin+ xin / R and θ2 = θout+ xin / R ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
=⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
Snell's Law: n1 θ1 = n2 θ2 ⇒ n1 (θin + xin / R) = n2 (θ out + xin / R) ⎣(n − 1) / R2 + n(1/ n − 1) / R1 n(1/ n) ⎦ ⎣(n − 1) / R2 + (1 − n) / R1 1 ⎦
⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
⇒ θout = (n1 / n2 )(θin + xin / R) − xin / R =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1/ f 1 ⎥⎦
This can be written:
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎣(n − 1)(1/ R2 − 1/ R1 ) 1 ⎦ ⎣
⇒ θout = (n1 / n2 )θin + (n1 / n2 −1) xin / R O = ⎢ ⎥
interface ⎣(n1 / n2 −1)/ R n1 / n2 ⎦
curved
where: 1/ f = (n − 1)(1/ R1 − 1/ R2 ) The Lens-Maker’s Formula
The quantity, f, is the focal length of the lens. It’s the single most
important
p parameter
p of a lens. It can be positive
p or negative.
g
In a homework problem, you’ll extend the Lens Maker’s Formula
to lenses of greater thickness.
R1 > 0 R1 < 0
R2 < 0 f>0 R2 > 0 f<0
If f > 0, the lens If f < 0, the lens deflects Which type of lens to use (and how to orient it) depends on the
deflects rays toward rays away from the axis. aberrations and application.
the axis.
A lens focuses parallel rays to a point one Spectrometers
p To best distinguish different wave-
wave
f
focal
l llength
th away. For all rays lengths, a slit confines the beam to
A lens followed by propagation by one focal the optic axis. A lens collimates the
xout = 0!
length: beam and a diffraction grating
beam,
Camera
disperses the colors. A second
⎡xout ⎤ ⎡1 f ⎤⎡ 1 0⎤⎡xin ⎤ ⎡ 0 f ⎤⎡xin ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ lens focuses the beam to a
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ = ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢= ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ point
i t th
thatt depends
d d on itits
⎣θout ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦⎣−1/ f 1⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣−1/ f 1⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣−xin / f ⎦ beam input angle (i.e.,
f the wavelength).
f Assume all
f
input rays have
θin = 0 Entrance θ ∝ λ−λ0 There are
slit
At the
th focal
f l plane,
l allll rays many
converge to the z axis (xout = 0) types of
f independent of input position.
f spectrom-
spectrom
Parallel rays at a different angle eters. But
focus at a different xout. Diffraction they’re all
grating based on the
Looking from right to left, rays diverging from a point are made parallel. f same principle.
Lenses and p
phase delay
y Lenses and Λ ( x, y )
d
Ordinarily phase isn’t considered in geometrical optics, but it’s phase delay
worth computing the phase delay vs vs. x and y for a lens
lens.
First consider variation (the
All paths through a lens to its focus have the same phase delay,
x and y dependence) in the
and hence yield constructive interference there.
path through the lens
lens.
Λ ( x, y ) = R12 − x 2 − y 2 − d
Equal phase ∆φlens ( x, y ) = (n − 1)k Λ ( x, y )
delays
f x2 + y 2
f But: R12 − x 2 − y 2 = R1 1 − ( x 2 + y 2 ) / R12 ≈ R1 −
2 R1
1 1 Like a lens, a curved mirror will focus a beam. Its focal length is R/2.
= 0 if = (n − 1) that is, iff z = f !
z R1 Note that a flat mirror has R = ∞ and hence an identity ray matrix.
Suppose we have two lenses When B = 0, all rays from a ⎡xout ⎤ ⎡ A 0 ⎤ ⎡xin ⎤ ⎡ Axin ⎤
right next to each other (with point xin arrive at a point xout, ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
no space in between). f1 f2 independent of angle. ⎣θout ⎦ ⎣C D⎦ ⎣θin ⎦ ⎣Cxin + D θin ⎦
F- Depth of Field
number Only one plane is imaged (i.e., is in focus) at a time. But we’d like
The F-number, “f / #”, of a lens is the ratio of its focal length and its
diameter. objects
j near this p
plane to at least be almost in focus. The range
g of
distances in acceptable focus is called the depth of field.
f/# = f/d
It depends
p on how much of the lens is used, that is, the aperture.
p
f f
Focal
f/# =1 f/# =2 Aperture
plane
Large f-number lenses collect more light but are harder to engineer. The smaller the aperture, the more the depth of field.
Depth
p of field example
p Bokeh is the rendition of out-of-focus points of light.
A large depth of field
isn’t always desirable.
Bokeh Something deliberately out of focus should not
distract.
G d Bokeh.
Good B k h Edge
Ed iis completely
l t l undefined.
d fi d
f/5 (relatively large aperture;
small depth of field)
Bokeh is where art and engineering diverge, since better bokeh is due
to an imperfection (spherical aberration). Perfect (most appealing)
A small depth of field is also bokeh is a Gaussian blur
blur, but lenses are usually designed for neutral
desirable for portraits. bokeh!
If all light rays are directed through The pinhole The Camera Obscura A dark room with a small
a pinhole, it forms an image with hole in a wall. The term
an infinite depth of field. camera camera obscura means
“dark
dark room”
room in Latin
Latin.
