ENGINEERING GEOPHYSICS IN AUSTRALIA:

URBAN CASE STUDIES FROM DOWNUNDER.

Robert J Whiteley, Coffey Geotechnics Pty Ltd, Sydney, Australia
Simon B Stewart, Coffey Geotechnics Pty Ltd, Sydney, Australia
Abstract
Within Australias major coastal cities and urban areas geotechnical engineers are increasingly
applying engineering geophysics for improved site characterisation in civil engineering projects and to
assist with specific problems. Recent case studies from these cities illustrate the application of a variety
of methods to a range of projects. Combining conventional surface geophysics, innovative borehole and
underground geophysics with geotechnical methods increased innovative engineering opportunities and
assisted the solution of specific design, construction and remediation problems for these civil projects.
In Darwin, Vertical Shear Wave Profiling (VSSP), surface-to-borehole seismic tomographic
imaging or Site Uniformity Borehole Seismic (SUBS) Testing combined with Standard Penetration
Testing (SPT) improved the confidence of the designers that fill materials and construction processes for
a new berth construction were meeting specifications and identified problem areas.
The route of pipelines for a desalination plant at the Gold Coast, traversed an old landfill whose
margins were identified with electromagnetic (EM31) profiling. Seismic refraction and Multiple
Analysis of Shear Waves (MASW) imaging on this route showed variable bedrock levels and soft soils
at some locations. This led to the abandonment of shallow tunnel construction in favour of rock
tunnelling a much greater depth.
A heavily contaminated, former steelworks site in the industrial city of Newcastle was to be
remediated by capping and containment on three sides within a soil-bentonite groundwater barrier wall.
Gravity and Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) proved very effective in providing sufficient subsurface
information on rock levels thicknesses of the extensive shallow fill materials for initial design and for
the bid process.
Ground subsidence near the Helipad at Sydney Airport was believed due to groundwater and
sand being drawn into leaking sections of a nearby buried concrete encased sewer. Conventional
drilling, Cone Penetration Testing (CTP) testing and Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) inspection were
combined with innovative seismic imaging from the surface to the sewer (called SEWREEL) to rapidly
define the extent of loosened ground. Following remediation, SEWREEL was used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the remedial works that involved extensive grouting.
Webb Dock, one of Melbournes main container terminals is sited on reclaimed land underlain
by soft to very soft sediments. As a result, settlements and bearing capacity were key issues in the
development of the site. During initial construction, failures occurred in this material, resulting in the
formation of mud waves. The combination of drilling, seismic refraction and SUBS imaging provided
clear indications of the degree of sediment displacement due to construction and was used to calculate
more accurate settlement profiles and improve preloading strategies for future construction.
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A major residential development near Adelaide was proposed adjacent to an old limestone quarry
showing open caves and other major karst features. To better define the subsurface beneath each
allotment drilling near the centre of each proposed house foundation was supplemented by seismic
refraction, SUBS and calibrated with VSP (Vertical Seismic Profiling) and geotechnical logging. This
approach identified areas of weak and potentially voided limestone and assisted safe development.
To the north of Perth a detailed seismic refraction survey on dune sands along the alignment of
proposed shallow waste water tunnel showed highly variable geology, coastal limestones and siliceous
calcarenites with karst features and pinnacles. The area is within sensitive parkland and aboriginal
heritage lands and only limited drilling sites were available. This information was used to estimate the
expected rock-fraction at the tunnel level and the rock mechanics parameter, Q
TBM
. Variable tunnelling
conditions were predicted from seismic with some sections having estimated Q
TBM
values of < 0.1
suggesting tunnelling may be problematic beneath many of the limestone pinnacles to very
problematic with estimated Q
TBM
values of < 0.01.
Downunder, engineering geophysics is alive and well!
Introduction
Australia occupies only 82% of the land area of mainland USA but has a coastline that is some
30% longer. Most Australians, numbering about 20 million or 7% of the US population, live within 80
km of the coast in major cities and urban areas along the eastern seaboard (Figure 1). These regions
generate the bulk of civil engineering geophysics projects for new construction or replacement of aging
infrastructure, notably tunnels, that involve significant engineering geophysics (e.g. Whiteley
2005).Australia is also a large mineral, agricultural and energy exporter and the current commodity
boom has accelerated ports and harbour development works, sometimes in relatively remote areas
outside of the major cities. Shallow marine engineering geophysics is extensively used on these projects
(e.g. Whiteley and Stewart, 2007).
