Root-mean-square (r.m.s.

) values

The value of an alternating current (and alternating voltage) varies from one
instant to the next and the problem arises of what single value we should
take to describe it.
The root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value is chosen because by using it, many
calculations can be done as they would be for d.c. circuits.
Also, an a.c. ammeter and voltmeter reads the r.m.s. value of the a.c.

Definition for I
rms
and V
rms
:
The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is the value of a direct current
which dissipates the same power in a given resistor as the a.c.
The r.m.s. value of an alternating voltage is the value of a direct
voltage which dissipates the same power in a given resistor as the a.c.
In other words, if the same power P is dissipated in two similar resistors,
one carrying an a.c. and the other carrying a d.c., then the d.c. value is the
r.m.s. of the a.c., i.e. I
dc
= I
rms
.
Hence, if <P> = P,
I
rms
= I
dc
,
V
rms
= V
dc


V
rms
V
dc
<P>
P
I
rms
I
dc
Sinusoidal AC Source
A sinusoidal alternating current can be expressed by the equation
) ft sin( I t sin I I = = 2
0 0
where I is the current at time t,
I
o
is the peak current,
is the angular frequency in rad s
1

Similarly, for a sinusoidal alternating voltage or e.m.f. we may write

t sin E E
0
=
Suppose a sinusoidal p.d. V=V
o
sint is applied across a resistor of resistance R.
The current in the resistor at any instant,
I = V / R
= V
o
sin t / R
= I
o
sin t
Hence both the p.d. and the current vary sinusoidally with the same angular
frequency and they are in phase.













The power dissipated in the resistor
at any instant:
P = I
2
R
= (I
o
sin t)
2
R
= I
o
2
R sin
2
t
= P
o
sin
2
t


From the graph of instantaneous power P vs t,
<P> = P
o
= I
o
V

= I
o
2
R = V
o
2
/ R
i.e., mean power = maximum power
Since <P> =
rms rms
o o o o
V I
2 2
V I
2
V I
= == = = == =

Hence the formulae for mean power can also be written as
<P> = I
rms
V
rms
= I
rms
2
R = V
rms
2
/ R


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Alternating Current



























Transformer
It is a device by which the voltage of an alternating supply may be
changed, i.e. increased or decreased.













An alternating voltage V
P
is applied to the primary coil of N
P
turns.
A changing magnetic field in the core causes an induced emf V
S
in
the secondary coil of N
S
turns (Faradays law).
For ideal transformer,
S
P
P
S
P
S
I
I
N
N
V
V
= =

Transmission of Electrical Energy
One of the problems in the transmission and distribution of electrical energy from
the power station to the consuming loads (households and factories) is the power
loss as joule heating (I
2
R) in the cables.
The solution is to reduce the current I in transfer. This can be done by using
transformers to step up the voltage at which the electrical power is to be
transmitted.















Thus the greater the value of V, the lower the power loss. Hence, electrical
power can be transmitted more economically at high voltage and low current.

The processes of voltage step-up and step-down cannot be achieved with d.c.
supplies.
I
load
P
gen

Cable of resistance R
V
P
load
P
loss
P
gen
= P
load
+ P
loss



P
gen
= I V P
loss
= I
2
R
To reduce P
loss
in the
cable, the transmission
current I must be reduced.
Since the
transmission
current, I is
reduced, for a
steady supply of
Power
Generated, P
gen
,
the transmission
voltage must be
stepped up.
Rectification of a.c.

Rectification is the means by which alternating current is converted
into direct current.
Semiconductor diodes may be used to rectify an a.c.
A semiconductor diode has a low resistance to current flow in one
direction, known as the forward direction, and a high resistance in the
opposite or reverse direction.

Half-wave rectification
The rectifying circuit consists of a diode
in series with the a.c. input and the resistor.
During the positive half cycle, the diode is in
the forward bias connection. It conducts and
having a low resistance, the p.d. across R will
have almost the same value as the applied p.d.
(at a.c. input).
During the negative half cycle, the diode is in
the reverse bias connection and it allows
negligible current to go through R. The p.d.
across R is negligible.