The concept of the Renaissance painters used
Pinhole focal length is them to paint realistic
inappropriate for a paintings Vermeer painted
paintings.
pinhole lens. The “The Girl with a Pearl
magnification is still Earring” (1665-7) using
–di/do. one.
Image
The first person to
Object mention
ti thithis idea
id
was Aristotle. A nice view of a camera obscura
is in the movie, Addicted to Love,
With their low cost, small size starring Matthew Broderick (who
and huge depth of field, plays an astronomer) and Meg
they’re
y useful in securityy Ryan, who set one up to spy on
applications. their former lovers.
Lenses can also map
Numerical Aperture
angle
l tto position.
iti
Another measure of a lens size is the numerical aperture. It’s the
From the object
j to
product of the medium refractive index and the marginal ray angle
angle.
the image, we have:
NA = n sin(α) 1) A distance f
Why this 2) A lens of focal length f
definition? 3) A distance f
Because the
α magnification ⎡xout ⎤ ⎡1 f ⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤ ⎡1 f ⎤ ⎡xin ⎤
xout ∝ θ in
⎢θ ⎥ = ⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎢−1/ f 1⎥ ⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎢θ ⎥
can be shown to So
f be the ratio of ⎣ out ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ in ⎦
the NA on the ⎡1 f ⎤ ⎡ 1 f ⎤ ⎡xin ⎤ And this arrangement
two sides of the =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ maps position to angle:
lens. ⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣−1/ f 1 ⎦ ⎣θin ⎦
⎡ 0 f ⎤ ⎡xin ⎤ ⎡ f θin ⎤ θ out ∝ xin
=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
High-numerical-aperture lenses are bigger. ⎣−1/ f 0 ⎦ ⎣θin ⎦ ⎣−xin / f ⎦
Image Image
Telescopes plane #1 plane #2
Keplerian telescope M1 M2
• Telescope(matrix)
A telescope should image an object, but, because the object will
have a veryy small solid angle,
g , it should also increase its solid angle
g
significantly, so it looks bigger. So we’d like D to be large. And use
two lenses to square the effect.
⎡ M 0 ⎤
Oimaging = ⎢ where M = - di / do
⎣ −1/ f 1/ M ⎥⎦
Note that this is
⎡ M2 0 ⎤ ⎡ M1 0 ⎤ easy for the first
Otelescope =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ lens, as the object
⎣ −1/ f 2 1/ M 2 ⎦ ⎣ −1/ f1 1/ M 1 ⎦ is really far away!
⎡ M 1M 2 0 ⎤ So use di << do
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ − M 1 / f 2 − M 2 / f1 1/ M 1M 2 ⎦ for both lenses.
Telescopes
p ((cont’d))
Telescope Terminology
The Galilean Telescope
f1 < 0 f2 > 0
The Cassegrain
g Telescope
p The Cassegrain
g Telescope
p
Telescopes must collect as much light as possible from the generally
very dim objects many light-years
light years away
away.
It’s easier to create large mirrors than large lenses (only the surface
needs to be very precise).
If a 45º-mirror
reflects the
beam to the side
before the
Object smaller mirror,
it’ss called a
it
Newtonian
telescope.
It may seem like the
image will have a
hole in it,, but onlyy if
it’s out of focus.
No discussion of Micro
Micro- Objective Image
plane #1
Eye-
piece
Image
plane #2
telescopes would be scopes M1 M2
complete without a
few pretty pictures. Microscopes work on the same principle as telescopes, except that
j
the object is really
y close and we wish to magnify
g y it.
Galaxy Messier 81 When two lenses are used, it’s called a compound microscope.
Standard distances are s = 250 mm for the eyepiece and s = 160 mm
Uranus is surrounded by its four major rings for the objective, where s is the image distance beyond one focal
and by 10 of its 17 known satellites length. In terms of s, the magnification of each lens is given by:
|M| = di / do = (f + s) [1/f – 1/(f+s)] = (f + s) / f – 1 = s / f
When using
Wh i cylindrical
li d i l llenses, we mustt perform
f ttwo separate
t
ray-matrix analyses, one for each transverse direction.
Large-angle
g g reflection off a curved mirror Ray Matrix for Off-Axis Reflection from a
also destroys cylindrical symmetry. Curved Mirror
The optic axis makes a large angle with the mirror normal, If the beam is incident at a large angle, θ, on a mirror with radius of
and rays make an angle with respect to it. curvature, R:
tangential tangential
i l ray
Optic axis
ray
before reflection
O ti axis
Optic i
θ ⎡ 1 0⎤
⇔ ⎢ −2 / R 1 ⎥⎦
Optic axis after
reflection R ⎣ e
Rays that deviate from the optic axis in the plane of incidence are
called "tangential.”
where Re = R cosθ for tangential rays
Rays th
R thatt d
deviate
i t ffrom th
the optic i ⊥ to
ti axis t the
th plane
l off incidence
i id are d Re = R / cosθ for
and f sagittal
itt l rays
called "sagittal.“ (We need a 3D display to show one of these.)
Photography
g p y lenses
Canon 17-85mm
f/3.5-4.5 zoom
Anatomy of the
Eye
• Optical instrument(eyes)
Incoming
light
As we age,
age our lens hardens
hardens, so we’re
we re less able to adjust and more
likely to experience far-sightedness. Hence “bifocals.”