Australian geophysicists are probably more widely recognised for their expertise in mineral
exploration geophysics, principally with electrical, electromagnetic and airborne geophysics but are now
expanding this expertise to near-surface problems associated with soil contamination (Whiteley, 1995)
and civil engineering (Whiteley, 2003). From a historical perspective, the development of near-surface
geophysics in Australia was accelerated during the late 1920s and early 1930s with the extended visit
to Australia by the Imperial Geophysical Experimental Survey from Great Britain (Edge and Laby,
1931). At about the same time similar advances were also occurring in the USA (e.g. AIME, 1929-34).
Throughout the 1940s to 60s most engineering geophysics was done by the Federal Bureau of Mineral
Resources, the forerunner of Geoscience Australia, and increasingly by State Geological Surveys and
Government Organisations, principally Highways Departments using mainly seismic refraction and
resistivity. Dams, rail and roads were the major focus with notable engineering geophysics carried out
during the Snowy Mountains Hydropower Project (Svenson and Bowering, 1963). This was a complex
world-class engineering project (ASCE , 2007) modelled on the Tennessee Valley Authority and was the
major engineering project in Australia during the 1940s to 70s. Since the 1970s most civil
engineering geophysics in Australia has been delivered by local industry, single operators, small
companies and increasingly by large geotechnical engineering companies or by imported expertise for
specific projects as part of the activities of Global Companies. Engineering geophysics is also
undertaken in many Australian mines, principally coal (e.g. Hatherly et al., 2005).
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Currently, many Australian geotechnical engineers see engineering geophysics as part of an
integrated process aimed at improving the accuracy of site characterisation and the quality of
constitutive geotechnical models as illustrated schematically in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Contributors to Geotechnical Models
To demonstrate what is happening Downunder, selected case studies of some recent engineering
geophysical projects undertaken for civil works in major Australian cities are presented.
Case Study 1: Wharf Construction, Darwin Port
Over recent years, Darwin Port, in Australias north, has been continually upgraded to
accommodate larger cargo vessels and increasing vessel movements. The wharfs are often constructed
with locally available compacted, gravelly fill, essentially a crushed lateritic gravel. This is constrained
by high sheet-pile walls to accommodate daily tidal variations of up to 7m. During construction
problems were being experienced from differential settlement of this fill that required improved methods
for assessing the effectiveness of the compaction works other than Standard Penetration Testing (SPT).
Vertical Seismic Shear Wave Profiling (VSSP, Whiteley et al. 1990) was used to provide in-situ P
and S-wave seismic velocities at regular intervals in PVC-cased boreholes 9 to 13m deep for correlation
with measured SPT values and supported by P-wave Seismic Tomographic Imaging (STI) using Site
Uniformity Seismic Testing (SUBS) or Walkaway VSP method (Whiteley, 2000) to examine lateral and
vertical variability of fill materials away from the boreholes and to provide information on the influence
of tidal fluctuations.
For the VSSP, a downhole 4-component geophone probe (1V, 3H at 120) was successively
coupled to the hole wall with an inflatable packer at 1m depth intervals. P-wave signals are generated by
summed sledgehammer blows on a metal plate located 1m from the collar of the borehole.
Horizontally polarised S-waves were generated by alternatively striking opposite ends of a wooden
plank. This was centred at the borehole, approximately 2 m from the collar and weighted with a vehicle
or excavator bucket. The two seismic records obtained from impacting both ends of the plank were
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compared and the resulting S-waves of opposite polarisation were identified from the polarity reversals
of the seismic traces. After correction for the source-offset distances from the borehole, the arrival times
measured were used to compute average seismic velocities and interval velocities. For the STI an oil-
filled, hydrophone array with detectors effectively at 1m intervals was deployed down each borehole
and impact seismic sources were placed on a surface along a scan line at intervals between 1 and 5 m to
a maximum 25m from the borehole. The borehole was filled with water to maintain acoustic coupling to
the surrounding fill.
Figure 2 shows the seismic image, interval S-wave velocities and measured SPT N-values
obtained along on one scan line through three closely spaced boreholes. This is typical of the
information obtained at this site.
Figure 2: SPT N-values, interval borehole S-wave velocities and P-wave seismic image
The P-wave STI (Figure 2) shows higher velocity thin layer near 0m approximately
corresponding with the higher S-wave velocities and SPT values encountered in the boreholes. Near -
2m the P-wave velocities increase rapidly in response to tidal outflow at the time of the seismic surveys
as pore pressures are decreasing. This draining process does not occur uniformly across the area imaged
due to permeability variations within the fill. For example, on Figure 2 the higher P-wave velocities in
BH4 below about -4m relative to the other borehole probably indicates increased clay content.
