Unit 1

MAGNETISM and ELECTROMAGNETISM

1. define magnetic field.
2. discuss the characteristics of a magnet.
3. define terms associated with magnetism.
4. discuss the three classifications of magnetic materials.
5. discuss the difference between a magnetic circuit and electric
circuit.
6. solve problems in magnetic circuits.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit,
you are expected to:

1.1 Magnetic Field






Detecting the Presence of a Magnetic Field
Magnetism. It is defined as the property which certain materials have that permits
them to produce or conduct magnetic lines of force.
Magnetic Field. Is the region in which a magnetic material is acted upon by a
magnetic force.
Magnet. It is an object which a magnetic field exists and is either natural or man-
made. The latter type can either be temporary or permanent.
Magnetic force. It is the force exerted by one magnet on another to attract it or repel
it.
Magnetic Line of Force. A magnetic line of force represents the path along
which a theoretical isolated magnetic pole would move from one pole of a
magnet to the other.






Diagram of a Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet
1.2 Characteristics of Magnetic Field
- Magnetic lines of force form a complete loops.
- Magnetic lines of force represent a tension along their length which tends to
make as short as possible.
- Magnetic lines of force repel one another.
- Magnetic line of force cannot intersect but must always for individual closed
loops.
- Magnetic fields always tend to arrange themselves in such a manner that the
maximum number of lines of force is set up.
- Each magnet has a magnetic field around it just on the earth does. The
magnetic field is strongest at the end of the magnet. In the center of the
magnet the strength is negligible.
- Magnetic lines of force (also called magnetic flux) have direction similar to
the motion of electric charges. A magnet has a north pole and a south pole
just as electric charges are either negative or positive.
- Like poles of magnets repel whereas unlike poles attract.







- Magnetism can be induced in a magnetic material by placing it in a magnetic
field.
- The lines of force tend to spread away from each other by placing it in a
magnetic field.
1.3 Classifications of Magnetic Material
In accordance with the value of relative permeability the magnetic materials
may be classified in the following three ways:
1. Ferromagnetic materials. The relative permeabilities of these materials are
much greater than unity and are dependent on the field strengths.
Examples: iron, cobalt, and nickel.
2. Paramagnetic materials. These have relative permeability slightly greater
than unity and are magnetized slightly.
Examples: aluminum, platinum, and oxygen.
3. Diamagnetic materials. The relative permeability of these materials is slightly
less than unity. They repel the lines of force slightly.
Examples: bismuth, silver, copper, and hydrogen.

1.4 Electromagnetism



(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(a) (b)
(b) When No Current, Compass Needles All Indicate Earths Magnetic Field, (b) When
Current Flows, Compass Needles Indicate Circular Magnetic Lines of Force around the
Conductor.







Right-Hand Rule for Determining Direction of Magnetic Lines of Force around a Straight
Current-Carrying Conductor.







Concentrating the Magnetic Field by Forming the Conductor into a Loop.







Magnetic Field Pattern of a Current-Carrying Solenoid.

Right-Hand Rule for Determining Direction of Magnetic Lines of Force through a Current
Carrying Solenoid.

Magnetic Field around Parallel Current-Carrying Conductors

1.5 Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux is the total number of lines of force in a magnetic field. Magnetic flux and
magnetic lines of force are synonymous.
The letter symbol for magnetic flux is the Greek letter u (phi).
Magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of electric current in an
electric circuit.









Faradays Demonstration of Electromagnetic Induction.

The weber is the SI unit of magnetic flux.
If the flux linking a angle-turn coil builds up from zero at a rate at which will
induce an average of one volt in the coil, at the end of one second the flux linking
the coil will have a magnitude of one weber.

The unit symbol for weber is Wb.

1.6 Magnetomotive Force
Just an electric current cannot flow in an electric circuit until we connect it to
a voltage source, magnetic flux (magnetic line of force) cannot be established
until a magnetomotive force is produced.

Magnetomotive force in a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of electromotive
force in an electric circuit.
The ampere-turn is the SI unit of magnetomotive force.

The letter symbol for magnetomotive force is .


where is the magnetomotive force in ampere-turns, N is the number of turns of in
the coil, and I is the actual current through the coil in amperes.

Example 1.1 Determine the magnetomotive force in a 50-turn coil that is carrying a
2-A electric current.
Given: N= 50 turns
I = 2 A
Required:
Known:
Solution: ()( )

Answer: 100 ampere-turns

1.7 Reluctance
For a given electric circuit, Ohm discovered a constant proportionality between the
applied voltage and the resulting current. He termed this constant the resistance of
the electric circuit. Similarly, for a given magnetic circuit (of non-ferrous materials),
there is a constant proportionality between the magnetomotive force and the
resulting magnetic flux. This constant is called the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit.
Reluctance in a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of resistance in an electric
circuit.
Reluctance is the opposition of a magnetic circuit to the establishing of magnetic
flux.

The letter symbol for reluctance is .
The SI unit of reluctance is ampere-turns per weber or the reciprocal henry (H
-1
)

u

where is reluctance, is the magnetomotive force in ampere-turns, and u is the
magnetic flux in webers.

