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Discursive reproduction of
racial attitudes, whitening
and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Culture, Communication and Globalization
Aalborg University
May, 200
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes,
whitening and whiteness dominance in media
texts in Peru
!umber o" #ages$ %0
/&e total #age count includes "ootnotes and endnotes, but does not include t&e bibliogra#&y, t&e
a##endi0es, #ictures, t&e table o" contents and t&e title #ages
2
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Abstract
Key words$ whiteness, whitening, consumerism, media, racism, Latin America, Peru,
discourse analysis, semiotics
!on1w&ite countries constitute t&ree12uarters o" t&e #lanet 3*robyn, 20045- 6ven
t&oug& dark skinned in&abitants outnumber t&e #o#ulation, among t&em t&ere still e0ists a
#revalent notion o" w&iteness su#eriority-- As "ar as a##roac&es toward w&itening di""er
across t&e world de#ending on social milieu, contem#orary trends and &istorical and
cultural &eritage, t&e main 2uestion w&ic& constitutes t&e a0is o" "urt&er divagations is
w&at is t&e "unction o" media te0ts in social construction 3and re#roduction o" whiteness
dominance, whitening and racial attitudes5 in t&e *eruvian social and cultural
environment /&ere"ore, t&esis aims to "ind out w&at im#act mass media #lay in t&e
rein"orcement and re#roduction o" t&e notion o" w&itening and w&iteness dominance7 t&e
#ur#ose is to estimate in w&ic& direction t&e relation goes$ does t&e media construct t&e
reality or t&e social reality a""ect and determine t&e media te0ts8
9ealizing t&e #revalent im#ortance o" iconogra#&y in *eruvian social construction
3"rom t&e !azca: lines to recent advertisements5 one decided to analyze t&e media te0ts:
3si0 sam#le advertisements:5 in"luence, discursive re#roduction o" racial attitudes and
notion o" skin color by and its conse2uences "or t&e society- /&ese advertisements are not
,ust about aest&etic #re"erences, but also, w&ile considering in a wider conte0t, reveal
im#licit statements- /&ese demand an active a##roac& to t&e inter#retation #rocess-
+t is essential to clari"y t&e "our key terms used in t&e #a#er, not only because o"
t&eir incidence, but also because o" t&eir im#ortance- /&ese terms are$ racism,
whitening;lightening, whiteness/paleness and role o" (mass) media and advertisements-
)e#arate section is dedicated "or getting a dee#er insig&t into Latin American 3#articularly
*eruvian5 social structure- +n <atin America issue o" racism &as always been sensitive and
com#licated- /&e stand#oint "or t&is subsection is t&at every nation w&ic& t&roug& &ad
e0#erienced t&e slavery #eriod, couldn:t remain untouc&ed by t&oroug& scars- =or
centuries all w&ite was associated wit& civilization, develo#ment and re"inement- >n t&e
o##osite all t&at &ad to do wit& darker #eo#le was stereoty#ically linked to barbarism,
laziness and #rimitivism- +n conse2uence, a s#eci"ic notion o" docility and racial
?
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
e0#loitation &as been establis&ed- Colonial re#resentations are still alive w&ic& can be
seen in casta &ierarc&y 39eding, 200($%45- +n <atin America #erson:s race 3in a
symbolical way5 can c&ange to a big e0tent during t&e li"etime @"rom being !egro, to
being Acultural w&iteB 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5- *o#ular Drazilian #roverb Ael dinero
clarea...B 3money cleans5 39eding, 200($%05 reveals t&e way o" social #romotion- /&at is
closely connected wit& consumerism @ as t&e way in w&ic& <atin countries ado#t
t&emselves to t&e dynamic world and global trends-
9egarding to met&odological a##roac&, one combined discourse analysis with
semiotics- /&is uni2ue combination is a conse2uence o" student:s assum#tion t&at
universal #syc&ological structures in a certain sociocultural milieu take a certain "orm and
are revealed in t&e world o" signs- )igns re"lect certain set o" im#licit meanings and
underlying messages about t&e society- )tudent designed a t&ree1ste# inter#retation
#rocess- =irst, s&e wants to conduct te0tual analysis o" t&e image, a##lying "ive key areas
to discuss media te0t suggested by )elby and Cowdery- )econdly, Dar&tes: terms and
a##roac& toward t&e inter#retation #rocess will be em#loyed- A"ter t&at, treating semiotic
analysis as a stand#oint, one wants to em#loy DA categories and "inally re"lect ac&ieved
results to sociocultual and &istorical conte0ts-
/&esis gives a detailed insig&t into *eruvian social construction and reveals latent
messages about t&e dynamics 3e0#ressed in notion o" w&iteness, lig&tening and w&iteness
dominance5 and directions o" racial attitudes in t&e "ace o" consumerism and
globalization- /&e #a#er in a logical way s&ows &ow advertisements rein"orce t&e notion
o" w&iteness dominance by #ersonalizing t&e ideology, re"erring to social and cultural
milieu, contrasting t&e myt& o" Eestern civilization wit& t&e discursive re#resentation o"
<atin legacy, rein"orcing t&e two"old construction o" t&e society 3us vs t&em5,
constructing sel" and social identity and setting standards "or cultural w&itening o"
li"estyles and atmos#&ere-
6ventually, t&e #a#er gives t&e readers an analytical vision o" t&e "uture trends and
"urt&er dynamics o" t&e situation and t&e #rocess o" discursive re#roduction o" racial
attitudes in t&e region-
'
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Table of contents
- +ntroduction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (
-- *roblem Area------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(
-2- 9easons "or Dealing wit& t&e /o#ic--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F
2- /&eoretical "ramework--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0
2-- 9acism--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0
2--- Colorism---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
2-2- E&iteness and t&e E&iteness /&eories-------------------------------------------------------------------------------?
2-?- )kin E&itening------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- '
2-?-- Dleac&ing )yndrome---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%
2-?-2- Gender------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- %
2-'- )tereoty#es @ *syc&ological A##roac&-------------------------------------------------------------------------------(
2-'-- AUsB vs A/&emB----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F
2-4- /anning and t&e ADronze )kinB *&enomena-----------------------------------------------------------------------G
2-%- Mass Media 3in t&e conte0t o" racism and w&iteness dominance5--------------------------------------20
2-%-- Advertisements 3in t&e conte0t o" racism and w&iteness dominance5--------------------------2
?- <atin America societies 3#articularly *eru5-------------------------------------------------------------------------------2?
?-- )ocial structure------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2?
?--- Consumerism in <atin America-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
?-2- 9acism and !otion o" )kin Color---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2%
?-?- *eru------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2(
'- 9e"lections About Met&od---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?0
'-- Met&odology, 6#istemology, >ntology------------------------------------------------------------------------------?0
'--- Met&od------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ?
'-2- )emiotics as a Met&od--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?2
'-2-- =ive Hey Areas to Discuss a Media /e0t---------------------------------------------------------------------??
'-2-2- <inguistic Message------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?'
'-2-?- Coded +conic Message-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?4
'-2-'- !on Coded +conic Message-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?4
'-2-4- /&e 9&etoric o" t&e +mage-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?%
'-2-%- Myt&--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ?%
'-?- Discourse Analysis as a Met&od-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?(
'-?-- *ower, 6lites, Dominance and Control------------------------------------------------------------------------?F
'-?-2- )ur"ace and Dee# )tructures----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?F
'-'- Design o" t&e /&esis-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'0
'-4- )am#le Analysis----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- '0
'-4-- )ources------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ '0
'-4--- Advertisement and Discourse-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------'
'-4--2- Advertisement and )emiotics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------'
'-4-2- 6t&ical Consideration--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'2
4- Analysis------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- '?
4-- 6m#irical Data-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'?
4--- /ec&ni2ue o" Analysis-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'G
4--2- E&y /&ese 6m#irical Data Eere C&osen8------------------------------------------------------------------'G
4--?- E&at is Deing Advertised8------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
)ur"ace )tructures------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
4-2- )traig&t1"orward 9eading o" t&e +mage------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
4-?- Models @ )ub,ects o" t&e Cam#aigns----------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
4-?-- +deal o" t&e Deauty------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4?
4-?-2- Dress Code------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4'
4-?-?- !on1verbal Communication----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------44
4
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
4-'- Com#osition----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4%
4-'-- Distance and !otion o" *urity o" t&e Dlood-----------------------------------------------------------------4%
4-'-2- Color Code------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4(
4-4- <ogo----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4F
4-%- <inguistic Message-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4F
4-(- Audience----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- %0
4-(-- I*re"erred 9eaders: 1 /arget Audience-------------------------------------------------------------------------%0
4-(--- Gender and Age--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%2
4-(--2- Mode o" addressing--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%?
'-(-2- General *ublic-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%'
4-(-?- *syc&ogra#&ic Jariable-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%4
4-(-'- <i"estyle Marketing-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%%
4-F- *roducers and Mani"estation o" Colorism--------------------------------------------------------------------------%(
Dee# )tructures----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- %(
4-G- Discourses +denti"ied----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%(
4-0- Myt&s and 9&etoric o" t&e +mages------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%G
4-0-- Myt& o" E&iteness----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(0
4-0-2- Eest versus +ndigenous---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(0
4-0-?- E&itening o" t&e Atmos#&ere------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(
4-- Jicious Circle-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(
4-2- /wo"old Construction o" t&e )ociety and its: Discursive 9e#roduction----------------------------(2
%- Conclusions------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ('
%-- *ros#ects----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(%
(- Dibliogra#&y----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (F
Table of figures, pictures and tables
=igure - /&eoretical <ocation o" t&e Conce#t o" Colorism..............-- 2
=igure 2- /&ree1ste# Met&od o" Analysis--....................----- ?2
=igure ?- Model o" Discourse )tructures.............---........- ?G
=igure '- )te#1by1ste# Gra#&ical Model o" t&e /&esis Design ....--........--- '0
/able - <ist o" )am#le Materials "or Analysis........--...........-'?