From the interval S-wave velocities SPT N-values were predicted using the line-of-best-fit (Line
A) to similar data from other sites as shown in Figure 3 (from Whiteley et al. 1990) and compared with
the measured SPT N-values.
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Figure 3: Relationship between N-value and S-wave velocity
Table 1 compares the measured and predicted N-values in these boreholes using Figure 3.
Table 1: S-wave velocity at depth with measured and predicted SPT N-values.
Borehole Mid-level
(m)
Measured
S-wave
velocity
(m/s)
Measured
SPT N-
value
Predicted
SPT N-
value
(Figure 3)
BH 2 1.6 110 5
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0.1 255 16 28
-0.9 143 7 8
-1.9 102 6 4
-2.9 165 6 11
-3.9 187 5 15
-4.9 190 5 15
-5.9 193 3 16
-6.9 277 11 34
BH 4 1.6 107 5
0.9 274 47 33
-0.2 370 33 64
-1.2 280 11 35
-2.2 179 7 13
-3.2 185 5 14
-4.2 157 5 10
-5.2 106 6 5
-6.2 193 5 16
BH 5 1.5 110 25* 5
-0.3 138 9 8
-1.3 214 15 19
-2.3 129 8 7
-3.3 156 4 10
-4.3 190 7 15
-5.3 193 7 15
-6.3 108 5 5
-7.3 195 8 16
-8.3 123 8 6
-9.3 123 5 6
* Affected by Water Replacement test
The trends of measured and predicted N-values are similar, however, the measured N-values indicate
mainly loose (N<10) materials whereas the predicted N-values from S-wave velocities are generally
higher indicating mainly medium dense (N=10-30) fill materials with some loose intervals. This
generally occurred throughout the test area and indicated that the SPT testing was underestimating
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compaction in the fill, much to the relief of the construction contractor, but there were still some loose
zones. These were addressed with improved the construction practice.
The integrated application of geophysics and SPT improved the confidence of the designer that the
fill materials and construction processes were meeting specification and for identifying problem areas.
Case Study 2: Desalination Plant, Gold Coast
After more than 10 years of prolonged drought in Australia a large number of seawater
desalination plants are being urgently planned or constructed to relieve severe water shortages in the
growing coastal cities.
At Tugun, in the Gold Goast resort city about 85 km south of Brisbane, a 122 Ml/day
desalination plant is currently under construction. The area is generally flat, low-lying land that has
been filled. The plant site and initial section of the pipeline route crosses an old domestic landfill
comprising from 4 to 6m of non-compacted domestic waste, but its actual margins were not well
defined. An initial geotechnical investigation recorded dune sand immediately beneath waste or topsoil.
The sand is locally loose to medium dense, generally becoming dense to very dense with irregular
cementation and underlain by firm to stiff sandy clay or dense clayey sand. These deeper estuarine
deposits are between 16m and 28m below ground level and overlie residual soils or extremely weathered
bedrock. The bedrock is weakly metamorphosed arenite, consisting of a laminated clayey, medium
grained sandstone, interbedded with or grading into argillite, a sandy mudstone.
Hammer seismic refraction and MASW testing were selected to investigate the subsurface
conditions along the land section of the proposed shallow intake and outlet pipeline routes from the plant
site and supplemented by EM31 profiling to locate the landfill margin.
Figure 4 shows combined interpreted seismic sections and EM31 conductivity profile obtained
along about 500m of the alignment from the proposed plant site.
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Figure 4: Interpreted EM31 profile with seismic refraction and MASW images.
The EM 31 profile clearly shows the margin of landfill where bulk conductivities decrease
abruptly. The seismic refraction tomographic image shows low seismic velocities associated with the
fill and less saturated sands. The irregular surface of the higher velocity arenite (>3000m/s) that was
encountered in BHT3 is also observed. The intermediate dipping interface where P-wave velocities
rapidly exceed 1500 m/s generally marks the watertable that is depressed due to draining and pumping
of leachate beneath the landfill from about Ch. 700 to 1000m. The interpreted MASW section also
shows higher S-wave velocities over the shallower arenite from Ch. 500 to 700m and low velocities
(<300m/s) in the dune sands and landfill.
Based on this information trenched or soft ground tunnelling options were abandoned in favour
of a rock tunnel at depths exceeding about 40m.