Example 1.2 Determine the reluctance of a magnetic circuit if a 50-turn carrying a
2-A electric circuit results in 50 mWb of magnetic flux.
Given: N= 50 turns
I = 2 A
u = 50 mWb
Required:
Known:

u

Solution: ()( )





, ampere turnsweber
Answer: 2000 ampere-turns/weber

1.8 Magnetic Circuit








flux
magnetomotive force (mmf)
reluctance

u

u

CGS MKS
u = flux in maxwells

mmf () = 0.4tNI gilberts
N = no. of turns
I = current in amperes
= reluctance in gilberts/maxwells


l

A

l = length of the magnetic circuit in cm
A = area of the magnetic circuit in cm
2

u = flux in webers ; 1 Wb = 10
8

maxwells
mmf () = NI ampere-turns
N = no. of turns
I = current in amperes
= reluctance in ampere-turns/weber


l

A

l = length of the magnetic circuit in m
A = area of the magnetic circuit in m
2




1.9 Comparison Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits.
Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit





. Flux

2. mmf (ampere-turns)
3. flux | (webers)
4. flux density B

u

Wb/m
2

5. Reluctance
6. Permeance (= 1/reluctance)
7. Reluctivity
8. Permeability (=1/reluctivity)
9. Total mmf = |

+ . . .
. Current

2. emf (volts)
3. current I (amperes)
4. Current density (A/m
2
)

5. Resistance
6. Conductance
7. Resistivity
8. Conductivity
9. Total emf = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + . . . .


1.10 Permeability

Permeance is a measure of the ability of a magnetic circuit to permit the setting up
of magnetic lines of force.
The letter symbol for permeance is

Permeance per unit length and cross-sectional area is called permeability.


Note that permeability is a figure indicating the ability of a material to permit the
setting up of magnetic lines of force , whereas permeance is a measure of the ability
of a given magnetic circuit to permit the setting up of magnetic line of force.

The letter symbol for permeability is the Greek letter .

where is the permeability in webers per ampere-turns or henrys per meter.

Example 1.3 A magnetic circuit is to be created in a metal ring by the use of an
electric current in a toroid winding. The ring has a cross-sectional of 0.25 cm
2
, an
average circumference of 15 cm. and a reluctance of 10
7
H
-1
. Find the permeance of
the rings magnetic circuit. Find also the permeability of the metal ring,
Given: A = 0.25 cm
2

I = 15 cm
= 10
7
H
-1

Required: P

Known: P
m

.
l
A

Solution: P

.

P

.
x

m
(

)(. x

)

. x

H/m
Answer:

and . x

H/m

1.11 Flux Density
Flux per unit cross-sectional area is called flux density.
The letter symbol for flux density is B.

The tesla is the SI unit of flux density.

The unit symbol for tesla is T.


u

where B is flux density in teslas (or webers per square meter), u is the total flux in a
magnetic circuit in weber, and A is the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit in
square meters

Example 1.4 A magnetic circuit is to be created in a metal ring by the use of an
electric current in a toroid winding. The ring has a cross-sectional of 0.25 cm
2
, an
average circumference of 15 cm. and a reluctance of 10
7
H
-1
. If the electric current
produces 2 Wb of magnetic flux in the ring, find the flux density in the metal ring,
Given: A = 0.25 cm
2

l = 15 cm
= 10
7
H
-1

u Wb


Required:
Known:
u

Solution:

. x

. tesla
Answer: . T

1.12 Magnetic Field Strength
Magnetomotive force per unit length is called magnetizing force.
The letter symbol for magnetizing force is H.


From the definition of magnetizing force,

where H is the magnetizing force in ampere-turns per meter, is the
magnetomotive force in ampere-turns, and l is the length of the magnetic circuit
in meters.

Since

u
and

Substituting equations gives

where is permeability in henrys per meter (or webers per ampere-turn for one
meter cube), B is the flux density in teslas (or in webers per square meter), and H
is the magnetizing force in amperes per meter (ampere-turns per meters)

Note: Electrical engineering now refers magnetic field strength (intensity) as the
general term for H (the magnetic counterpart of electric field strength in a
dielectric)

Example 1.5 For the toroidal coil described in example 1.3, find the magnetic field
strength with the metal ring.
Given: A = 0.25 cm
2

l = 15 cm
= 10
7
H
-1

u Wb


Required: H
Known: H

l

Solution: H

. ampere turns per meter
Answer: . ampere turns per meter

1.13 Magnetization Curves
Atoms of ferromagnetic materials possess unique electron orbit patterns that cause
each atom to generate a tiny magnetomotive force called a magnetic moment. These
atoms have the ability to rotate their magnetic axes in groups of some 10
15
(more or
less) adjacent atoms called magnetic domains in response to the applied magnetic
field.













The extent of the magnetization, and thus the permeability of a magnetic core,
depends on the flux density of the applied magnetic field. Even though we can
prepare a graph as shown in Figure 1.1, showing how the permeability of a given
sample of iron varies with flux density, we discover an interdependence which
becomes evident when we arrange the equation

.