*ictures A @ A%.............................----''1'F
*icture - t&e <ogo...---............---..............4F
%
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
1. ntroduction
1.1. Problem Area
!on1w&ite countries constitute t&ree12uarters o" t&e #lanet 3*robyn, 20045- 6ven
t&oug& dark skinned in&abitants outnumber t&e #o#ulation, among t&em t&ere still e0ists a
#revalent notion o" w&iteness su#eriority- /&e #oint is t&at At&eir continued #re"erence "or
contrasting lig&t skin is a testament to t&e im#act o" dominance u#on &uman #syc&eB
3Kall, GG4$ F05-
/&e t&esis will deal wit& t&e issue o" racial a##roac&es, skin lig&tening and w&iteness
dominance in media te0ts in <atin America, in t&e case o" *eru- /&e #a#er will consider
t&e to#ics o" racial attitudes and notion o" skin color and its discursive re#roduction by
and its conse2uences "or t&e society- A##roac&es toward w&itening di""er across t&e
world de#ending on social and #olitical milieu, contem#orary trends as well as &istorical
and cultural &eritage- /&e best e0am#le o" t&is is t&e notion o" Abronze skinB #&enomena
in Eest 6uro#e
2
- /&at causes a #arado0 wit& t&ose o" darker com#le0ion seeking to be
w&iter, w&ile t&e "air1skinned #o#ulation seeks to be darker-
As t&e stand#oint, t&e student &as a##lied discursive theories w&ic& are concerned
wit& t&e ways in w&ic& language, mass media and symbols in"luence meanings- +n t&e
analysis, one e0amines ways in w&ic& discourses conducive w&iteness as t&e invisible
norm and &ow #erce#tion is s&a#ed by mani#ulation o" symbols, 3visual and te0tual5
messages and myt&s 3/&om#son, 2005- 6m#&asis will be #ut mostly on signs, t&us
semiotics a##roac& &as been em#loyed- /&e clue is to consider media te0ts and its
attributes 3signs, te0tual messages, com#osition, colors etc5, t&e meanings w&ic& t&ese
carry and t&eir im#act on social and identity creation-
Dasing on discourse analysis and semiotics, one wants to analyze certain media te0ts
"rom recent advertisements and #romotional cam#aigns, as e0em#li"ications o" social and
#syc&ological a##roac&es and ideological tendencies- /&e #oint is t&at t&ese
advertisements are not ,ust about aest&etic #re"erences, but also, w&ile considering in a
wider sociocultural and &istorical conte0t, reveal im#licit statements- Dy answering t&e
2uestion about &ow *eruvian identity is articulated by consum#tion o" sam#le
2
Dy LEest countriesB + understand all dominantly w&ite countries @ 6uro#eans, Americans, Canadians, and
Australians
(
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
advertisements and cam#aigns, one wants to veri"y Jo&ansson:s statement, w&ic& claims
t&at AE&ite 3---5 is now also used to construct identity in a globalized cultureB 3Jo&ansson,
GGF$%'5- /&esis aims to catc& t&e nature o" racial dynamics 3e0#ressed in notion o"
w&iteness, skin lig&tening and w&ite dominance5 in *eruvian society in t&e "ace o"
consumerism-
9egarding to certain media te0ts one wants to "ocus on t&e ma,or !uestion, w&ic& is
oriented around t&e category o" dominance$ what role do the images play "in the
development, reinforcement, legitimi#ation, and hence reproduction$ %&an Di'(,
1))*+)*,)-. of whiteness dominance, whitening and racial attitudes/ More broadly
one wants to "ind out w&at is t&e "unction o" media te0ts in social construction in t&e
certain social and cultural environment and in w&ic& direction t&e relation goes$ does t&e
media construct t&e reality or t&e social reality a""ect and determine t&e media te0ts8
>ne wants to e0#lore &ow in <atin American societies, s#eci"ically in *eru,
t&roug& t&e sam#le #romotional cam#aigns, notion o" 3skin5 lig&tening and w&iteness
dominance are created and articulated- Main goal is to estimate discursive re#roduction o"
racial attitudes in media te0ts in *eru- /&esis, in a wider conte0t, divulge #otential
meanings and "unctions o" lig&ter skin in creating identity o" AusB ; Asel"B in o##osition to
At&emB ; Aot&ersB and its relations&i#s wit& class, gender and race-
6ventually, t&e analysis would give t&e readers t&e analytical vision o" t&e "uture
trends and "urt&er dynamics o" t&e situation and t&e #rocess o" discursive re#roduction o"
racial attitudes in t&e considered region-
1.*. 0easons for Dealing with the Topic
Carol Gracias, a "amous +ndian su#ermodel once commented to &ersel"$ AA
ma,ority o" #eo#le in our country are dark1skinned- And most #roducts are targeted at
t&em- )o, w&y do #eo#le want to use only "air girls in ads8:: 3!air, 200?5- /&at is t&e
2uestion student
?
was asking &ersel" every time s&e was #assing a &uge billboard on t&e
corner o" )alevery Avenue and )an =eli#e )treet in <ima- /&e reason "or dealing wit& t&e
#roblem is to get a better understanding o" motives "or w&iteness dominance and im#licit
messages about *eruvian and <atin American societies and get a better insig&t into t&eir
values and social construction o" w&iteness in t&is #articular conte0t-
?
B)tudentB re"ears to t&e aut&or o" t&e #a#er
F
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
+n t&e area o" racism, colorism and skin color c&anging t&ere are many studies
regarding Asia and A"rica, and, com#aring to t&at, t&ere is a relatively small amount o"
scienti"ic re"lections on <atin America- E&at is more, in sociological re"lections about
race, At&e issue o" skin color tends to get s&ort s&ri"tB 3McClain DaCosta, 2004$25- /&us
t&e aim is to com#lement t&e e0isting academic discussion-
<ast but not least, one wants t&e t&esis to be a #rovocative #oint t&at will give
readers a #ause "or t&oug&t about racism, colorism and dynamics in <atin American
societies 3also in relation to 6uro#ean #erce#tion o" skin tone @t&e "act is t&at in 6uro#e
t&ere is little re"lection on racial issues, t&us a dee#er consideration is needed5-
G
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
*. Theoretical framewor(
At t&e very beginning o" t&e t&eory section it is essential to clari"y t&e "our key
terms used in t&e #a#er, not only because o" t&eir incidence, but also because o" t&eir
im#ortance- /&ese terms are$ racism, whitening;lightening, whiteness/paleness and
(mass) media. )e#arate section will be dedicated "or introduction into Latin American
social structure and racial issues 3#articularly *eru5-
*.1. 0acism
9acism is discrimination based on racial grou#- According to t&e Merriam1
EebsterMs Dictionary, it is a belie" t&at race is t&e #rimary determinant o" &uman
ca#acities and t&at racial di""erences #roduce an inse#arable dominance o" a #articular
racial grou#- 9acism is also t&e #re,udice based on suc& a belie" 3Merriam1EebsterMs
Dictionary, 2005- <egal de"inition o" racism, according to t&e United !ations
Convention on t&e 6limination o" All =orms o" 9acial Discrimination, states$
the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction
or preference ased on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which
has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, en!oyment or
exercise, on an e"ual footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of pulic life 3U!, G%%5-
9acism is muc& more t&an individual a##roac& 39eding, 200($4F5- 9acism is an
e""ect o" discrimination #racticed by aut&ority regimes o" certain class de"ined by its
outward c&aracteristics and cultural im#ortance 3in <atin America incidentally
c&aracteristics o" w&ite 6uro#eans5- 9acism is an e0cuse w&ic& ,usti"y des#otic
dominance o" ones over ot&ers 39eding, 200($%5- >ne &as to realize t&at racism it is not
,ust a discrimination o" Dlack, but also o" +ndians 39eding, 200($%G5 and ot&er et&nic
and racial grou#s- /&us, it:s not s&ar#ly outlined #&enomena and its divisions are really
subtle- 9acism is a social belie" t&at some natural di""erences are associated wit&
e0istence or lack o" certain ca#acities or "eatures w&ic& are socially im#ortant and t&at
0
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
t&ese di""erences are t&e base to establis& distinct in,ustice barriers between social grou#s
w&ic& are called races 3Derg&e, G($2G in 9eding, 200($4G5-
!ormative evaluation o" one:s com#le0ion tone is sometimes related to &istory o"
racial domination 3Kerring N Heit& in McClain DaCosta, 2004$?5- 9acism in academic
discussions is automatically associated wit& w&ite dominance and su#remacy- E&ite is a
racial category w&ic& a""ects and s&a#es individual and social li"e- E&ite is an indicator
o" #ower w&ic& arrange t&e reality o" racial e0#eriences 3Malik, 200($?5- /&us, notion o"
a "air skin tone &as to do wit& racial su#remacy and colonial mentality- =air skin and race
are roots "or categorization and t&e &ierarc&isation o" t&e society- <ig&t skin is related to
#rivilege and access to resources and o##ortunities 3Malik, 200($F105- A/&at:s in
addition to t&e obvious association between caste and intrinsic skin s&ade-B 3)e#ia
Mutiny, 200(5.
According to t&is to#ic, )inger and Himbles em#loyed t&e term Acordial
racismB
'
- +t can be de"ined as a cultural stereoty#e 3)inger N Himbles, 200' in Doec&at,
200G5, revealed by culturally unconscious society members- /&is stereoty#e reveals in a
subtle "orm in social relations- +t is not about cruel mani"estations or direct #ersecutions,
but delicate, sometimes even unconsciously made and slig&tly noticed be&aviors,
o#inions and digressions- /&e cordial racism is distinctly mani"ested in social ine2uality
and concentration o" incomes- !otably, t&is t&eoretical construct doesn:t concern ,ust one
nation, but also ot&er multicultural societies, <atin American included 3Doec&at, 200G5-
>t&er aut&or #resents anot&er ty#ology o" racism- /&ere are two ty#es o" racism$
Anglo,1axon and 2atin- /&e "ormer one is in its nature more "i0ed and de"ined to
concrete se#arated #ersons and #laces- /&e latter, concealed wit& social #re,udices, is not
based on #erson:s origin but on one:s skin color 3Doec&at, 200G5- /&at e0#lains t&e "act
t&at t&ere is a basic di""erence between understanding o" race in U-)- and in <atin
America- /&is di""erence lies in dissimilar assum#tion$ Ain t&e U-)-, racial distinction is
based mostly on individual:s genoty#e 3ancestry5, w&ile in <atin America it is #redicated
largely on individual:s #&enoty#e 3#&ysical c&aracteristics5B 3Goldsmit& et al-, 200%$2'25-