Case Study 3: Environmental Containment Barrier, Newcastle
Newcastle is an industrial city located near major coal resources, some 160 km north of Sydney.
For over 130 years a former steelmaking plant site housed copper smelters, steelworks and ancillary
operations. Steelworks wastes (slag) were used to fill much of the site and numerous buried foundations
and structures remain after demolition in 1999. The oldest, most polluted part of the site occupies 30 Ha
(75 acres) adjacent to the Hunter River. It was decided that the preferred remediation strategy was
capping and containment on three sides within a soil-bentonite (SB) groundwater barrier wall with the
riverfront remaining open for future development as a container port. Although this remediation
technology is well known with over 30 years experience from sites in the USA, this project was
challenging as the barrier wall was 1.5 km long and over 50m deep, making it one of the deepest in the
world (Ryan and Spaulding, 2007).
Originally the site was a swamp, within a flood plain of the Hunter River. Soft alluvial and
estuarine sediments extend from less than 10 m to more than 40 m depth. These sediments overlie a
highly irregular eroded bedrock incised by numerous palaeochannels, gullies and undulations developed
within the interbedded sandstone, siltstone, shale and coal bedrock sequences. Industrial development
and extensive filling has raised the site several metres above sea level.
The general geotechnical model for the site, developed from limited borehole information,
recognised six stratigraphic units each with significantly different engineering properties (Table 2).
Table 2: Stratigraphic units at the containment site.
Unit Origin Description Comments
A Fill
Mixture and layers of ash, slag, gravel and
sand. Generally coarse grained and non-
cohesive. May contain buried steel, concrete
and timber
Used to raise site levels and
reclaim land. Difficult
drilling and excavation at
many locations
B
Estuarine /
alluvial
Sandy clay and silt with organics, very soft to
stiff . Usually underlain by Silty sand and
clayey sand with organics and shells, very
loose to loose
Pre-development surface of
mangrove swamp.
Compressible and possible
Acid Sulfate Soils
C Alluvial
Sand, clean sand, medium dense to very dense,
some very loose to loose lenses
Probably the founding
material for many of the
existing driven piles
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D
Estuarine /
alluvial
Clay, grey, stiff to hard
Variable in extent, soil type
and thickness
E
Residual
rock
Clay, mottled grey and brown, very stiff to
hard
Weathered in-situ rock,
often thin or absent due to
earlier erosion
F Bedrock
Interbedded sandstone, siltstone and claystone,
extremely to highly weathered, very low to
medium strength
Possible founding material
for end-bearing driven piles
in some areas
It was recognised that with this degree of subsurface complexity and only a limited number of
available drilling sites that any geotechnical model would be greatly simplified and geophysics would be
needed to improve it as a basis for bidding and construction. Gravity and Electrical Resistivity Imaging
(ERI) were applied to map the bedrock surface in the vicinity of the proposed barrier wall and to provide
information on the fill and sediment section.
Figure 5 is a 600m long residual gravity profile along one side of the barrier wall. This was
interpreted with a 2.5D model and shows a number of gravity lows with maximum amplitude of about -5
mgl, clearly reflecting the irregular bedrock topography.
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Figure 5: Interpreted residual gravity profile along one side of the barrier wall.
From Table 2 and borehole information a generalised subsurface density distribution with 4
layers was developed from the gravity interpretation (Table 3).
Table 3: Densities from gravity interpretation.
Layer Unit Density range
(t/m
3
)
Description
1 A 2.40 2.45* Fill, slag etc.
2 B,C 1.35 1.54 Sediments
3 D,E 1.62 1.72 Deep clayey sediments, residual
rock
4 F 2.43 2.83 Bedrock, very dense material
* equivalent layer
A substantial density contrast exists between the sediments and the bedrock. It was recognised
that the shallow slag and fill layer (Layer 1) could not be accurately mapped with the gravity and this
was essentially represented as an equivalent layer in Table 3 to minimise its influence and allow the
bedrock surface to be more accurately mapped. Also the gravity interpretation could not distinguish the
different sediment types (Units B and C) or the deeper clayey sediments from the residual rock (Units D
and E) because of the small density differences between these Units.
Figure 6 is an inverted dipole-dipole array resistivity image close to the gravity profile extending
from about Ch-80m to Ch 400m (Figure 5). This was obtained with 5m and 10m electrode spacings and
shows good general agreement with the gravity interpretation.
Figure 6: Inverted resistivity image from Ch. -80 to Ch. 400m (Figure 5).