Figure 1.1. Manner in Which the Permeability of Cast Steel Varies with Flux Density.
For a given magnetic field strength, the flux density B depends on the permeability
, which, in turn, depends on the flux density B. Such a situation leads to a cut-and
try solution for flux density.
To avoid this situation, we can eliminate one dependent variable by disregarding
permeability and plotting an accurate graph of the manner in which the flux density
in a certain type of iron varies with the magnetic field strength. Since B and H as
units of measurement are both based on a cube with unit dimensions, the
magnetization curve (simply BH curve) depends only on the type of iron and not on
the dimensions of the magnetic circuit.









B

Saturation
Lower knee
Upper knee

or
or u

Figure 1.2 BH Curve for a Typical Cast-Steel Sample.

Most of the magnetization of ferromagnetic cores occurs for applied magnetizing
forces (and resulting magnetic field strengths) between the lower and upper knees
of the magnetization curve of Figure 1.2. In this steep region of the BH curve, the
magnetic axes of the domains are switching to act as closely as possible in the same
direction as the applied magnetic field. As we increase H beyond the upper knee,
note that there is very little increase in flux density. This is due to almost all
domains have finally aligned themselves with the applied magnetic field. We call
this condition saturation of the magnetic core.

























Typical Magnetization Curves

1.14 Hysteresis

Although the BH curve of Figure 1.2 represents the manner in which the flux
density of an unmagnetized sample of iron rises as we increase the value of H, it
does not represent the manner in which the flux density decreases as we decrease
the magnetic field strength. Most magnetic materials have some retentivity. when
the magnetizing force is returned to zero, the residual magnetism of the iron will
produce an appreciable value of flux density. In order to get rid of this residual flux,
it is necessary to pass some current through the solenoid in the opposite direction.
The amount of negative magnetic field strength or magnetizing force required to
demagnetize a particular sample of iron is called a coercive force.















Figure 1.3 . Typical Hysteresis Loop
Figure 1.3 shows the complete cycle of magnetization of a piece of iron as we pass
an alternating current through the solenoid. If we assume that the sample started
from an unmagnetized state, as we increase the current from zero to maximum in
one direction through the solenoid (positive value of H), the flux density increases
along the customary magnetization curve OA. As we reduce the current to zero, the
flux density decreases from saturation to a residual flux density at point B. To bring
the flux density in the iron to zero, we must reverse the current through the coil and
increases it to a value represented by OC. As we now increase the current in this
+B
-B
-H
direction, the iron will again saturate at point D, with the magnetic domains all lined
up in the opposite direction to that represented at point A. Again, as we reduce the
current to zero, the flux density in the iron will bring the flux density to zero at point
F. Increasing the current to its maximum value in the positive direction completes
the cycle by saturating the iron and returning the flux density to point A in the graph
of Figure 1.3.
As shown in Figure 1.3, when H is due to an alternating current, the flux density B in
the ferromagnetic core tends to lag behind the magnetizing force that creates it.
This lagging of the magnetization of iron behind the magnetizing force is called
hysteresis . we call the graph of Figure 1.3 that shows this lag a hysteresis loop.

Hysteresis is due to some of the magnetic domains in a ferromagnetic material not
wanting to return to their orientation and having to be force to do so by a certain
amount of reversed magnetizing force (coercive force). Whenever motion is
accomplished against an opposing force, an energy transfer must take place. This
energy is taken form the source of alternating voltage, which is responsible for the
magnetic domains having to change their orientation, and is transferred to the
molecules of the ferromagnetic material in the form of heat. The higher the
frequency of the alternating current in the solenoid, the more rapidly the magnetic
domains have to change their alignment and, therefore, the greater the hysteresis
loss.
The greater the retentivity of a particular type of iron. The greater the coercive
force that is required to demagnetize it. This means an increased opposition by the
magnetic domains to reorientation, which results in greater transfer of energy into
heat. Therefore, hysteresis loss is also proportional to the retentivity of the iron.
The iron selected for use in the magnetic circuits of transformers which are
continually subject to an alternating mmf should have an absolute minimum
retentivity if hysteresis loss is to be kept at a low value. Consideration of Figure 1.3
will show us that the residual flux density of a sample of iron increases, the area
within the hysteresis loop increases. Therefore, the area within the hysteresis loop
for a given iron sample is a useful indication of its hysteresis loss.

1.15 Leakage flux







Leakage Flux in a Magnetic Circuit

1.16 Air Gaps

The spreading apart of the magnetic lines of force as they cross an air gap is called
fringing. Fringing results in the flux density in the air gap being slightly less than
that in the adjacent iron sections of the magnetic circuit.
If the length of the air gap is small, the fringing is small, and we can make correction
for it in magnetic circuit calculations by assuming that the cross-sectional
dimensions of an air gap are greater than the cross-sectional dimensions of the
adjacent iron by an amount equal to the length of the air gap.