Kowever, recent surveys #artly subverted t&is statement and s&ow t&at racial distinction
in <atin countries de#ends also on individual:s ancestry and t&eir racial identity
3Goldsmit& et al-, 200%$2'?5-
'
w&ic& re"ers to ty#ical "or Drazilian society #re,udices
7
, *ictures A? and A', as well as A4 and A% &ave somet&ing in common 1 treat about t&e
same even 3C&ristmas5 or s#ecial loyalty #rogram "or "ans 3A'5 or regular customers
3A?5-
Dy #ulling t&ese images in #airs, some additional in"ormation about *eruvian
society in a conte0t o" analyzed #roblem o" racism and w&itening, can be obtained-
/&e student &ersel" e0#erienced t&e #o#ularity o" t&ese cam#aigns7 t&ese were mostly issued w&en s&e
was in *eru
4
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
;.1.-. 4hat is 6eing Advertised/
A##roac&ing t&e analysis one &as to answer t&e 2uestion o" w&at is o""ered by
advertisements- /&e answer to t&is 1 seemingly easy 2uestion, in t&e case o" s&o##ing
malls 3not only Jocker *laza and <arcomar5 is more com#le0 and demands more
consideration- /&e #oint is t&at American1style malls &ouse a wide variety o" smaller or
bigger stores, restaurants, service #oints, bouti2ues and so on 1 eac& o" w&ic& o""ers ot&er
concrete #roducts or services- Kowever, as a w&ole, t&e mall o""ers a AspaceB and t&e
AatmosphereB created by t&e com#ilation o" &osted stores, decoration, music,
arc&itecture, and @most im#ortant @ #eo#le buying and visiting t&e #lace-
ACon luces, colores y sonidos 2ue atraen los sentidos, con ca#acidad de generar
condiciones climCticas #ro#ias, con seguridad interna, con #osibilidades de reunir
la "amilia, com#rar, comer, entretenerse y #agar servicios, el gran centro comercial
desdramatiza la vida y crea un oasis alternativeB 3:ith the use of lights, colors and
sounds which attract senses, with the aility to generate appropriate climate
conditions, with assured security, with possiilities of gathering the family,
uying, eating, entertaining and paying the services, ig shopping malls
disdramati/e the life and create an alternative oasis5 3Cristo""anini, 200%$005-
/&is atmos#&ere in "act can:t be seen- /&us, t&e malls o""er also a certain @
consumer way of living- /&e American way o" living and all t&at it means "or #eo#le in
<atin America, 6astern 6uro#e and Asia- /&ere"ore, t&e item being advertised is not
actually tangible- +t:s neit&er a #roduct, nor a concrete service- Kowever, "or t&e use o" t&e
t&esis, t&is Aatmos#&ereB and Ali"estyleB can be o#erationally be called AserviceB, but in
"act t&is term is very broad @ t&e mall cannot actually sell t&e service @ it is an Aadded
valueB- E&at t&e advertisement cam#aign o""ers is a li"estyle connected wit& creating
s#ecial needs and su##ly "or s#ecial set o" #roducts and services @ t&us t&e cam#aign
a##eals to li"estyle and it o""ers a concrete standard o" living-
6m#loying #romotional cam#aigns 3suc& as t&ose analyzed5 s&o##ing malls are
trying to win consumer interest and allegiance, #erusing at t&e same time "or concrete
way o" living- As it will be s&own below, cam#aigns are so#&isticated and re"lect u##er
42
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
"eelings- Advertisements being analyzed use s#ecial connotations and symbols by
s&owing relation between concrete service "eatures and abstract values-
1urface 1tructures
;.*. 1traight,forward 0eading of the mage
/&e scenes #resent sim#le, uncom#licated situations- >ne can see a young w&ite
woman &olding a red candle in bot& &ands, w&ic& lig&tens &er "ace and t&e w&ole #icture
3A%5, a young mot&er w&o gives a #iggy back ride to a little girl and bot& are broadly
smiling 3A5, a w&ite woman w&o is looking somew&ere and is not involved in t&e action
between audience and t&e message 3A25,w&ic& gives an im#ression t&at it is accidentally
caug&t woman:s gaze- Anot&er #&oto #resents an e0tremely #ale women w&o looks
directly into t&e lens @ t&ere is no action and t&us t&e image is very stable and static, it:s a
"ace to "ace relation- +n ot&er sam#le one can see an Asian women, standing on t&e "uzzy
background and looks somew&ere "urt&er3A'5, or two young women sitting around t&e
table on <arcomar:s terrace overlooking t&e sea, bot& turn and look on t&e le"t 3it:s out o"
viewers: reac&5, "irst woman smokes, table is set 3co""ee, cake, ,uices5, t&ey are in t&e
middle o" lunc& and conversation 3A45-
/&ese scenes don:t involve many #ro#s, are not crowded 3mostly individual5, and
on t&e "irst sig&t it can seem t&at, because o" its sim#licity, t&ese images don:t convey any
dee#er and more com#le0 message- Dut not&ing is more misleading-
;.-. =odels 9 1ub'ects of the 3ampaigns
/&e main c&aracteristic w&ic& all t&e advertisement being analyzed &ave in
common is t&at t&e cam#aigns are about concrete real #ersons- /&e images don:t #resent
still nature or gra#&ical or so#&isticated meta#&orical abstractions- +n eac& o" t&ese
images models act @ #roducers didn:t use t&e tec&ni2ue called candid camera in s&owing
t&e scenes 3even in t&e case o" t&e A4 #&oto, w&ic& was taken outdoors, in t&e natural real
settings, models seem to be&ave in an unnatural arti"icial way5- 6veryt&ing is com#letely
designed in order to convey certain concrete meaning- +n t&is conte0t and by t&e target
receivers t&ere is little #lace "or ambiguity o" meanings$ t&e message is as directly as it s
only #ossible given 3es#ecially in t&e case o" Jockey *laza advertisements5-
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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Anot&er t&ing w&ic& all sources &ave in common is t&at t&e models are young,
attractive, slim, and #ale women- +n one case bot&$ a young woman and a little girl 3about
"our5 are #resented toget&er @ t&is is connected wit& t&e to#ic and relates to t&e s#eci"ic
occasion "or w&ic& t&e image was #roduced @ it is about Mot&er:s Day- /&e image "or
<arcomar C&ristmas 3A45 #resents two young women too- >t&erwise, t&e rest o" #ictures
#resent only one model, usually centered wit&in t&e "rame- E&at is more, usually t&ere is
no background articulated$ be&ind t&e models: back t&ere is a #lain setting, w&ic& because
o" it:s colors, underline t&e contrast- /&ese tec&ni2ues convey a message o" individualism
and sel"1"ocus, giving a notion o" distinction- Models are sub,ects o" t&e cam#aigns
t&emselves @ deconte0tualization o" t&em, background doesn:t convey any message,
serves only to em#&asize t&e contrast 3A, A%5, or to s&ow t&e unity between t&e sub,ect
and t&e background 3A?5- /&e sub,ect in t&at #articular case belongs to t&e background,
toget&er wit& it makes a #er"ect com#osition and even illuminates it- /&e tec&ni2ue
em#loyed s&ows t&at t&e w&ite model belongs to t&e world, creating a #er"ect unity wit&
t&e environment-
/&e models are in t&e main "ocus o" t&e #&oto, t&us are mediums w&ic& convey a
certain message >ne deals &ere wit& a #arado0 t&at t&e cam#aigns, o""ering intangible
items 3w&ic& are atmos#&ere and a certain way o" living5, are about concrete real #ersons
@ t&at means t&at t&ese services s&ould be #ersonalized wit& t&e concrete, substantial
#erson and t&eir individual c&aracteristics-
;.-.1. deal of the 6eauty
/&ese women can be described wit& t&e "ollowing #&rases$ blond &air 3A, A2,
A?, A%5, beauti"ul wide w&ite smiles 3A, A45, t&ey smirk 3A?, A', A%5 and big blue or
green eyes 3A, A2, A?, A4, A%5- E&at:s more, all t&ese "igures wear neat 3A, A?, A',
A4, A%5 or strong 3A25 makeu#, #resent elegancy, symmetry and #er"ectness o" &uman
body #ro#ortions- /&ey #ossess all ideal 6uro#ean1like, su##orted by Kollywood and
Eestern #roductions and images, "eatures 3e0ce#t A'5- /&ey set an ideal o" beauty and
convey t&e direct message about t&eir ideality to t&e #ublic- /&e model is not a Aman on
t&e streetB, but s&e is in some way s#ecial 3A25, time &as sto##ed "or a w&ile 3A%5- /&is
sur"ace structure doesn:t need any dee#er consideration @ t&e establis&ment o" &e ideal
Eestern s#lendor and glam is immediately s#elled out- /&ere"ore, t&is establis&ment o"
t&e ideal o" t&e beauty com#rises t&e "irst layer, w&ic& is t&e automatic and instinctive
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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reading o" t&e image, t&us available "or t&e w&ole grou# o" #otential audience 3bot& t&e
target audience and t&e general #ublic 1 and t&ose w&o actually see t&e image5- Dee#er
meanings and covered meanings need to be revealed in t&e intellectual #rocess o"
re"lection and inter#retation-
;.-.*. Dress 3ode
)ome #ictured models wear elegant, &ig&1"as&ion out"its 1 es#ecially in t&e case o"
A4 1 conveying t&e message o" yout&, elegance, e0#ensiveness, ,oy, rela0ation and
Eestern li"estyle and modern international look- Clot&ing gives a message o"
e0ce#tionality, elitism, &ig& 2uality o" li"e, elegance, "east, courtesy 3A%5, and
6uro#eanization o" dressing customs$ in t&e case o" A image t&e "amily is wearing ,eans
and #olo necked sweaters seeming to say t&at t&eir lives &ave an international dimension,
"amily leads a modern li"estyle- /&ey are wearing color"ul chullos, *eruvian style &ats @
but in t&e conte0t t&ese &ats look a bit ridiculous, giving a message t&at tradition is ,ust a
decoration, is somet&ing additional to t&e modern li"estyles- /&is combination o" di""erent
cultures and traditions conveys t&e tension o" #ostmodern style- /&ese &ats remind
tradition, roots in *eruvian culture @ &owever t&is is a ty#ical souvenir item, #roduced
mostly "or tourists, so t&e #otential 3es#ecially by t&e general #ublic5 reading could be$
t&ese are tourists, "oreigners, not1us, "igures belong to t&e At&emB social grou#- Girl:s
clot&ing in #ink rein"orces a modern, Eestern stereoty#e o" a baby1girl-
+n ot&er cases t&e dress code is not visible 3A2, A?, A'5- +n t&e case o" #ictures
w&ere t&ere is no dress code, t&at can suggest t&at clot&es and dress code is less relevant-
Clot&es are not t&e key to understand ing t&e message, it:s all about "ace @ &owever, t&ere
is no 3or ,ust a slig&tly5 "acial e0#ression, t&us it is all about skin color 3t&e only visible
distinctive "eature o" t&e model5 @ t&us t&e service o""ered s&ould be identi"ied wit& t&e