A summary of the resistivity interpretation is provided in Table 4.
Table 4: Summary of the resistivity interpretation.
Layer Unit Resistivity
(ohm m)
Description
1a
1b
A 5 20
30 - 200
Fill
Slag
2 B,C < 10 Saline and brackish water-filled
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sediments
3 D,E 30 150 Residual, weathered rock
4 F > 150 Bedrock
Resistivity provided additional information on the shallow resistive slag fill layer and the
saturated sediments filled with saline and brackish groundwater as there are large electrical contrasts
between these materials. The more resistive slag layer varies considerably in depth and thickness across
the site (Figure 6). The resistivity interpretation did not, however define the deeper palaeochannels as
these extended to beyond the investigation depth of the method.
At this difficult site, the geophysical investigation proved very effective in providing sufficient
subsurface information for initial design of the barrier wall and for the construction bid process.
Case Study 4: Surface Subsidence, Sydney Airport
In late 2003, ground surrounding the Helipad at Sydney Airport was subsiding, posing a hazard
to airport operations. Plans showed that a 750mm diameter, concrete encased sewer sub-main traverses
the Helipad at a depth of about 6m. Internal Closed Circuit TV (CCTV) inspection revealed pipe
settlement and cracking near the Helipad and the ground subsidence was believed due to groundwater
and sand being drawn into the leaking sewer sections.
Urgent subsurface investigations were undertaken that more fully define the ground conditions
around and above the sewer and the extent of the disturbed and voided ground. These included
boreholes, electric friction Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) and SEWREEL seismic imaging. SEWREEL
(Whiteley, 2001) is a seismic transmission tomography method that tests the dynamic elastic properties
of earth and materials between a buried conduit and the ground surface. A hydrophone array with
closely spaced detectors is deployed from a manhole and positioned along the invert of the sewer. The
hydrophone array detects seismic first arrivals from a sledgehammer source impacting a steel plate
placed on the ground surface at different locations along the alignment and above the array. Delays in
seismic arrivals producing decreased seismic velocities occur when the soils above or beside the conduit
are loose, or voided, or have become unsaturated. All of these situations will be caused by infiltration of
fluids and soil into a leaking sewer main. The information obtained from SEWREEL may also be
correlated with other geotechnical test results.
Boreholes and CPT located a dense sand layer 2.5m to 7m thick immediately below the ground
surface. Below this and above the sewer level medium dense sands, then dense sands extend to below
the level of the sewer. At some CPT sites from about 3.5m to 6.5m depth there are very loose zones up
to 3m thick. Friction ratios indicate that this material was relatively clayey, however, at such low cone
resistances classification is difficult and the material could also be very loose, silty sand. Such relatively
loose/soft bands may be poorly compacted backfill or loosened materials caused by infiltration to the
sewer.
Standing groundwater level at the airport is generally relatively shallow at about 2m depth,
however, groundwater levels monitored in the boreholes and CPTs showed groundwater levels in the
subsidence area ranged from about 4.5m to >6.8m depth indicating that the sewer was locally lowering
the watertable.
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Figure 7 shows the SEWREEL seismic image obtained along the line of the active sewer main.
Table 5 (Whiteley, 2001) summarises correlations of seismic velocities with engineering properties in
non-saturated, sandy soils. The SEWREEL image shows that seismic velocity features extend beyond
the visible subsidence region. It was considered unlikely that the loosened zones extended more than
about 5m from either side of the line of the sewer.
Figure 7: SEWREEL seismic image of subsidence area.
Table 5: Correlation of Seismic velocity with engineering properties in sandy materials.
Geotechnical
Classification
Seismic Velocity
(Km/s)
Velocity
Classification
Very loose <0.35 to 0.43 very low
Loose 0.43 to 0.52 low
Medium dense 0.52 to 0.73 moderate
Dense 0.73 to 1.68 high
very dense >1.68 very high
Ground improvement works were undertaken to improve the foundation and rectify the loosened
and voided soils overlying the sewer. To achieve a cost-effective solution meeting the imposed site
restrictions, combinations of different ground improvement works were designed to support the sewer,
fill voids and loose sand layers and reinstate the ground surface. The ground improvement works
(Waddell and Whiteley, 2007) extended from Manhole A to Manhole B (Figure 7), included vegetation
stripping and topsoil removal to a depth of about 1m, construction of deep soil mix columns and
dynamic compaction. Deep soil mix columns were constructed to a depth of 0.5m below the invert level
of the sewer with the intention of forming a cradle to support the sewer. A pair of relatively short
columns (3.5m long) were constructed in the sections further than 7.5m from the manholes and not
under the helipad, and the soils above were dynamically compacted with a weight, dropped from a
crane.