Fringing of Magnetic Lines of Force in an Air Gap.
1.17 Formulas

CGS SYSTEM MKS SYSTEM
Force Between Poles
F

dynes

where

m = pole strength in u.p.
s = distance in cm
= permeability
F

N

where

m = pole strength in ampere-meter
s = distance in meters
= permeability
=

= 4t x 10
-7
Wb/ampere-meter

= relative permeability


Magnetic Field Strength
H

oersted

where

m = pole strength in u.p.
F = force in dynes
= permeability


mm
s

oersted


H

amp-turns/m

H

amp-turns/m

where

F = force in newtons
s = distance in meters
= permeability
=

= 4t x 10
-7
Wb/ampere-meter

= relative permeability


MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Right Hand Rule (or Right Hand Screw Rule)
The direction of the magnetic field can be found by using right hand rule or
the right hand screw rule. The right hand rule states as follows:
Grasp the wire in the right hand, with the thumb opinting in the direction of
the current. The fingers will curl around the wire in the direction of the
magnetic field.

FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR LYING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
When a current-carrying conductor lies in a magnetic field it is subjected to a
mechanical force given by

CGS SYSTEM MKS SYSTEM
F

dynes

where

B = flux density in gauss
I = current in amperes
l = length in cm
u = angle the conductor makes with
the magnetic field

F Isin newtons

where

B = flux density in webers/m
2

I = current in amperes
l = length in meters
u = angle the conductor makes with
the magnetic field


The direction of this force may be easily found by Flemings left hand rule
which states as follows:
Hold your left hand with index finger, middle finger and thumb at right
angles. If the index finger points in the direction of the flux from north to south
and middle finger points in the direction of the imposed voltage and its resulting
conventional current flow, the thumb will point in the direction of the force that
is developed.






Field strength at the center of the circular coil

CGS SYSTEM MKS SYSTEM
H
t

oersted

where

N = number of turns
I = current in amperes
r = radius of coil in cm

H

ampere-turns/m

where

N = number of turns
I = current in amperes
r = radius of coil in meter



Magnetic Field due to a Long Straight Current-Carrying Conductors

CGS SYSTEM MKS SYSTEM
H

oersted

where

I = current in amperes
s = distance from the wire in cm

H

t
ampere-turns/m

where

I = current in amperes
s = distance from the wire in meter

Magnetic Field due to a Long Current-Carrying Straight Solenoid

CGS SYSTEM MKS SYSTEM
H
t

oersted

where

N= no. of turns
I = current in amperes
l = axial length of solenoid in cm

H

ampere-turns/m

where

N= no. of turns
I = current in amperes
l = axial length of solenoid in meter

The same equation is used in determining the field intensity within a toroid.
Simply replace l by the mean circumference of the toroid.

Force between Long Straight Conductors

CGS SYSTEM MKS SYSTEM
F

dynes

where

= permeability
I

and I

= current in amperes
s = distance between conductors in
meters

F

t
newtons
or
F

newtons

where

I

and I

= current in amperes
s = distance between conductors in
meters
l = axial length of solenoid in meter


MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
flux
magnetomotive force (mmf)
reluctance

|

CGS MKS
| = flux in maxwells
mmf () = 0.4tNI gilberts
N = no. of turns
I = current in amperes
= reluctance in gilberts/maxwells


l

r
A

l = length of the magnetic circuit in cm
A = area of the magnetic circuit in cm
2

| = flux in webers
mmf () = NI ampere-turns
N = no. of turns
I = current in amperes
= reluctance in ampere-
turns/weber


l

r
A

l = length of the magnetic circuit in m
A = area of the magnetic circuit in m
2


Comparison Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits.
Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit
. Flux

2. mmf (ampere-turns)
3. flux | (webers)
4. flux density B

|

Wb/m
2

5. Reluctance
6. Permeance (= 1/reluctance)
7. Reluctivity
8. Permeability (=1/reluctivity)
9. Total mmf = |

+ . . .
. Current

2. emf (volts)
3. current I (amperes)
4. Current density (A/m
2
)

5. Resistance
6. Conductance
7. Resistivity
8. Conductivity
9. Total emf = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + . . . .



























Problem Set No. 1
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

1. Draw the magnetic line of force around the conductor below and indicate their
direction.





2. Mark the conventional current direction on the conductor below.






3. Draw the magnetic field around the coil below and indicate its direction.








4. Mark the conventional current direction and draw the magnetic field around the
coil below.






5. What is the reluctance of a magnetic circuit in which a total flux of 2 x 10
-3
Wb is
created by a 5-A current flowing in a solenoid consisting of 200 turns of wire?
6. What current must be passed through a 500-turn solenoid to produce a total flux
of 1.2 mWb in a magnetic circuit whose reluctance is 2 x 10
8
At/Wb?
7. How much turns of wire are there in solenoid if a 500-mA current through it
establishes a total flux of 8 x 10
-4
Wb in a magnetic circuit whose reluctance is 5
x 10
5
At/Wb?
8. What total flux is created in a magnetic circuit whose reluctance is 2.5 x 10
6