"ace:s s&ade 3A2, A?5- Model seems to be naked @ t&at gives a "eeling o" #urity and
natural look, associated wit& neutrality, naturalization o" #aleness 3A?, A'5- E&at is t&e
clue o" t&ese materials 3A2, A?, A'5 is t&e #aleness o" t&e model, &er "ace color and
e0#ression, not t&e out"it, w&ic& in "act is ,ust a cover- E&at is more, out"it can be easily
re#laced, c&anged, modi"ied, but dowers and "acial c&aracteristics are not ac2uired @
rat&er to a ma,or e0tent t&ey unc&angeable and naturally inborn-
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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;.-.-. >on,verbal 3ommunication
!on1verbal communication is a broad term w&ic& consists o" many detailed "acial
e0#ressions, gestures, work o" t&e bodies 3body language and #ositioning;movement5 and
interactions- Dy looking at t&e sam#le #icture one notices t&at t&e actresses: "aces are
directed towards t&e lens 3A, A?, A%5, bodies directed in ot&er direction 3A5, non1
rela0ed #osture 3all5, touc& gives a sense o" intimacy 3A5, widely smiles, #resenting
#lain, w&ite teet& 3A, A45, or "aint smile 3A%5, blue eyes 3A, A2, A?, A%5, delicate 3A,
A?, A', A4, A%5 or strong 3A25 makeu#, long blond &air 3A%, A, A?5 and ideal "air
com#le0ion 3all5- )miles convey a message o" &a##iness, care"ree li"estyle- /ouc& s&ows
care and concern wit& t&e "amily gives at t&e same time an im#ression o" care"ree
c&ild&ood- Use o" gesture o" giving 3A%5 t&e lig&t, makes &er image and t&e w&ole #icture
lig&ter, saying t&at lig&tness is a gi"t "rom t&e te0t:s #roducer-
Action line is &orizontal 3A, A2, A?, A%5 or diagonal 3A' and A45$ "rom t&e
centre o" t&e #icture on t&e rig&t 3A'5 or le"t 3A45, to t&e #lace w&ere t&ey look, action
line in e0tended by sub,ects: gaze- +n some cases gaze is directed somew&ere "urt&er 3A2,
A', A45, no "acial e0#ression 3A2, A? 1 stability, calm, #restige, gravity o" t&e situation5
and no eye contact 3A2, A', A45- +n t&ese #articular cases view1line goes out o" t&e
#icture 3"ocuses on somet&ing w&at is out o" viewers: reac&5, to t&e "uture, w&ic& gives an
im#ression t&at t&e model is above t&e reality- E&en models: gaze is directed to t&e le"t
3A45, somew&ere over t&e #icture 3w&ere t&e s&o#s are, not on t&e beauti"ul landsca#e in
t&e background1 ocean, cli""s5, one can derive t&e message t&at w&at really counts is
s&o##ing and t&e <arcomar s#ecial atmos#&ere-
+n ot&er cases 3A, A?, A%5 model looks directly into t&e lens, eye contact@ s&e:s
"ocused and looks directly at t&e reader, w&ic& makes &er "ace look "ocused and serious,
w&ic& is associated wit& neat elegancy, coldness, it gives &er an attribute o" sublimity,
su#eriority- +t is not an accidental gaze caug&t, s&e is staring at t&e #ublic, #rovocative
look, w&ic& demands a dee#er consideration and inter#retation-
Use o" et&nicity in <arcomar #romotional cam#aign 3A'5 made t&e model and t&e
w&ole image s#ecial$ t&e model is neit&er w&ite, nor dark, so mi0ed et&nicity can be read
as #rovocation and evoke curiosity-
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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;.8. 3omposition
Mostly one1dimensional, s&allow "ocus was used- /&ere is no in1de#t&
#ers#ective, or multidimensional com#osition- /&e #lainness o" t&e com#osition serves
to em#&asize t&e "oreground @ models and t&eir "eatures- +mages A2 and A? were
asymmetrically cro##ed- /&at suggests t&at t&ere is a &al" o" everyt&ing$ t&e service
being o""ered com#letes t&e meaning, makes t&e reality total, w&ole, assures integrity
3A?5-/&is com#osition is not structured, indicates con"lict 3A25 and tells t&at t&e w&ole
#erson as a #erson;&uman being is not im#ortant 3&er #ersonality, c&aracteristics etc5 @
w&at counts is "ace and &er skin color-
/&e relation wit& t&e #ublic is com#le0$ in two cases t&e contact wit& t&e #ublic is
direct, t&e model seems to be a Amen on t&e streetB, t&ere is no #&ysical barrier created- +n
ot&er cases t&ere is a barrier build by #ro#s 3color"ul bulbs A% or c&airs A45, by t&e lig&t
tone used or by lack o" eye contact and t&e action line-
;.8.1. Distance and >otion of Purity of the 6lood
Use o" #ro#s and camera angle create a certain im#ression o" distance and
inaccessibility 3A4, A%5 or ot&er way around 1 give a "eeling o" intimacy and availability
3A, A2, A?5- /&e "act t&at t&e natural or arti"icial barrier is set in t&e images 3A%, A45
makes t&e models untouc&able #rototy#es- Distance created by bottom1line$ s#arkly balls
or bulbs in red and orange 3A%5 creates t&e barrier between t&e image and t&e audience,
makes t&e "igure seem to be dominating over t&e line- /&is line gives t&e #icture a dreamy
accent-
+n t&e case o" A, t&ere is no distance between "igures and t&e audience, t&ey are
standing almost ne0t to us, t&us @ t&e audience s&ould #ersonalize and imitate t&e "amily
3#resented as sam#le5- <ack o" distance is striking in A? case @ gives an e0tremely strong
"eeling o" intimacy, "amiliarity and no distance- Kowever, cold colors create a barrier-
/&us t&e message is given directly, but t&e #erson is not available "or all-
/&e image o" mot&er and daug&ter 3A5 gives t&e im#ression t&at all *eruvian
"amilies com#ly wit& t&e model #resented and all look like t&is- /wo generations o"
e0tremely #ale beauti"ul "emales give a message t&at t&e #urity o" t&e blood is #reserved
and t&e w&iteness o" t&e society is t&e leading social "orce-
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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;.8.*. 3olor 3ode
)et o" colors used do not give t&e #ictures a realistic "eel, t&ey are more #icture1
#ostcard ty#e o" images- /wo kinds o" color modes were a##lied$ in some cases use o"
#redominant s&ar# tones 3A%5 in some use o" #redominant lig&t 3A, A?5 and cold colors
3A25- +n case o" A% t&e #roducer used AC&ristmas colorsB 1 red reminds t&e viewer o" t&e
warmt& o" "amily celebrations- 9ed is also a color o" elites , w&ic& at t&e same time #lays
a role in t&e *eruvian society- C&oosing a lig&t color code is a #rocedure w&ic& sets
lig&ter tones as a normal *eruvian color, w&ic& describes ty#ical modern *eruvian
"amilies and gives a "eeling o" normalization;standardization o" w&iteness- 60tremely
#ale com#le0ion 3A'5 indicates #urity- )ubtle brig&t colors w&ic& s&ows milky1w&ite
woman, t&e #icture is very lig&t and &er "ace occu#ies t&e w&ole #icture- Unnatural
illumination o" t&e image conveys a message o" dreamy atmos#&ere and sublimity 3A?5-
)ome use s&ar# accents @ like #ink in t&e A image, t&is s&ar# accent directs ones
attention to w&iteness o" models and em#&asizes t&e #aleness o" t&e sub,ects- *ink
chullos 3A5 @ is a visible accent, makes t&eir look more e0#licit, distinctive, but w&en
one removes t&ese #ink &ats, t&e #icture is still readable, #ink steals attention and directs
t&e "ocus to models: "aces- E&iteness is not ,ust an individual value but a "amily "eature-
E&iteness determines ones "uture and designs ones: li"e #at&-
/&e A advertisement a##eals to every woman:s #reoccu#ation wit& t&eir
c&ildrens: "utures @ t&e "uture seems to be 3literally and "iguratively5 brig&t, associated
wit& elegance, modernism, ,oy o" living- A##eals to emotional signi"icance o" kid:s "uture
and sel"1satis"action and deriving #leasure "rom li"e, care"ree "amily li"e, associated wit&
#articular social #ositioning @ no #reoccu#ation wit& t&e reality 3money or social
#roblems5, "uture is seen in lig&t colors 3A5-
Cold #rimary colors 3blue in A25 conveys a message o" stability, stativity,
su#eriority and ma,esty- Colors used suggest so#&isticated taste, and give smoot& look o"
t&e #icture- Cold colors create low modality, so no1realistic "eel w&ic& suggests &ig&
2uality- Kig&ly unnatural s&ade o" eye:s color, w&ic& conveys t&e message t&at t&is blue
&as a second meaning, meaning o" #urity, com#uter gra#&ic #&oto 3A25- +n t&e case o" A4
set o" colors is di""erent$ #redominant colors are inter alia blue, green, yellow, w&ite,
#ink- /&is wide range o" tones, models: #aleness is e0#osure by t&e back1 and middle1
ground, w&ic& suggests realism, &owever t&e e""ect is arti"icial- +n A4 case one deals wit&
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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smoot& mi0 o" #ictures, #ink #ullover in centre o" t&e image is also concentration o" t&e
attention- 6legance, elitism and modernism are #ersonalized wit& brig&tness 3A2, A?,
A%5- +t is connected wit& notion o" sel"1identity @ t&e reader &as a c&oice 1 &e or s&e can
remain Ain t&e darkB or realize &is;&er as#irations and ,oin Abrig&t sideB 3A%5-
;.;. 2ogo
Jockey *laza uses a s#eci"ic emblem- /&e logo &as a sim#le s&a#e and is built
wit& basic colors- /&e logo consists o" t&ree gradual circles, smaller in bigger-
*ic- , t&e logo
/&is construction suggests #rogress and dynamics- +n analyzed cam#aigns t&e
emblem, w&ic& is relatively small, distinguis&es itsel" "rom t&e advertisement- +t is #laced
in t&e strategic #lace, #laying "unction o" a AdotB
2
, w&ic& com#letes t&e signi"ication and
directs t&e inter#retation- As t&e item being advertised is t&e atmos#&ere and li"estyle @
t&e logo can be inter#reted as t&e button, w&ic& allows one to enter @ t&e world o" J*
?
illusion-
/&ere is strong corres#onding relations&i# between te0t, logo and image, ,ust
inter#retation o" t&e t&ree at t&e same time gives a correct message- /&e item and t&e J*
emblem are o" t&e same size, t&us t&e AentranceB to t&e world o" #leasure in "act direct
t&roug& t&e s&o##ing mall 3A?5-
;.<. 2inguistic =essage
+n all cases linguistic te0ts re"lect to t&e scenes and t&e audience "eelings- /&at is
w&at t&e designers want t&e audience to associate wit& t&e images- /e0ts #lay role o"
anchorage, w&en t&e linguistic message is rooting t&e inter#retation 3A, A2, A?, A%5 as
well as relay 1 w&en te0t in t&e "ooter com#letes t&e image and t&e te0t above 3A, A2,
A4, A'5- +n A' t&e #roducer s#eaks directly to you, no r&etorical "igures are used 1 t&e
2
+n Eestern culture #eo#le write "rom le"t to rig&t, dot is #laced in rig&t bottom corner @ t&at crowns t&e
meaning- /&e same &a##ens wit& t&e logo @ it is #laced in t&e rig&t bottom corner- 6ven it:s s&a#e reminds
one o" a dot-
?