Following the remedial works further SEWREEL testing was completed over the same interval
and the results integrated with data from the remedial works and monitored groundwater levels. Figure
8 shows the combined results on long sections with seismic image section from the post remediation
SEWREEL tests and a comparison of the seismic velocities before and after remedial works, normalised
against seismic velocity before remedial works and expressed as a percentage.
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Figure 8: Comparison of Pre-and Post Remediation SEWREEL Images
In the post-remedial treatment section seismic velocities have increased very substantially
(>35%) beneath the helipad and roadway. Velocities also increased substantially (up to 35%) in the
section between Manhole A and the helipad. Modest increases in seismic velocity (up to about 15%)
were obtained in the section between the helipad and the roadway. No remedial works were carried out
in the section beyond Manhole A where seismic velocity increased by a modest amount (to about 15% ).
However, the velocities in the pre-remediation testing were relatively low and the increase may be the
result of influences of rising groundwater table and near surface compaction due to construction traffic.
No change in seismic velocity was detected to any significant extent between Manhole A and Manhole
Y (Figure 8) to where no remedial works were undertaken. The regions of very substantial increase in
seismic velocity (>35%) generally correspond to the regions where longer columns and four rows of
columns were constructed. Areas of substantial and modest increase (<35%) generally correspond to
areas where two rows of shorter columns were constructed, together with dynamic compaction. The
contrast in seismic velocity between the two regions is believed to be a result of the significant
difference in volume of cemented material. In those regions where the shorter columns were used
together with dynamic compaction, the substantial and modest increases in velocity indicate that the
remedial work has improved the average density of the soils and will reduce the potential for ongoing
settlement and sink hole formation of the ground surface. Groundwater levels monitored during the
previous investigations (prior to remedial works) and subsequently in piezometers in the vicinity of the
lined section of the main indicate that groundwater levels rose from about 6m depth to about 3m depth
within three months of the completion of remedial works. An assessment of average grout usages for
various types of columns indicates that the average grout volume used for columns penetrating to below
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the sewer was generally lower than the average for the outer rows of columns. The average grout
volume for the longer columns under the helipad and near the manholes was lower than the average for
the shorter columns. Based on the above, the grout usage appears to be partly process related, rather than
entirely due to variations in ground conditions. Grout quantities significantly greater than the average
are likely to be indicative that the column sizes have increased as a result of loose soils or voids. There
was some correlation between relatively high grout usages and low seismic velocity regions observed in
the original SEWREEL testing.
This case study demonstrates the practical application of innovative geophysics, SEWREEL,
combined with conventional subsurface investigation techniques that indicated loose areas at point
locations. SEWREEL rapidly provided broader scale information to assist in the ground characterisation.
The information was used to assess the extent of impact of a leaking sewer on the overlying soils and
confirmed that surface subsidence and sink holes were surface features of an extensive area of loosened
ground. The method was then extended to evaluating the effectiveness of remedial works. In the case of
grouted sections, the contrast was substantial between pre and post remedial works. In the case of lesser
grouting and the use of dynamic compaction the contrast was less but still measurable. The site has not
undergone further subsidence since the remediation was completed.
Case Study 5: Land reclamation Webb Dock, Melbourne
Webb Dock has been developed is one of Melbournes main container terminals with substantial
expansion over the past 10 years. The land required for the Webb Dock terminal has been formed by
reclamation from Port Phillip Bay. The Dock itself is underlain by soft to very soft compressible
sediments of the Yarra River Delta. The upper material, known as Coode Island Silt, has an extremely
low strength and is highly compressible. As a result settlements and bearing capacity have been key
issues in the development of the site.
In order to complete recent terminal upgrades at Berth 5 an additional 100,000m
2
area had to be
reclaimed. This required placement of approximately 600,000m
3
of fill. During initial construction of
the bund walls that bounded the area to be reclaimed failures occurred in the Coode Island Silt resulting
in the formation of mud waves. Following construction, a reclamation strategy was required that
minimised the risk of damage to the walls due to the formation of additional mud waves and also
reduced displacements of the Silt during the reclamation operations. A filling strategy consisting of
multiple smaller cells was developed that limited the Silt displacement. Following construction a
geotechnical investigation including survey applied seismic refraction and SUBS imaging from the
boreholes was carried out to assess the as constructed subsurface profile.