reciprocal henrys by a current of 1.2 A flowing in a 500-turn solenoid wound
around the magnetic circuit?
9. The magnetic circuit in No. 5 has a uniform cross-sectional area of 5 cm
2
and an
average path length of 25 cm. What is the permeability of the core material?
10. The core of a solenoid consists of a brass cylinder 10 cm in length and 2 cm in
diameter. What is its reluctance?
11. A piece of iron 10 cm in length and having a rectangular cross section of 1 x 2 cm
has a reluctance of 1.25 x 19
6
At/Wb. What is the permeability of the iron?
12. What is the flux density in the magnetic circuit of problems 5 and 9?
13. Electric current in a solenoid with an inside diameter of 2 cm creates a flux
density inside the solenoid of 0.2 T. What is the total flux inside the solenoid?
14. A uniform magnetic circuit has a path length of 20 cm. what is the magnetizing
force when a 500-mA current flows in an 800-turn coil wound on the magnetic
circuit.
15. A magnetic field strength of 2000 At/m produces a flux density of 1.0 T in a
certain type of iron. What is its permeability at this flux density?
16. The core for a low=loss inductor in a crossover filter is made from a piece of that
plastic stock 6 mm thick and 24 mm wide by 15 cm long formed into a closed
loop, 1200 turns of wire form a toroid winding on this form.
17. A 120-mA current flowing in a 1500-turn toroid winding creates a flux density
of 8 x 10
-4
T in the magnetic core. What is the average path length of the core?


Unit 2

INTRODUCTION TO MACHINERY PRINCIPLES



























1. Learn the basics of rotational mechanics: angular velocity, angular
acceleration, torque, and Newtons law for rotation.
2. Learn how to produce a magnetic field.
3. Understand magnetic circuits.
4. Understand the behavior of ferromagnetic materials.
5. Understand hysteresis in ferromagnetic amterials.
6. Understand Faradays law.
7. Understand how to produce an induced force on a wire.
8. Understand how to produce an induced voltage across a wire.
9. Understand the operation of a simple linear machine.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit,
you are expected to:

2.1 Rotational Motion, Newtons Law, and Power Relationships

Angular position u

The angular position u of an object is the angle at which it is oriented, measured
from some arbitrary reference point. Angular position is usually measured in
radians or degrees.

Angular Velocity e

Angular velocity (or speed) is the rate of change in angular position with respect to
time. It is assumed positive if the rotation is in a counterclockwise direction.
Angular velocity e is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement u with
respect to time.

If the units of angular position are radians, then angular velocity is measured in
radians per second.

The following are used to describe angular velocity:

angular velocity expressed in radians per second

angular velocity expressed in revolution per second

angular velocity expressed in revolution per minute

The subscript on these symbols indicates a mechanical quantity.

These measures of shaft speed are related to each other by the following equations:

Angular Acceleration o

Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity with respect to time. It
is assumed positive if the angular velocity is increasing in an algebraic sense.
Angular acceleration is defined by

If the units of angular velocity are radians per second, the angular acceleration is
measured in radians per second squared.

Torque t

In linear motion, a force applied to an object causes its velocity to change. In the
absence of a net force on the object, its velocity is constant. The greater the force
applied to the object, the more rapidly its velocity changes.

There exists a similar concept for rotation. When an object is rotating, its angular
velocity is constant unless a torque is present on it. The greater the torque on the
object, the more rapidly the angular velocity of the object changes.

What is torque? It can loosely be called the twisting force on an object.
















The torque on an object is defined as the product of the force applied to the object
and the smallest distance between the line of action of the force and the objects axis
of rotation. If r is a vector pointing from the axis of rotation to the point of
application of the force, and if F is the applied force, then the torque can be
described as

t F
Torque is
counterclockwise

F
t = 0
Torque is zero

t = (force applied)(perpendicular distance)
= (F)(r sin u)
= rF sin u

where u is the angle between the vector r and the vector F.

The units of torque are newton-meter in SI and pound-feet in the English system.














Newtons Law of Rotation

Newtons law for objects moving along a straight line describes the relationship
between the force applied to an object and its resulting acceleration. This
relationship is given by the equation

F = ma

where
F = net force applied to an object
m = mass of the object
a = resulting acceleration

In SI units, force is measured in newtons, mass in kilograms, and acceleration in
meters per second squared. In the English system, force in measured in pounds,
mass in slugs, and acceleration in feet per second squared.

F
t = (perpendicular distance)(force)
t = (r sin u)(F), counterclockwise


r sin u
u
A similar equation describes the relationship between the torque applied to an
object and its resulting angular acceleration. This relationship, called Newtons law
of rotation, is given by the equation

t = Jo

where t is the net applied torque in newton-meters or pound-feet and o is the
resulting angular acceleration in radians per second squared. The term J serves the
same purpose as an objects mass in linear motion. It is called the moment of inertia
of the object and is measured in kilogram-meters squared or slug-feet squared.

Work , W

For linear motion, work is defined as the application of a force through a distance.
In equation form,

W =

For the special case of a constant force applied collinearly with the direction of
motion this equation becomes just



The units of work are joules in SI and foot-pounds in the English system.