J* @ Jockey *laza
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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message is clear and obvious @ te0t #lays a clear role o" relay- /&ere is a weak connection
between image and te0ts @ it is a commi01like style, so te0ts com#lete t&e #icture 3A45-
/&e most suggestive e0#ression is used in A% case- /&e te0ts claims$ $.sta
5avidad iluminamos los sue4os del PeruB 3eng- A/&is C&ristmas we illuminate *eruvian
dreamsB5 /&is "igurative ty#e o" language conveys a message t&at i" one s&o#s at J*, &is
or &er dreams will come true- /&is r&etorical "igure, by a##ealing to &uman as#irations
and C&ristmas generates emotional res#onse- /e0t &as an overtone o" wis& and a""irms
w&at is #resented in t&e #&oto- 6lli#sis is used @ t&e #roducer doesn:t directly say w&at is
t&e clue, somet&ing is missing, but out o" conte0t one can conclude w&at is going on- /&e
te0t #lay a role o" anc&orage @ it &el#s in inter#retation and directs t&e #rocess o"
analysis-
)trong emotional connotation uses also A image @ B;i ma!or amiga es mi
;ama. <eli/ 1ia ;ama. 3e como "uieres serB 3eng- LMy best "riend is my Mot&er-
Ka##y Mot&ers: Day, Mummy, ;And in a "ooter in two tones lig&ter "oil$; QJ*R knows w&o
you want to beB5-E&at can be derived "rom t&e "irst statement is t&at J* rein"orces "amily
relations 1 kid is grate"ul "or taking &er to t&e mall and @ in logical conse2uence 1 "or
making &er li"e easy and ,oy"ul 3by using J* services5- Kere t&e "riends&i# is conditioned
wit& material incentives-
Kowever t&e message in t&e "ooter &as muc& more im#ortance$ J* knows w&at
your ambitions are, and can assure you to realize your wis&es- /&e e0#ression Ase como
quieres serB @ it:s elli#sis, somet&ing &as been omitted, somet&ing is necessary to
com#lete t&e construction, but in t&e conte0t t&e message is understandable @ t&ere is
somet&ing unsaid, a silent #resum#tion t&at t&e receiver is not t&e one s&e;&e wants to be-
A+ know w&at you want to beB could be inter#reted as t&e talk down to us, it is a
statement wit& an emotional a##eal- /&e slogan em#loyed by t&e mall roots t&e
inter#retation, giving t&e im#ression t&at t&e reader wants to be like t&is w&ite model @ in
every dimension$ bot& #syc&ological and #&ysical- /&e mall knows w&at your ambitions
are, and can assure you to realize your wis&es- /&us, at t&e time o" reading t&e media
te0ts, t&e audience is not w&at t&ey want to be- /&is message a##eals to bot& target
audience 3to w&om t&e #roduct being o""ered is directed5 and t&e wider #ublic, by using
strongly suggestive e0#ression, in com#arison wit& t&e reality- As a conse2uence t&e te0t
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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re2uires a certain emotional res#onse$ A+ want to be t&e one "rom t&e #ictureB and J*
services assure you a better li"e and brig&ter "uture-
+n A2 case, t&e #&rase A3oy mu!er, soy especial. ;es de la ;u!erB 3eng-B +:m a
woman, +:m s#ecial- <ady:s Mont&B5 suggestively directs inter#retation- /&e model is
already s#ecial, t&e ideal wit& w&om every woman w&o comes to t&e center s&ould
#ersonalize- Dut @ because o" lack o" eye1contact and t&e s&ot 3"rom t&e bottom5 it is not
#ossible to relate to t&e model @ s&e is out o" reac&, one can only tend to ac&ieve &er
3social, cultural, economic5 level- /e0t doesn:t #rovide in"ormation, but generates
emotional res#onse and em#loys strong se0ual connotation- +nstead o" #lural A<adies:
Mont&B t&e singular A<ady:sB is used, giving a suggestive notion o" individualism and
em#&asizing t&e model:s s#ecialness-
Eit& A? 1 $,odo entra or los o!osB 3eng- A6veryt&ing enters t&roug& eyesB5 t&e
te0t immediately brings t&e connotation wit& greed 1 one gets w&at &e or s&e wants, t&us
s&ould allow &is or &er eyes 3w&ic& see ,ust su#er"icial cover, ,ust t&e outside5 dictate
your li"estyle 3in contrary wit& A- de )aint 60u#ery$ B)t is only with the heart that one
can see rightly= what is essential is invisile to the eye-B
'
/e0t closely corres#onds wit&
t&e image and directs attention to t&e model:s eye-
;.C. Audience
>ne can distinguis& two grou#s o" t&e audience- /&ere is a di""erence between
general #ublic 3w&ole #o#ulation o" #eo#le w&o see t&e cam#aign5 and t&e target
audience 3w&ic& consists o" t&ose to w&o s#eci"ied meanings and #re"erred readings are
directed and t&e items being o""ered are designed5- Kowever, cam#aigns deliberately
convey a certain meaning 3in an a##ro#riate, readable way5 to bot& grou#s- /&is
universality demands use s#ecial tec&ni2ues and r&etorics-
;.C.1. DPreferred 0eadersE , Target Audience
/&e message directed to t&e target audience @ t&ese ones w&o actually use t&e
service being o""ered and w&o can a""ord it, can be called$ ApositiveB- /&e overall
message includes t&e desirable readers into t&e e0clusive grou# o" customers and service
users- /&e mode o" addressing and t&e way o" audience #ositioning is #recisely designed
@ t&e goal is to nail t&e s#eci"ic individuals- /&ere"ore, because o" its: e0clusive role, t&e
'
B/&e <ittle *rinceB, c&a#ter YY+
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
cam#aigns a##eal to #articular audiences and re2uire s#ecial "eatures$ educational
background, economical and social status-
9egarding to audience:s educational bac(ground and intellectual capabilities,
images are understandable mostly "or mall customers, "or t&ose w&o know w&at kind o"
#lace it is and w&at sort o" service it #rovides 3are "amiliar wit& t&e atmos#&ere and t&e
#articular li"estyle5 @advertisements don:t directly say w&at t&ey o""er 3A%, A, A2, A?5-
/&e cam#aigns are aimed "or t&ose w&o &ave ambitions and dreams to "ul"ill 3A%5, "or
t&ese ones w&o "eel s#ecial 3A?5- Cam#aigns are designed "or t&ose w&o &ave a wider
social knowledge 3"- e0- know w&en Mot&er:s Day or <adies: Day are celebrated, ones
w&o understand Eestern values A5, w&o are ca#able o" understanding t&e meta#&orical
meaning o" t&e te0t and image 3A2, A?5- <arcomar demands also o#en1minded attitude
and a good command o" +nternet, t&e A' is directed to =acebook users t&us younger
generations, w&o need a s#ecial additional motivation 3as e0tra gi"ts5, A4 calls to &ig&
social inter#ersonal abilities, t&ose w&o go to t&e malls not ,ust "or s&o##ing, but also to
s#end leisure time, to socialize-
+n regard to economic status, cam#aigns, because o" t&e e0clusive nature o" t&e
service being o""ered, are targeted "or #articular social grou#s$ &ig&er and intermediate
managerial, administrative or #ro"essional, su#ervisory or clerical and suc&
4
- /&us &ig&er
economic status in re2uired because o" t&e "act, t&at #otential customers, to w&om t&e
advertisement is directed, &ave to a""ord t&e service and can not stand out "rom t&e ot&er
customers #o#ulation 3A%, A?5- /&at is related to item being o""ered$ credit card @ t&us,
"or t&ose ones w&o can really a""ord t&e costs o" t&e card, and ,ust "or t&em, s&ar# class
dimension 3A?5- /arget grou# consists also o" t&ose w&o can a""ord costs o" modern
li"estyle 3A45, w&o are u#1to1date wit& #rogressive modern trends, w&o "eel s#ecial 3A25,
w&o treat tradition as an accent, decoration, w&o want to imitate 6uro#eans and
#ersonalize Eestern values- /&e advertisement is designed "or t&ose ones w&o assure
t&eir c&ildren t&is AEesternB li"estyles and c&ances "or t&e "uture, w&en t&eir "uture is
brig&t @ as actress: com#le0ion- /&e connotation is t&at modern mot&er &as a modern
c&ild, t&us it is directed ,ust "or t&ose w&o actually lead an e0#ensive li"estyle 3A5-
Cam#aigns #resent a s&ar# class dimension 3A2, A%5, rein"orced by colors 3dark
and brig&t #ulled toget&er5, lig&t concentrated in t&e center 3w&ic& means t&at is more
4
Categories according to )elby N Cowdery, GG4-
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
relevant53A%5- Advertisements are aimed to u##er and middle 1 class social grou#s
3because o" its location, 2uality and nature o" service o""ered5 @but as it was said, t&e
middle1class doesn:t really e0ist in *eru$ t&e society is s&ar#ly divided itsel", t&us t&e
advertisement is in "act aimed mostly to &ig&er social classes- A##eals to values o" &ig&er
social classes suc& as &ig& aest&etical standards 3A45- +mage A2 is directed to t&ose w&o
"eel "ull o" value liberated woman, w&o "eel 3or want to "eel5 su#erior in some way- /&e
social division is #articularly strong in t&e case o" A image 1 t&ere is not&ing *eruvian
about t&ese "igures 3besides t&e &ats5- /&ey do not #ersonalize t&emselves wit& lower
*eruvian social classes 3w&o mostly sustain traditional li"estyles5- A4 gives a strong #oint
in t&e discussion too$ members o" lower social classes are in t&e background, somew&ere
in <ima, u##er class s#end t&eir "ree time in <arcomar, are not #reoccu#ied wit& t&eir
economical status, can a""ord t&is li"estyle, seem to look "or t&e same social class
members 3to kee# t&e #urity o" race;social class5- <arcomar cam#aigns in "act do not
e0#licitly say t&at t&e advertisement is directed to *eruvians, it gives an im#ression o" an
international cam#aign, social class @ middle and u##er$ t&ose w&o deserve t&e bonus
3A'5-
/&e cam#aigns, by using strongly suggestive e0#ression, in com#arison wit& t&e
reality, re2uire a certain emotional res#onse @ #re"erred reading o" t&e image by t&e target
audience s&ould be$ A+ want to be like t&e one "rom t&e #ictureB- /&e services assure you
a better li"e and brig&ter "uture-
+n t&e #revious subsection, in regard to construction, one made a #oint about
#&ysical barrier created by #ro#s, "ocus, lens ty#e and camera angle- Kere anot&er kind o"
barrier &as emerged$ because o" t&e nature o" service o""ered @ t&e atmos#&ere as a
service can be understood ,ust by t&ose like sub,ects #resented in t&e images, ot&ers
cannot actually access t&e service being o""ered @ t&e advertisement creates an invisible,
meta#&orical barrier, w&ic&, ironically is even &arder to overcome-
;.C.1.1. 7ender and Age
/&eory section #roved t&at gender #lays a role w&en it comes to consum#tion and
#urc&ase c&oices- /&e notion o" beauty a##eals "ar more to "emales- Attractiveness is
generally "ound to be muc& more valuable t&an any ot&er single as#ect a woman can
#ossess-
%?
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
/&e images a##eal in some cases e0clusively to women 3A, A2, A'5, in ot&er to
bot& genders 3A4, A% and A' 1 "or bot& women and men, t&e indicator &ere is not gender,
but economic #osition and strong correlation between status and #aleness5, but wit&
strong age dimension @ younger generations 3A', A45, or rat&er well1o"" #eo#le, so
middle1age audience 3A?5, t&ose #ro"essionally active-
Kowever, somet&ing interesting is going on in t&e case o" A4 image$ it is
addressed directly to young women, but t&e message is also indirectly addressed to men
1 <arcomar as a #er"ect #lace to meet nice1looking #ale girls-
;.C.1.*. =ode of addressing
Advertisements encourage t&e audience w&at to "eel and t&ink about t&e service
being o""ered$ it su##orts t&e notion o" J* as an e0clusive #lace, wit& modern and #ro1
s#ective services 3A%5- +t directs #eo#le:s "eelings in a way t&at t&ey are su#erior 3A25-
/&ere are two tec&ni2ues used in audience #ositioning$ soft sell and hard sell.
