Tharisapalli plates: testify that during

the Kulasekhara period merchant

guilds and trade corporations played a
very significant role in the economy
and social life of the times.
separate during this period.
[58]
For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis, with each province
comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis.
[57]
Later in the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham
Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all kingdoms up to Cochin through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of pre-
eminence in Kerala.
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign
trade in Kerala ports. Buddhism and Jainism disappeared from the land.
[59]
The social system became
fractured with internal divisions on the lines of caste.
[60]
Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in
1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas.
[55]
However, in the 14th century, Ravi
Varma Kulashekhara (12991314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived
supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was
fractured into about thirty small warring principalities; most powerful of them were the kingdom of Samuthiri in
the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the middle. Later in the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree
Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all kingdoms up to Northern Kerala through military conquests,
resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of pre-eminence in Kerala. The Cochin ruler sued for peace
with Anizham Thirunal, Malabar came under direct British rule till Independence.
[61][62]
Colonial era
The monopoly of maritime spice trade in the Indian Ocean stayed with Arabs during the high and late medieval
periods. However, the dominance of Middle East traders got challenged in the European Age of Discovery
during which the spice trade, particularly in black pepper, became an influential activity for European
traders.
[63]
Around the 15th century, the Portuguese began to dominate the eastern shipping trade in general,
and the spice-trade in particular, culminating in Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kappad Kozhikode in
1498.
[64][65][66]
The Zamorin of Calicut permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects. The Portuguese
trade in Calicut prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction
provoked Zamorin and finally led to conflicts between them. The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between Zamorin and king of Kochi; they
allied with Kochi and when Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was at Kochi. During his
reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses in Malabar coast.
[67]
Nonetheless, the Portuguese
suffered severe setbacks from the attacks of Zamorin forces; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Calicut known as Kunjali
Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. In 1571, Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam fort.
[68]