For rotation motion, work is the application of a torque through an angle. Here the
equation for work is
W = tdu
And if the torque is constant,
tu
Power P
Power is the rate of doing work, or the increase in work per unit time. The equation
for power is

It is usually measured in joules per second (watts), but also can be measured in
foot-pounds per second or in horsepower.
By this definition, and assuming that force is constant and collinear with the
direction of motion, power is given by

() (

)
Similarly, assuming constant torque, power in rotational motion is given by

(tu) t (
u

) t e
t e
This equation is very important in the study of electric machinery, because it can
describe the mechanical power on the shaft of a motor or generator.
The equation is the correct relationship among power, torque, and speed if power is
measured in watts, torque in newton-meters, and speed in radians per second.
It is still common in U.S. engineering practice to measure torque in pound-feet,
speed in revolutions per minute, and power in either watts or horsepower. If the
appropriate conversion factors are included in each term, then the equation
becomes
()
t () ()
.

()
t ( ) ()

where torque is measured in pound-feet and speed is measured in revolutions per
minute.






Problem Set No. 2
ROTATIONAL MOTION, NEWTONS LAW, AND POWER RELATIONSHIPS
1. A motors shaft is spinning at a speed of rmin. what is the shaft speed in
radians per second.
2. A flywheel with a moment of inertia of 4 kgm
2
is initially at rest. If a torque of 6
Nm (counterclockwise) is suddenly applied to the flywheel, what will be the
speed of the flywheel after 5 s? Express the speed in both radians per second
and revolutions per minute.
3. A force of 10 N is applied to a cylinder of radius r = 0.15 m, as shown in Figure
P11. The moment of inertia of this cylinder is J = 4 kgm
2
. What are the
magnitude and direction of the torque produced by the cylinder? What are the
angular acceleration of the cylinder?
4. A motor is supplying 50 Nm of torque to its load. If the motors shaft is turning
at 1500 r/min, what is the mechanical power supplied to the load in watts? In
horsepower?















2.2 Faradays Law Induced Voltage from a Time-Changing Magnetic Field
So far, attention has been focused on the production of a magnetic field and on its
properties. It is now time to examine the various ways in which an existing
magnetic field can affect its surroundings.
The first major effect to be considered is called Faradays law. It is the basis of
transformer operation. Faradays law states that if a flux passes through a turn of a
coil of wire, a voltage will be induced in the turn of wire that is directly proportional
to the rate of change in the flux with respect to time. In equation form,



|

where

is the voltage induced in the turn of the coil and | is the flux passing
through the turn. If a coil has N turn and if the flux passes through all of them, then
the voltage induced across the whole coil is given by



|

where


= voltage induced in the coil
N = number of turns of wire in coil
| = flux passing through coil
The minus sign in the equations is an expression of Lenzs law. Lenzs law states
that the direction of the voltage buildup in the coil is such that if the coil ends where
short circuited, it will produce current that would cause a flux opposing the original
flux change. Since the induced voltage opposes the change that causes it, a minus
sign is included in the equation. To understand this concept clearly, examine Figure
2.1 If the flux shown in the figure is increasing in strength, then the voltage built
up in the coil will tend to establsih a flux that will oppose the incraese. A current
flowing as shown in Figure 2.1b would produce a flux opposing the incraese, so the
voltage on the coil must be built up with the polarity required to drive through that
current throught the external circuit. Since the polarity of the resulting voltage can
be determined from physical considerations, the minus sign is often left out.









(a) (b)
Figure 2.1. The meaning of Lenzs law: (a) A coil enclosing an increasing magnetic flux; (b)
determining the resulting voltage polarity








Figure 2.2 . The core of Example 2.1. Determination of the voltage polarity at the terminals is shown.
Example 2.1 Figure 2.2 shows a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. The flux
in the core is given by the equation.
| .sin Wb
If there are 100 turns on the core, what voltage is produced at the terminals of the
coil? Of what polarity is the voltage during the time when flux is increasing in the
reference direction in the figure? Assume that all the magnetic flux stays within the
core (i.e., assume that the flux leakage is zero).
Solution
|
| | increasing

Direction of opposing flux

+
eind
_


Direction of required




| | = 0.05 sin 377t Wb

Direction of opposing flux

+
eind
_


Direction of required



N = 100 turns
turns
The direction of the voltage while the flux is increasing in the reference direction
must be positive to negative, as shown in the figure. The magnitude of the voltage is
given by

( )

(. sin)
cos
or alternatively

sin( ) V

Eddy Current Loss





A time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic core in just the same
manner as it would in a wire wrapped around the core. These voltages cause swirls
of current to flow within the core, much like the eddies seen at the edges of a river.
It is the shape of these currents that gives rise to the name eddy currents. These
eddy currents are flowing in a resistive material (the iron of the core), so energy is
dissipated by them. The lost energy goes into heating the iron core.
Two possible causes to reduce the eddy current losses in an electric machine:
1. Use laminated core.
2. Increase the resistivity of the core material by adding some silicon to the
steel of the core.


2.3 Production of Induced Force on a Wire








Figure 2.3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field.
A second major effect of a magnetic field on its surroundings is that it induces
a force on a current-carrying wire within the field. The basic concept
involved is illustrated in Figure 2.3. The figure shows a conductor present in
a uniform magnetic field of flux density B, pointing into the page. The
conductor itself is l meters long and contains a current of amperes. the
force induced on the conductor is given by
( )
where
= magnitude of current in wire
= length of wire, with direction of defined to be in the direction of current
flow
B = magnetic flux density vector
The direction of the force is given by the right-hand rule: If the index finger
of the right hand points in the direction of the vector and the middle finger
points in the direction of the flux density vector B, then the thumb points in the
direction of the resultant force on the wire. The magnitude of the force is given by
the equation



F
B


where is the angle between the wire and the flux density vector.