Eit&in so"t sell in"ormation is given by im#lication only, in"ormation is communicated in
an im#licit way 3A2, A, A4, A%5- /&e service is not directly being o""ered @ by s&owing
Jockey *laza:s #reoccu#ation wit& "amily and mot&er1daug&ter relations, t&e s&o##ing
mall indirectly conveys t&e message t&at modern mot&ers s&ould go "or t&e malls:
services, in order to ac&ieve t&e li"estyle #resented on t&e billboard 3A5- /&e media te0t,
by creating a "amiliar atmos#&ere, is warm, intimate, very #ersonal @ s&owing t&e
#roducer:s #reoccu#ation wit& its customers: "amily lives and t&e message &as an
emotional a##eal- +t is rein"orced by s&ot1size @ w&ic& cerates a "ace1to1"ace situation
3A5- +m#licit emotional a##eal is readable w&en t&e advertisement makes women "eel
in"erior to t&e model, it a""ects t&eir as#irations and stimulates t&eir needs 3A25-
Anot&er tec&ni2ue o" audience #ositioning is called hard sell @ w&en service
advantages are directly communicated and in"ormation is interc&angeably given- /&e
#roducer #ositions t&e reader by telling &im or &er t&at service is not "or everyone @t&at
conveys notion o" e0clusiveness and uses rational arguments 3A'5-
+n t&e case o" A? and A4 one can talk about mix o" so"t sell 3im#lication5 and
&ard sell$ service o""ered is s#ecial @ "irst im#ression is given in a meta#&orical way
3so"t5, but a"ter a dee#er consideration one can see t&at t&e #roducer actually uses &ard
sell @ by #ointing e0#licitly to t&e bene"its o" t&e service$ buy it and get w&at you want
3A?5- +n A4 on t&e one &and t&e receiver deals wit& &ard sell 1 te0ts w&ic& surround t&e
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
image, image #lus s&ort descri#tion #lus #rice o" t&e certain item 3w&ic& could be a
C&ristmas gi"t5, rational arguments- Dut on t&e ot&er &and one can distinguis& so"t sell
tec&ni2ue$ service is s&own in t&e conte0t$ &ow t&e s&o##ing mall s&ould look like and
w&o we are looking "or 3A45-
+n all cases t&e receivers are emotionally communicated- /&e audience is
addressed in a #articular way$ t&e advertisement acknowledges t&eir so#&istication, is
warm and intimate and creates a "eeling o" directness and e0clusiveness o" t&e message
3A%5- Advertisements em#loy in"ormative overtones 3in t&e case o" lady:s mont&5 and use
a""irmative statements 3A25- Audience is re2uired to be active, t&e target audience is
a""ected and involved in t&e advertisement, w&en it uses im#erative suggestive overtone
3A'5, t&e image calls "or inter#retation 3A?5- +n ot&er cases audience is a""ected but not
involved in t&e advertisement and t&e reader is passive 3A, A%5- /&e #roducer talks
down to t&e audience and acknowledges one:s devotion and rewards "or it 3A'5-
6ventually, t&e tec&ni2ue o" dual mode o" addressing is a##lied @t&at is w&en t&e media
te0t on t&e one &and is #us&y, and on t&e ot&er @ gives an intimate message, w&ic&
acknowledges one:s e0ce#tionality, uni2ueness and elitism, t&us uses bot& command and
statement 3A45-
;.C.*. 7eneral Public
+n t&e case o" t&e wider grou# @ t&e general #ublic 3w&ic& consists o" all w&o
#otentially can see t&e cam#aign5, t&e advertisement conveys t&e message too- /&e social,
economic and educational background is not so strictly restricted- /&is message can be
called AnegativeB @ it gives in"ormation about t&e nature o" service and its: e0clusiveness-
/&e message #lays a selective "unction, ordering society and rein"orcing social
&ierarc&ies-
Moreover, one &as to be aware o" t&e #ossible meanings w&ic& can be #ulled out
"rom t&e image 3not necessarily according to t&e #roducer:s intention5- /&e c&ain o"
A#ositiveB meanings communicated in t&e images gives t&e ordinary reader o" t&e media
te0t ot&er signi"ication, w&ic& is marginalized- /&e #roducer o" t&e media te0t 3because o"
it:s social, economical, cultural or educational background5 can even not be "ully
conscious o" t&ese latent messages, w&ic& can also connote wit& coldness, domain,
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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re#ression and alienation and negative su#remacy and dominance o" w&ites over <atin
societies-
;.C.-. Psychographic &ariable
As it was said be"ore, every media te0t a##eals to certain #syc&ometric variables
and #rovokes a #syc&ological res#onse- /&e stand#oint is t&at society consists o" #eo#le,
regarded not ,ust as units, but as individuals- /&at is w&y advertisements a##eal to needs,
sel"1identity and @ in relation to t&at 1 construct a certain brand image-
Drand image in t&e case o" A% is #articularly strong @ J* as a #lace w&ic& Aknows
w&o you want to beB, t&us t&e service &as a strategic meaning in #rocess o" sel"1identity
creation 3A%5- /&e brand image constructs t&e sel" identity w&en t&e "ollowing condition
is naturalized$ it is natural t&at i" you are young modern mot&er or i" you are w&iter t&an
ot&ers around, you will go "or J* services @ t&at can give you, besides tangible #roducts,
emotional bene"its, suc& as ,oy, &ig&er social status and &ig&er social #osition in ot&ers
eyes 3A5- 6rand image is created by t&e relation t&at J* takes care o" your c&ild:s
"uture, brand e0#resses one:s #reoccu#ation wit& "amily and notion o" modern "amily
li"estyle, elitism 3A5- /&e brand is associated wit& ideal o" women, w&o want to reac&
t&e ideal o" t&e beauty and "eel s#ecial 3A25, t&e #roducer #resents an image o"
e0#ensiveness, it correlates wit& &ig& economic status, and@ conse2uently @ wit& #aleness
3A?5, lu0ury 3s#a services o""ered "or "ans5 w&en t&e advertisement says not&ing about
t&e #rice or 2uality o" nature o" <arcomar s&o##ing mall, but says a lot about t&e li"estyle
and a##eals to sel"1identity and one:s as#irations, t&us #eo#le c&oose t&e mall because it
e0#resses t&eir sense o" sel" identity 3A'5- Motivation to c&oose <arcomar is not ,ust t&e
2uality o" t&e #lace 3t&ere are not many signs indicating t&e 2uality5, but t&e atmos#&ere
and c&ance to meet ot&er #eo#le, as #resented in t&e advertisement 3A45- /&e billboard
#lays a role o" an in"ormal invitation$ i" you are not like t&em, do not come, it:s not a
#lace "or you 3A45-
)ervice gives a #articular meaning associated wit& emotional im#ortance o" social
#ositioning and #ros#ects "or "uture 3A%, A?5- /&e advertisement a##eals to t&e &uman
need "or sel" and social acce#tance, to ambitions and as#irations @ service is related wit&
elegance, so#&istication, a way to "ul"ill one:s dreams, making one:s li"e easier 3A%5
tendency o" neglecting traditional values 3A5 and distinguis&ing one:s "amily "rom
ot&ers @ adding t&e value o" s#ecialness, elitism and social division 3A, A45, associated
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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wit& #revalent &uman need to socialize and to communicate wit& ot&ers, to #ersonalize
and to rest 3A45- Advertisement a##eals to every woman:s need to "eel s#ecial and
e0ce#tional in males: eyes 3A2, A45- /&e message is clear @ J* services can assure you
being s#ecial and can underline one:s "eminity @ t&at makes one:s c&ances on a
matrimonial and ,ob market bigger 3A25- Cam#aign em#&asizes a need to meet every
w&im 3A?5, associated wit& elegance, sel"1care and &ig& sel"1esteem 3A25- /&e #re"erred
reading o" t&e te0t is$ A+ can a""ord t&e credit card @ + can a""ord t&e item + want to buy, +
like, + identi"y mysel" wit& t&ose w&o "ul"ill t&eir dreamsB @ wit& visible "ocus on mysel"
@ everyt&ing QA,odoBR w&ic& enters t&roug& eyes$ everyt&ing w&ic& really counts is
tangible and can be #urc&ased wit& 3#lastic or not5 money 1 A,odoB, even #aleness,
ob,ecti"ication o" w&iteness 3A?5- /&ere is a clear association wit& &uman vanity and t&e
tendency to distinguis& ones "rom ot&ers 3A'5, es#ecially w&en sel" identity is
em#&asized by t&e o##osition us 3"ans5 versus t&em 3ot&ers5 3A'5-
;.C.8. 2ifestyle =ar(eting
/&e tec&ni2ue o" li"estyle marketing is about a##ealing in t&e #romotional
o#erations to li"estyles, making items being o""ered #art o" one:s li"estyles, w&ic&
constitute and determine ones way o" living- +mages a##eal to t&e "act t&at #eo#le desire
to belong and to #ersonalize t&emselves wit& a #articular grou# and t&us, lead a li"e
according to t&is grou#:s determinants- /&is tec&ni2ue &as been legibly a##lied in
analyzed media sources- Advertisements a##eal to a modern "amily li"estyle 3A5 by
creating an illusion o" "amily idyll- /&e model acting as mot&er is concerned wit& t&e
"amily, s&ows #reoccu#ation wit& &er relatives- Message derived "rom t&e image seems to
say$ A+ &ave to assure t&e best "uture "or my c&ild, t&ere"ore + c&oose J*B- /arget
audiences in t&e case belong to a #articular grou# o" #eo#le w&o &ave &ig& as#irations
concerning t&eir "amilies, w&o are loyal to &ig& standards 3not traditionalists5- *er"ect
way o" s#ending one:s leisure time and to strengt&en bonds wit& t&e "amily is to go to t&e
#lace, w&ic& @ by t&e "act o" entering into @ assures a &ig&er economical status 3A, A45-
A non1traditional but liberated, brave, individualistic way o" living is being o""ered-
<i"estyle o""ered in t&e advertisement is a &ig&er level attitude to li"e, advertisement is
aimed to ac&ievers, modern ambitious #eo#le, 3not traditionalists53A45- Advertisements
a##eal also to "ocus on ,oy- <i"estyle being o""ered seems to say t&at Ayou can get w&at
you want, and everyt&ing you really want and need can be "ound in J*B- /&us t&e media
%(
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
te0t coveys t&e message o" individualism, "ocus on sel"1satis"action, "or t&ose w&ose basic
living needs are satis"ied, w&o get more "rom li"e 3A?5- /&e service gives a c&ance to "eel
more 6uro#ean, bringing t&em closer to t&e modern, Eestern li"estyle 3A, A4, A%5-
E&en t&e scene #resented in t&e #&oto is a casual situation 3A45, t&e li"estyle
dimension is very strong$ t&e scene o""ers a concrete way o" living, o" s#ending t&e "ree
time, dressing and talking @ care"ree way o" living and consumerism-
;.B. Producers and =anifestation of 3olorism
Dot& Jockey *laza and <arcomar are *eruvian malls @ t&us, as a w&ole are not
#arts o" international mall c&ains 3&owever stores and s&o#s &osted are5- /&e #oint is t&at
t&e malls: owners and #roducers o" t&e #romotional cam#aigns are *eruvians @ &ence
belong to t&e same nation and et&nic grou# as t&e audience and general #ublic- /&e
discursive #ractices identi"ied bear t&e stigma o" colorism, understood as more s#eci"ied
and so#&isticated strain o" racism, w&ic& "ocuses e0clusively on su#er"icial as#ects o"
&uman bodies 3suc& as skin color5- E&at t&ey are actually doing is discriminating #ractice
wit&in t&e same Iracial: grou#-
Deep 1tructures
;.). Discourses dentified
Analysis o" t&e sam#le si0 images #rovide us wit& many discursive categories, w&ic&
are, to bigger or smaller e0tent, em#loyed in t&e te0ts- /reating discourse as an
ine0#ressible structure between visual signs, te0ts and audience w&ic& in direct or more
meta#&orical ways conveys a certain message and constitutes t&e #erce#tion o" t&e reality,
student identi"ied eig&t grou#s o" discourses, w&ic& are$
1 35 ambition and sel"1satis"action, individualism7
1 325 "eminity7
1 3?5 modernity7
1 3'5 cultural w&itening 3o" atmos#&ere and li"estyles57
1 345 2uality, &ig& standard o" living, elegance7
1 3%5 symbolic #ower and dominance7
1 3(5 e0clusiveness, selectiveness, elitism @ money, e0#ensiveness
%F
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
1 3F5 social strati"ication, social &ierarc&y, su#eriority, us versus t&em 3w&ic& &as to
do wit& stereoty#ed t&inking5
)am#le advertisements, in a discursive way try to re#roduce a certain notion o"
uni2ueness and rein"orce t&e conce#t o" sel"1satis"action 35- /&at is in contrast wit& <atin
legacy and values, w&ic& #ut t&e notion o" collectiveness as a social im#ortance,
es#ecially in #oorer social grou#s 3Denson et al, 200(5- /&e discourse stimulates t&e
audience:s ambitions, s&owing as a #rototy#e Eestern li"e a##roac&- /&at brings t&e
discourse o" modernity 3?5 @ discourse conveys t&e conce#t o" u#1to1date, o#en1minded