Figure 9: Seismic image obtained at the Webb Dock reclamation site.
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Figure 9 shows the seismic image obtained along a 100m section of the reclamation site using
the combination of refraction and SUBS in each of the 4 boreholes shown. Each borehole penetrated the
soft reclaimed Coode Island Silt and was terminated when the stiffer clay of the Fishermans Bend
Formation was encountered at depth. This image, that was typical of the site, shows the base of the
reclaimed soils is located near the 1.0km/s velocity contour. This interface is quite irregular. The
deeper interface between the Coode Island Silt and the Fishermans Bend Formation. lies near the
1.6km/s velocity contour. The variable thickness low velocity layer near the surface represents the
recently reclaimed soils in which the mud waves were forming and thicker low velocity materials
between BH5 and BH16 represents a mud wave in which trapped air has lowered the seismic velocity.
This problem typically where the 1.0 km/s velocity contour shallowed rapidly in much the same way as
water waves form at a beach.
The combination of drilling and seismic imaging provided a clear indication throughout the site
of the degree of Coode Island Silt displacement as a consequence of bund wall construction. This as
constructed subsurface profile was then used to calculate settlement profiles across the site which took
into account the varying subsurface conditions and to develop preloading strategies for future
developments at the site.
Case Study 6: Residential development on karst limestone, Adelaide.
A major residential development was proposed on elevated ground adjacent to an old limestone
quarry near the city of Adelaide. Inspection of the quarry revealed open caves and other major karst
features. Initial geophysical screening of the area with ERI discovered a number of possible likely
cavities but did not provide information that could be easily correlated with geotechnical properties nor
sufficient detail on the actual ground conditions beneath each allotment. Geotechnical information from
limited drilling showed that the site was overlain by a layer of natural soils approximately 4-10m thick
and variably weathered siltstone and limestone with voids. Given these conditions it was decided that
further drilling near the centre of each proposed house foundation would be supplemented by SUBS
testing and calibrated with vertical seismic profiling (VSP) and geotechnical logging of each borehole.
SUBS was aimed at extending the radius of investigation of the borehole. Surface seismic refraction
was also completed to assist interpretation of the borehole seismic data.
Typically resolution of SUBS is 2 m vertically and varies from 2 m horizontally near the collar
of the borehole hole 5 m at the greatest source distance along the scan line. The results from two areas
are presented to demonstrate the range of conditions encountered. In the seismic images shown on
Figures 10 and 11 the upper layer is typically a dark blue colour and its approximate base has been
indicated with a dashed line representing the upper surface of mainly rock materials. Below this level
the seismic images are typically green to red representing the rock materials. Table 6 provides a
correlation of the seismic velocities with the geological conditions encountered in the boreholes. In
general the subsurface conditions as observed by the transmitted seismic waves can be described in two
layers of differing seismic velocity. The upper layer has a low seismic velocity in the range 0.2 to 0.9
km/s and represents soils, sandy clay and XW-DW siltstone. Beneath this layer is a higher velocity,
variable layer with velocities in the range of 0.7 to 4.8 km/s representing siltstone and limestone rock
with possible cavities.
Table 6: General correlation at boreholes
Borehole Seismic Depth Velocity Geology
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Layer (m) (km/s)
SP3 1 0-4 0.2-0.9 Soil, sandy clay
2 4-30 0.7-3.2 Interbedded
siltstone/limestone with
voids
SP5 1 0-9 0.2-0.9 Clay, XW-DW
siltstone/limestone
2 9-31 1.0-4.8 Calcareous
siltstone/limestone
XW - extremely weathered; DW - distinctly weathered
Figure 10: SUBS seismic image from SP5.
In Figure 10 the seismic velocities within the rock materials are all relatively high and there is no
indication of extensive lower velocity regions indicative of possible cavities on this section. Similar
conditions were encountered on the orthogonal image that is not shown so this allotment was released
for development.
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Figure 11: SUBS Image from SP3.
Voids were encountered in SP3 and the seismic image shows that low velocity zones extend
through the borehole and across a large portion of the imaged area. Again similar features were observed
on the orthogonal image and development on this allotment was not recommended without additional
geotechnical investigation and possible ground treatment.
Throughout the development area the combination of drilling supplemented by the geophysical
testing identified areas of weak and potentially voided limestone. Based on these results the residential
allotments and development plans were modified and this development was approved by regulatory
authorities.