Example 2.2 Figure 2.3 shows a wire carrying a current in the presence of a
magnetic field. The magnetic flux density is 0.25 T, directed into the page. If the
wire is 1.0 m long and carries 0.5 A of current in the direction from the top of the
page to the bottom of the page, what are the magnitude and direction of the force
induced on the wire?

Solution
The direction of the force is given by the right-hand rule as being to the right. The
magnitude is given by

(. )( )(. ) sin .
Therefore,
F = 0.125 N, directed to the right.






2.4 Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving in a Magnetic Field

If a conductor moves or cuts through a magnetic field, voltage will be induced
between the terminals of the conductor at which the magnitude of the induced
voltage is dependent upon the velocity of the wire assuming that the magnetic field
is constant. This can be summarised in terms of formulation as shown:

( )

where:
= velocity of the wire
B = magnetic field density
The induction of a force in a wire by a current in the presence of a
magnetic field is the basis of motor action. Almost every type of motor
depends on this basic principle for the forces and torques which make it
move.

= length of the wire in the magnetic field

Vector points the direction of the wire toward the end making the smalles angle
with respect to the vector . The vector in the wire will be built up so that the
positive end is the in the direction of the vector .


Example 2.3 In Figure 2.4 shows a conductor moving with a velocity of 5 m/s to
the right in the presence of a magnetic field. The flux density is 0.5 T into the page,
and the wire is 1.0 m in length, oriented as shown. What are the magnitude and
polarity of the resulting induced voltage?














Figure 2.4. A conductor moving in the presence of a magnetic field

Solution

The direction of the quantity in this example is up. Therefore, the voltage of
the conductor is up positive at the top with respect to the bottom of the wire. The
direction of vector is up, so that it makes the smalles angle with respect to the
vector .

Since is perpendicular to B and since is parallel to , the magnitude of the
induced voltage reduces to

( )

(sin) cos

e
in
d








(.

) (. )(.)

. V

Thus the induced voltage is 2.5 V, positive at the top of the wire.












Figure 2.5 The conductor in Example 2.4

Example 2.4 Figure 2.5 shows a conductor moving with a velocity of 10 m/s to the
right in a magnetic field. The flux density is 0.5 T, out of the page, and the wire is 1.0
m in length, oriented as shown. What are the magnitude and polarity of the rsulting
induced voltage?

Solution
The direction of the quantity is dwon. The wire is not oriented on an up-down
line, so choose the direction of as shown to make the smallest possible angle with
the direction of . The voltage is positive at the bottom of the wire with respect
to the top of the wire. The magnitude of the voltage is

( )

(sin) cos



(.

) (. )(.) cos






30
. V










2.5 The Linear DC Machine

Linear DC machine is the simplest form of DC machine which is easy to understand
and it operates according to the same principles and exhibits the same behaviour as
motors and generators. Consider the following:










Equations needed to understand linear DC machines are as follows:
1. Production of Force on a current carrying conductor

( )
where
F = force on wire
= magnitude of current in wire
= length of wire, with direction of defined to be in the direction
of current flow
B = magnetic flux density vector

2. Voltage induced on a current carrying conductor moving in a magnetic field

The induction of voltages in a wire moving in a magnetic field is fundamental
to the operation of all types of generators. For this reason, it is called
generator action.

( )

where:

= voltage induced in wire

= velocity of the wire
B = magnetic field density
= length of the wire in the magnetic field


3. Kirchoffs voltage law for this machine.






4. Newtons Law for motion

Fnet = ma













Starting a linear DC machine


2.6 Starting the Linear DC Machine


1. To start the machine, the switch is closed.

2. Current will flow in the circuit and the equation can be derived
from Kirchhoffs law:

At this moment, the induced voltage is 0 due to no movement of the wire (the
bar is at rest).

, so

.



3. As the current flows down through the bar, a force will be induced on the bar.
(Section 1.6 a current flowing through a wire in the presence of a magnetic field
induces a force in the wire).






Direction of movement: Right

4. When the bar starts to move, its velocity will increase, and a voltage appears
across the bar.


Direction of induced potential: positive upwards

5. Due to the presence of motion and induced potential (eind), the current flowing
in the bar will reduce (according to Kirchhoffs voltage law).

As eind increases, the current increases,
6. The result of this action is that eventually the bar will reach a constant steady-
state speed where the net force on the bar is zero. This occurs when eind has
risen all the way up to equal VB. This is given by:


7. The above equation is true assuming that R is very small. The bar will continue
to move along at this no-load speed forever unless some external force disturbs
it. Summarization of the starting of linear DC machine is sketched in the figure
below:


2.7 The Linear DC Machine as a Motor

1. Assume the linear machine is initially running at the no-load steady state
condition (as before).
2. What happen when an external load is applied? See figure below:





3.