individual #erson, wit& a strong international dimension- /&e discourse o" "eminity 325
can be also read out @ individualistic "ocus on sel"1satis"action o" any "emale is a
mani"estation o" Eesternized modern tendencies being ado#ted t&roug& t&e media te0ts-
Discourse o" 2uality, &ig& standard o" living and elegance 345 &as to do wit& t&e term
o" AtasteB- /aste is socially relative and is tied to one:s #lace in t&e class structure in t&e
society- /aste #lays a distinctive "unction, because it unites 3#eo#le w&o s&are t&e same
taste5 and it se#arates 3distinguis&ing #eo#le w&o &ave ot&er tastes5- /aste is a clear
stable signal w&ic& we send to ot&er #eo#le-
9egarding to 3%5 category @ discourse o" #ower does not em#loy t&e common and
tangible attributes o" #ower and domination, nor involve #olitical su#remacy- /&e
discourse conveys a AvelvetB symbolic notion o" #ower @ by creating #&ysical and
meta#&orical barrier, t&e #roducer creates an im#ression, w&ic& is conse2uently
discursively re#roduced in every Jockey *laza image- /&is consistency in creating t&e
notion o" symbolic #ower and dominance, con"irms onesel" in t&e conviction o" its:
rig&tness and legitimacy-
As a result o" 345 and 3%5, #articular discourse o" e0clusiveness, selectiveness and
elitism emerged 3(5, w&ic& in conse2uence evokes t&e discourse o" social strati"ication
and &ieratic division o" AusB vs- At&emB 3F5- E&at is being indirectly said t&roug& t&e
sam#le #romotional materials is t&at money and e0#ensiveness are attributes o" elitism
and t&ere"ore, in a meta#&orical way, are "actors w&ic& are w&itening t&e li"estyle and t&e
image o" t&e elite grou#- /&at strengt&ens social strati"ication, making division on AusB
3t&ose w&o #osseses t&e symbolic attributes o" #ower5 and At&emB even s&ar#er-
Discourses 3?5, 3'5, 345, 3(5 and 3F5 bring t&e term o" consumerism, w&ic& a""ects bot&
grou#s o" t&e audience- +mages em#loy t&e discourse o" material and symbolic culture
%G
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
w&ic& imitates t&e Eestern e0am#les and ado#ts Eestern modern customs- =ollowing t&e
consumer li"estyle one creates &is or &er social and #ersonal identity, assuring social
#romotion, and secondly @ #ersonal satis"action-
/&ese discourses take #lace wit&in a wider discourse t&eme, omni#resent in all o"
t&ese discourses, w&ic& is racism- Kowever t&e racial attitudes and connotations are
served in a subtle and almost invisible way, t&us t&e student came u# wit& t&e category o"
velvet racism @ communicated by im#licit meanings- +t is related to t&e term Acordial
racismB, introduced by )inger and Himbles 3200' in Doec&at, 200G5- As it was re"erred in
2- section, cordial racism is a delicate 3even5 unconsciously made demonstratios
revealed in be&aviors, o#inions and digressions w&ic& mani"est #ersecutions on t&e skin
color basis-
;.1F. =yths and 0hetoric of the mages
/reating myt& as a communal e0#ression o" s&ared associations and a #roduct o"
secondary signi"ication, one can distinguis& t&e "ollowing areas$ w&iteness as a natural
value 3A, A2, A%5, w&ic& connotes a brig&t "uture 3A%5 and Eestern civilization 3see
'-'---5- E&iteness sets a correlation between economical status and a##earance 3A?,
A', A%5 and t&us orders t&e society 3A45 by reminding social division and racial #urity
3A5- >ne can identi"y also a myt& sel"1satis"action and notion o" uni2ueness 3A?5 and
w&ite nym#& 3A%, A?5, as a symbol;#ersonalization o" "eminity as a value 3A2, A'5,
es#ecially in t&e society determined by machismo
>0
-
Eit& regard to w&at was said above and t&e com#osition as#ect, one can
eventually move to t&e r&etoric o" t&e image, w&ic& is an aest&etic consolidation o"
tec&nical structures and meanings derived "rom secondary signi"ication: analysis- +mages
r&etorically are about su#eriority o" w&iteness 3underlined by use o" lig&t, colors and
models5 3A2, A?, A5 connected wit& social strati"ication 3A%5 and division on AusB vs-
At&emB, associated wit& one:s skin color 3A', A45, Aw&iteningB o" one:s li"estyle and
naturalization o" w&iteness 3A?, A4, A5-
%
De"ined as Bsel"1satis"action and notion o" uni2uenessB 3Merriam1Eebster, 2005 and AXe0aggerated
aggressiveness and intransigence in male1to1male inter#ersonal relations&i#s and arrogance and se0ual
aggression in male1to1"emale relations&i#sB 3)tevens in$ )oong, GGG5
(0
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
;.1F.1. =yth of 4hiteness
/&e most signi"icant is t&e myt& o" naturalization o" w&iteness, w&ic& sets w&ite
as a standard- /&e myt& o" w&iteness is related wit& t&e wider myt& o" Eestern world-
Dot& a""ect social and sel"1identity o" every #erson- E&iteness is a social construction,
#revalent in analyzed #romotional cam#aigns- Drings bot& material and symbolical
#rivileges$ t&ese cam#aigns a##eal mostly to t&e latter one @ "eeling o" su#eriority and
racial segregation and division-
E&iteness is a common desire and &ence services being o""ered are means in
reac&ing;ac&ieving, at least symbolically, t&e goal- )ervices being o""ered will not
actually bleac& one:s skin, but will do it in a meta#&orical way$ giving intangible
indicators o" su#eriority- /&ese items give a s#ecial sense o" uni2ueness 3instead o"
common universality5- /&e message is obvious and #lays a dual "unction$
1 gives t&e "eeling o" unusualness and e0clusiveness o" u##er classes, and a""irms
com#etences and legitimacy o" t&eir li"estyles7
1 conveys message "or #oorer and lower social classes w&ic& seems to say$ Ayou
don:t suit to t&e world being o""eredB-
+n conse2uence it creates t&e antonym us vs t&em and in conse2uence en"orces t&e
stereoty#es-
)kin color is one o" many indicators o" belonging to t&e social class, but t&e most
diagnostic 1 su#er"icial "eatures are symbols o" aut&ority and social #ower- +n *eru all
#eo#le are some&ow classi"ied 39eding, 200($(25 according to #revalent belie" about
su#eriority among ot&ers- +n t&e rationalized world everyt&ing &as to &ave it:s cause and
reason- /&at is w&y w&iteness constitutes, e0cuses and ,usti"ies social ine2uality and
social &ierarc&ies- E&iteness is a #erce#tible "eature w&ic& arranges t&e social reality-
;.1F.*. 4est versus ndigenous
E&ite models used in t&e advertisements connote, generally s#eaking, t&e Eestern
6uro#ean world- Eest is contrasted wit& t&e indigenous local world- +t is es#ecially
articulated in t&e A image, w&ere *eruvian chullos are used ,ust as a dressy addition,
tradition is ,ust a decoration, but doesn:t create a core o" t&e modern li"estyles- Use o"
myt& o" Eestern civilization culturally suggests w&iteness, w&ic& is synonymous wit&
beauty and #urity- Desides t&e e0ternal connotations, w&iteness o" t&e Eest connotes also
rationality @ as "ar as t&e )#aniards were #eo#le o" reason in o##osition to t&e +ndians,
(
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
develo#ment, com"ort, modernity, wealt&- /&e o##osition, in every dimension o" t&e
meaning is w&at remains dark @ indigenous- All t&ese c&aracteristics com#ose a wider
term, w&ic& is, using Dart&ess terms t&e myth of 4estern civili#ation- +t is contrasted
wit& t&e myt& o" 2atin legacy$ connoted wit& darkness 3bot& literally @ darkness o" skin,
as well as "iguratively @ darkness o" "uture, regress, backwardness, underdevelo#ment5-
;.1F.-. 4hitening of the Atmosphere
+t is crucial to realize t&at in <atin America t&ere is a relation t&at t&e more
e0clusive an item is, t&e w&iter t&e models are, w&o are o""ering it seems to be 39eding,
200($%5- /&us, kee#ing in mind w&at was said be"ore @ t&ere is no one concrete item
being o""ered, but w&at t&ese cam#aigns intend to #romote is t&e atmos#&ere and t&e
certain li"estyle and atmos#&ere @ as #articularly e0clusive- As Doec&at says, Aw&itening
o" t&e atmos#&ereB is a tec&ni2ue used in <atin America in #ublic #laces, es#ecially t&ese
e0#ensive ones 3Doec&at, 200G5- /&is tendency is #articularly visible in analyzed cases-
E&itening o" t&e atmos#&ere in t&e wider social conte0t is a mani"estation o" t&e <atin
tendency toward Ablan2uamieno de la razaB 3whitening of the race) 3Doec&at, 200G5-
E&itening o" t&e race is an e""ect o" commonly standing stereoty#es o" w&iteness
su#eriority- /&us, w&at is basically o""ered and re#roduced in media te0ts is cultural
w&itening 3instead o" skin w&itening5-
;.11. &icious 3ircle
Jicious circle is a meta#&orical e0#ression w&ic& describes a situation w&en eac&
#roblem creates anot&er and t&e solution o" one di""iculty in a c&ain o" circumstances
creates a new #roblem and increases t&e obstacles w&ic& aggravate t&e original #roblem
3/&e =ree Dictionary, 2005-
/&e antonym us vs them evokes #re,udices and social strati"ication- Dasing on
analyzed media te0ts and on one:s own e0#eriences, one can conclude t&at in *eru t&is
antagonistic relation &as became a vicious circle$ t&e more sources re#roduce and racial
attitudes o" w&iteness domination and w&itening culture, giving t&e w&iteness t&e leading
role in setting social relations, t&e stronger social strati"ication and #ower o" t&e myt& o"
w&iteness and su#eriority o" Eestern civilization is-
Anot&er dimension o" vicious circle is t&at #revalent use o" myt& o" w&iteness
con"irms rig&tness o" social divisions in t&e conte0t o" consum#tion- Consum#tion
(2
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
determines social #osition, t&is #osition in t&e conse2uence determines t&e consum#tion-
/&at &as to do wit& consumerism and its: social and #syc&ological roles- /&e market
#lays a role o" t&e arena "or social division @ t&is is w&ere social division overla#s t&e
ideology- !otion o" clarity o" t&e blood @ ideology and social construction overla#-
>t&er as#ect o" t&e situation is t&at t&e glori"ication o" w&iteness goes #arallel
wit& devaluation o" darker skin s&ades and w&at was called above as A2atin legacyB- /&e
more Eestern values are glori"ied, t&e more backward +ndian value system, culture and
&eritage seem to be- /&at in conse2uence evokes t&e "eeling o" in"eriority- /&at is a clear
indicator o" social duality 3see 4-- @ subsection below5-
+n #ast times su#eriority was an attribute o" 3Eestern5 con2uerors and t&eir
cultures- !owadays t&e w&ites are in #ower too$ Eestern tourists are t&e enormous "orce
w&ic& drives t&e economy and markets and constitutes an e0am#le w&ic& #ro#els
*eruvian consum#tion- /&us w&iteness dominance outlasts alt&oug& it &as evolved-
As it was said, *eru, es#ecially <ima is a melting1#ot t&at consists o" many et&nic
grou#s- /&ese cam#aigns are not aimed ,ust against one s#eci"ic racial;et&nic grou#, but
create a barrier 3bot& #&ysical and meta#&orical5 t&at divides society into two categories$
AusB 3ones to w&o t&e #roducts are addressed, t&ese ones w&o actually are going to
buy;use t&e item being o""ered5 and At&emB 3ot&ers, t&e general #ublic5- Kowever, images
are aimed at bot& t&e aimed grou#5, t&e broad grou# o" Aot&ersB, w&ic& assembles all,
w&o, according to one1dimensional division, are #us&ed on t&e <atin legacy side-
;.1*. Twofold 3onstruction of the 1ociety and itsE Discursive 0eproduction
/&e two"old construction o" t&e society is seen bot& in meta#&orical way 3as
discursive re#roduction5 and well as in tangible way- E&at is more, t&is dual construction
o" t&e society is &istorically and traditionally 39eding, 200($(5- +t is obviously seen in
media te0ts, inter alia in advertisements and #romotional cam#aigns- 6ven t&e "act t&at
one can distinguis& two grou#s o" t&e #ublic to w&om t&e advertisements are directed
3"irst one$ t&ese ones w&o actually are going to buy;use t&e item being o""ered, second
grou# consists o" t&ose ones w&o read t&e o##osite message$ t&e #lace and t&e item is not
"or you, kee# away "rom t&e #lace5- 6lites are identi"ied wit& mesti/os, and in o##osition
to t&e grou# o" Aot&ersB- /&is s&ar# distinction o" us versus ot&ers is im#rinted in
*eruvian minds and rein"orced by discourses w&ic& take #lace in media- /&e
advertisements being analyzed are mani"estations o" common belie"s and at t&e same time
(?
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
rein"orce t&e notion o" social duality- /&is is anot&er e0#ression o" so called vicious circle
in w&ic& *eruvian society currently "inds itsel"-
6stablis&ing t&e borders is a reaction "or recent tendency toward #au#erization and
social disorganization 39eding, 200($('5- /&at on t&e one &and creates social ine2uality
and on t&e ot&er &and disable #eo#le "rom social mobility and gives a legitimization and
strengt&ens t&e two"old social construction and gives t&e sense o" stability- /&ese borders
are s&ar# and are becoming even more acute in t&e "ace o" #revalent t&reat o" soiling t&e
#urity o" t&e race- /&at in a conse2uence a""ects t&e s&ar#ness o" social distinction in a
discursive mode-
('
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
<. 3onclusions
/wo"old inter#retation #rocess$ identi"ication o" discourses 3using discourse
analysis a##roac&5 and myt&s 3em#loying semiotics: categories5 gave a strong basis to
draw "inal conclusions- Discourses identi"ied and myt&s w&ic& &ave been recognized are
consistent and &ence entitle t&e student to answer t&e 2uestions, w&ic& consist t&e a0is o"
t&e #a#er- Combination o" semiotics and DA &as s&own t&at in analyzed cases discourses
narrate the myths @ and rein"orce t&e meanings, creating an ideological background "or
its: in"luence-
+n t&e t&e *eruvian social construction, iconogra#&y, "rom t&e !azca: lines to
recent #ublic advertisements, #lays a #revalent role- +mages 3nowadays and ever since5
#ass a very strong message, w&ic&, because o" legal e""orts "or assuring #olitical
correctness and "ormally avoid racial statements and attitudes, are verbally and obviously
"orbidden- +n a conse2uence, some messages can not be e0#licitly verbally said- /&at is
w&y #roducers go "or a more subtle ways o" conveying messages- /&ese demand active
a##roac& to t&e inter#retation #rocess-
>ne deals &ere wit& a paradox t&at t&e cam#aigns, o""ering intangible items are
about concrete models @ t&at means t&at t&is services s&ould be #ersonalized wit& t&e
concrete #erson and &er c&aracteristics- /&e "act t&at models are young, attractive, slim
#ale women and #ossess ideal 6uro#ean1like, su##orted by Kollywood and Eestern
#roductions and images "eatures, directs our inter#retation-
/&is observation con"irms t&e statement t&at <atin racism implies latent
discrimination- /&at can be called emotional racism, not ideological one 3GonzClez
Manri2ue, 200%5- 9acism is not ,ust t&e ideology w&ic& establis&es somebody:s relations
wit& ot&ers- +t also a""ects #erson:s relations wit& &imsel" 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5-
/&at &as to do wit& ne0t conclusion-
*roccess o" t&e inter#retation corroborated also t&e "act t&at a##roac&es toward
w&itening di""er across t&e world de#ending on social and cultural milieu, contem#orary
trends as well as &istorical &eritage @ in t&e case o" *eru messages &ave a strong
emotional overtone and a##eal to e0clusively <atin values and li"estyles, called in t&e
#a#er as A2atin legacyB- Discourses rein"orce t&e general myt& o" 4estern civili#ation
(4
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
and its: com#onents and make t&em a #art o" t&e ideology and social construction, w&ere
<atin legacy is indirectly connoted wit& stigmatization- =yth of whiteness &as been
naturalized to a &ig& e0tent, becoming an unconscious value w&ic& arranges t&e society-
/&e #ower is in &ands o" *eruvians and t&ey are w&o induce t&is discoursive
discussion and w&o deliberately give t&e certain message to t&e receivers- *roducers o"
t&e #romotional cam#aigns belong to t&e same nation and et&nic grou# as t&e audience
and general #ublic- /&at is w&y one concluded t&at t&e situation can be regarded in terms
o" colorism- *ower doesn:t em#loy t&e common and tangible attributes o" domination,
neit&er involve #olitical su#remacy- /&e discourse conveys a Avelvet$ symbolic notion
of power @ by creating #&ysical and meta#&orical barrier, t&e #roducer created an
im#ression, w&ic& is conse2uently discursively re#roduced in images- *roducers use
many tec&ni2ues, more or less so#&isticated, to convey t&e message- /&e use o" models
and s#ecial settings 3colors, lig&t, #ro#s, lens5, connected wit& use o" s#eci"ic language
and #lace o" logo rein"orce t&e overall discursive re#roduction o" racial attitudes and its:
narration o" everyday li"e situations-
Analysis con"irmed also t&e claim t&at *eruvian society is organized on t&e basis
o" binary meanings w&ere target grou# o" consumers is contrasted wit& t&e grou# o" a
wider general #ublic- Cam#aigns convey bot& #ositive and negative messages$ t&is
universality demands use s#ecial tec&ni2ues and r&etoric- Analysis con"irmed t&at s&ar#
distinction on 3su#erior5 AusB versus 3stigmatized5 AothersB is im#rinted in *eruvian
minds and rein"orced by discourses w&ic& take #lace in media- /&at o##osition is
#articularly dangerous w&en it comes to t&e situation w&en t&e #roducers deliberately
discriminate ot&er *eruvians, addressing to t&em, via o#en media te0ts, strongly racial
barbed concealed meanings and arousing strong in"eriority com#le0 related to t&eir darker
skin tone- E&iteness is a #erce#tible "eature w&ic& rationally arrange and #uts t&e society
in &ieratic order- /&e way in w&ic& t&e #syc&ic con"lict and stabilization is assured by
a##ealing to one:s skin tone and creating on t&is base social distinction is a mani"estation
o" bleaching syndrome, w&ere skin color is a mean o" symbolical domination- /&e
advertisements being analyzed rein"orce t&e notion o" social duality- /&is is anot&er
e0#ression o" so called vicious circle in w&ic& *eruvian society currently "inds itsel"- /&at
con"irms t&e statement t&at in *eru all #eo#le are some&ow classi"ied 39eding, 200($(25-
(%
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
9&etoric o" t&e image is connected wit& notion o" self,identity @ t&e viewer
remains Ain darkB or ,oins Alig&t sideB, w&ere t&e "uture seems to be 3literally and
"iguratively5 brig&t- >ne can derive tangible advantages as well as emotional bene"its,
suc& as ,oy and &ig&er social position in ot&ers eyes- +mages a##eal to #revalent &uman
need to socialize and to #ersonalize t&emselves wit& a #articular grou# and t&us, lead a
li"e according to t&is grou#:s determinants-
9egarding to t&e #rocess o" w&itening, one concluded t&at w&at is being bleac&ed
in t&e sam#le te0ts is not skin @ models are not w&iter *eruvians, but naturally w&ites,
w&o com#ly Eestern ideal o" t&e beauty- >ne deals &ere wit& cultural lightening o" t&e
atmos#&ere and li"e1styles, two key "actors w&ic& a""ects t&e construction o" sel" and
social identity- /&at consists a #art o" a wider #rocess w&ic& is called consumerism-
4hitening of the atmosphere is a dynamic #rocess w&ic& goes in two directions$ media
te0ts in general rein"orce racial attitudes and create social world and at t&e same time are
being rein"orced by t&em and conditioned by social reality- 3ultural whitening is a
source o" #ower and is a way in t&ese countries ado#t t&emselves to t&e dynamic world
and global trends-
/o sum u# @ discourses and myt&s 3being mani"estations o" #revalent social
ideology5 stay in contrast wit& t&e #o#ular statement t&at $ B)t is only with the heart that
one can see rightly= what is essential is invisile to the eyeB
(
- /&e media te0ts #lay a
signi"icant role in t&e in t&e develo#ment, rein"orcement, legitimization, and t&ere"ore
re#roduction o" racial attitudes by s&owing t&e ideology, re"erring to social and cultural
milieu, contrasting t&e myt& o" Eestern civilization wit& t&e discursive re#resentation of
Latin legacy, rein"orcing t&e two"old construction o" t&e society 3us vs t&em5,
constructing sel" and social identity and setting standards "or cultural w&itening o"
li"estyles and atmos#&ere-
<.1. Prospects
/&e notion o" w&iteness and its: discursive re#roduction go troug& #ermanent
c&anges- Kence, one wants to close t&e #a#er wit& a t&eoretical divagations about
(
B/&e <ittle *rinceB, c&a#ter YY+
((
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
#ros#ects and #otential dynamics o" t&e situation in t&e *eruvian and, generally s#eaking,
<atin societies-
Oancey adduces &istorical "acts w&ic& con"irm "luidity o" notion o" w&iteness-
Oancey s&ows, At&at some et&nic 6uro#eans, suc& as 9ussians, *oles, and +talians, w&o
were not considered w&ite in t&e early twentiet& century, &ave now become #art o" t&e
w&ite #o#ulationB3in$ Tian, 200'$G45- )imilarly, t&is #rocess can nowadays or in a near
"uture embrace ot&er nationalities and et&nic grou#s- Asians and <atin Americans, in "ace
o" a #rocess o" c&anging t&e de"inition o" w&iteness, will eventually im#lement a w&ite
racial identity- +t will be caused by #&enoty#ic similarity between <atinos and w&ites
3Oancey, 200?, in$ Golas&1Doza, 200?$'?'145- +n a conse2uence, w&ites will remain a
ma,ority grou# and continue to occu#y &ig& #osts 3at t&e strati"ication &ierarc&y5- /&at is
t&e &y#ot&etic situation w&ic& &as to do merely wit& <atinos in U-)- /&is grou# is
culturally and &istorically distinct "rom indigenous *eruvian +ndians- /&e basis "or
w&iteness domination is di""erent, too- /&ere"ore it is more likely to &a##en in case o"
U-)-, t&an in case o" *eruvian society- Kowever, analysis con"irmed t&at w&at is
&a##ening now in *eru is a tendency o" naturalization o" w&iteness and setting it as a
natural and desirable value, t&us t&is scenario may eventually, in remote "uture come true-
Anot&er o#tion is t&at, i" notion o" su#remacy o" w&iteness and racial in"eriority o"
indigenous <atinos grow stronger in t&e "uture, new w&ite <atin et&nicity will be created-
<atinos s&are wit& 6uro#eans t&e same basis o" language, religion, et&os, culture, law, art
and imagination 3)antos N Kallewell, 2002$%(5- /&is new et&nicity may emerge on t&e
intersection o" <atin be2uest and Eestern legacy @ t&en t&e cultural w&iteness o" t&e
grou# will be t&e leading "orce 3!abuco, GG?$?G, in$ )antos N Kallewell, 2002$%(5-
Eit&out no doubts, social c&anges are essential "or building t&e common *eruvian
et&nical and social identity- /&e vicious circle &as to be aborted and one can sa"ety say
t&at "or #oliticians and social leaders it is t&e most emerging task to do- /&ere is an urgent
need to revise omni#resent stereoty#es derived "rom #revalent ideology- Kowever, it:s a
com#licated #rocess, because, as <i##mann re"ers, integration and disturbance in t&e
created stereoty#es could be com#ared to t&e attack at t&e "oundations o" oneZs world
3<i##mann, G%45-
(F
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
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Dussault, A-M-, Light *eaded- /&e Kindu Dusiness <ine, 200%
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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