A force Fload is applied to the bar opposing the direction of motion. Since the
bar was initially at steady state, application of the force Fload will result in a net
force on the bar in the direction opposite the direction of motion.


4. Thus, the bar will slow down (the resulting acceleration a = Fnet/m is
negative). As soon as that happen, the induced voltage on the bar drops
(eind = v Bl).

5. When the induced voltage drops, the current flow in the bar will rise:


6. Thus, the induced force will rise too. (Find = i lB)

7. Final result : the induced force will rise until it is equal and opposite to the
load force, and the bar again travels in steady state condition, but at a lower
speed. See graphs below:


8. Now, there is an induced force in the direction of motion and power is being
converted from electrical to mechanical form to keep the bar moving.

9. The power converted is Pconv = eindI = Find v . An amount of electric power
equal to eind i is consumed and is replaced by the mechanical power Find v .
Since power is converted from electrical to mechanical form, this bar is
operating as motor.

10. The power converted in a real rotating motor is: Pconv= ind


2.8 The Linear DC Machine as a Generator

1. Assume the linear machine is operating under no-load steady-state condition.
A force in the direction of motion is applied.



2. The applied force will cause the bar to accelerate in the direction of motion,
and the velocity vwill increase.

3. When the velocity increase, eind V Bl will increase and will be larger than
VB.

4. When eind > VB the current reverses direction.

5. Since the current now flows up through the bar, it induces a force in the bar
(Find= ilB to the left). This induced force opposes the applied force on the bar.

6. End result the induced force will be equal and opposite to the applied force,
and the bar will move at a higher speed than before. The linear machine no is
converting mechanical power Find v to electrical power eind i

7. The amount of power converted : Pconv= ind

NOTE:
The same machine acts as both motor and generator. The only difference is
whether the externally applied force is in the direction of motion (generator)
or opposite to the direction of motion (motor).

Electrically, eind> VB in a generator

eind < VB in a motor

Whether the machine is a motor or a generator, both induced force (motor
action) or induced voltage (generator action) is present at all times.

Both actions are present, and it is only thevrelative directions of the external
forces with respect to the direction of motion that determine whether the
overall machine behaves as a motor or as a generator.

The machine was a generator when it moved rapidly and a motor when it
moved more slowly. But, whether it was a motor or a generator, it always
moved in the same direction.

There is a merely a small change in operating speed and a reversal of current
flow.

2.9 Starting Problems with the Linear Machine

A linear machine is shown in Figure 2.6. This machine is supplied by a 250-V
DC source, and its internal resistance is given as about . . (The resistor R
models the internal resistance of a real DC machine, and this is fairly
reasonable internal resistance for a medium-size DC motor.)
At starting conditions, the speed of the bar is zero, so

= 0. The current flow

at starting is

.






Figure 2.6 The linear DC machine with component values illustrating the problem of excessive starting
current

l = 0.5 m
= 0.5 T, directed into the page
0.10
i(t)
250 V
This current is very high, often in excess of 10 times the rated current of the
machine, such current can cause severe damage to a motor. Both real AC and
real DC machines suffer from high-current problems on starting.
How can such damage be prevented? The easiest method for this simple liner
DC machine is to insert an extra resistance into the circuit during starting to
limit the current flow until

build up enough to limit it.

Figure 2.7. A linear DC machine with an extra series resistor inserted to control the starting current.

Example 2.5 The linear DC machine shown in Figure 2.8(a) has a battery voltage of
V, an internal resistance of . , and a magnetic flux density of . T.
(a) What is the machines starting current? What is the steady-state velocity at
no load?
(b) Suppose that a 30-N force pointing to the right were applied to the bar, what
would the steady-state speed be? How much power would the power be
producing or consuming? How much power would the battery be producing
or consuming?
Explain the difference between these figures. Is this machine acting as a
motor or as a generator?
(c) Now suppose a 30-N force pointing to the left were applied to the bar. What
would the new steady-state speed be? Is this machine a motor or a generator
now?
(d) Assume that a force pointing to the left is applied to the bar. Calculate speed
of the bar as a function of the force for value from 0 N to 50 N in 10-N speed.
Plot the velocity of the bar versus the applied force.
(e) Assume that the bar is unloaded and that it suddenly runs into a region
where the magnetic field is weakened to 0.08. how fast will the bar go now?

Solution
(a) At starting condition, the velocity of the bar is 0, so

= 0. Therefore,

.

When the machine reaches steady state,

and . Therefore,

(. )( )

(b) Refer to Figure 2.8b. If a 30-N force to the right is applied to the bar, the final
steady state will occur when the induced force

is equal and opposite to

the applied force

so that the net force on the bar is zero.

Therefore,

( )(. )


The induced voltage

on the bar must be

( )(. )

and the final steady-state speed must be

(. )( )


The bar is producing P = (129 V)(30 A) = 3870 W of power, and the battery
is consuming P = (120 V)(30 A) = 3600 W. the difference between these
two numbers is the 270 W of losses in the resistor. This machine is acting as
a generator.


(c) Refer to Figure 2.8c. This time, the force is applied to the left, and the
induced force is to the right. At steady state,

( )(. )


The induced voltage

on the bar must be

(d) E
(e) E
(f)