Case Study 7: Wastewater Tunnel, Perth
A detailed seismic refraction survey was completed along the alignment of proposed 2.5m
diameter shallow waste water tunnel that extends some 6km from the urban area to the proposed
treatment plant. The site is near the coast about 40km north of Perth in highly variable geology, mainly
coastal limestones and siliceous calcarenites with karst features and pinnacles, generally buried beneath
dune sands. As the area is within sensitive parkland and aboriginal heritage lands only limited sites
were available where drilling was permitted.
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Figure 12: Interpreted seismic refraction image along part of the tunnel route.
Figure 12 shows the refraction seismic image of approximately 500m of the alignment with two
boreholes (BH7 and BH8). Voids and high levels of core loss were encountered in these holes and in
most of the holes along the alignment. In these variable materials, construction of geological cross-
sections from widely spaced boreholes is not meaningful.
Table 7, that has been derived from the literature and experience in similar areas, lists the range
of seismic velocities that can be expected in materials occurring at this site. It can be seen that different
materials may have similar seismic velocities so it may be difficult to distinguish these from seismic
velocity alone, however, there is a general increase in velocity with decreasing weathering and
increasing rock strength. Rocks with seismic velocity less than 2.0 km/s typically have a UCS less than
1 to 10 MPa and could represent a range of the different materials at this site.
Table 7: Expected seismic velocities in site materials.
Material Seismic Velocity (km/s)
Sands 0.2 0.8
Gravels, Cemented Sands 0.9 2.4
Limestone/sandstone 1.8 4.0
Siliceous Calcarenite 2.0 4.5
Boulders/Broken Rock in Sand 0.7 3.0
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The seismic image in Figure 12 was obtained using WET (Schuster and Quintus-Bosz, 1993) and
a smoothed initial model. This shows a highly irregular subsurface velocity distribution with velocities
generally increasing with depth from about 200m/s to about 2500m/s. This range is consistent with the
sandy/gravelly soils and calcarenite rock encountered in the boreholes (Table 7). While abrupt material
property changes were encountered in the boreholes, these have been smoothed on the seismic image.
Mainly sandy soil conditions with some calcarenite layers near the surface are represented on the
seismic images by velocities in the range of about 200 to 1000m/s. As the rock fraction and possibly the
rock strength increases the seismic velocities also increase. There is a relatively rapid velocity increase
near 1000 m/s suggesting a transition from mainly soil to mainly rock. The 1000m/s seismic velocity
contour has been dashed on these seismic image sections. This is taken as the approximate bedrock level
and marks the approximate level at which the rock fraction, in a mixed material, increases to more than
50%. Within the mainly rock section (seismic velocities >1000m/s) there is clear evidence of higher
velocity limestone pinnacles. The seismic velocity at the proposed tunnel level is also highly variable
suggesting that variable quality rock and sand fill voids will be encountered in the lower velocity areas.
The average-time equation (Wyllie et al., 1958) allows the expected rock fraction at the tunnel level to
be estimated from the interpreted seismic velocity i.e.
V
a
= f/V
1
+ (1 f)/V
r
..(1)
Where,
V
a
= the average seismic velocity over a given interval of mixed material being in this case sandy soil
and calcarenite rock,
f = the fraction of soil in this interval having a seismic velocity V
1
,
V
r
= the rock velocity
From the seismic image sections a typical average sandy/gravelly soil velocity (V
s
) would be
about 600 m/s and a typical very strong calcarenite velocity (V
r
) would be about 4500 m/s. Using these
velocities and Eqn. (1), the average seismic velocity may be computed for differing fractions of soil
material over a given interval of the subsurface with a general description of the materials. Table 8 lists
the estimated rock fraction at the tunnel level.
Table 8: Estimated rock fraction and interpretation at tunnel level.
Approx.
Rock
Fraction (f)
Average
Seismic
Velocity(V
a
)
m/s
Dominant
Colours on
Seismic Image
Interpretation
0% - 50% 200 - 1000 Black to blue Mainly sandy soils with gravels
and/or very low to low strength
calcarenite with voids
50% - 70% 1100 1400 Blue to blue
green
Mixed sandy soil and rock and/or
low to moderate strength
calcarenite with voids
70% - 80% 1500 - 1900 Green Moderate to high strength
calcarenite with voids
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80% - 90% 2000 - 2500 Yellow Moderate to high strength
calcarenite with some voids
The average seismic velocity on the seismic image sections may also be correlated with expected
tunnelling conditions for feasibility and preliminary design but is not intended for final design without
further calibration. Using rock mechanics and geotechnical parameters Barton (2000) developed the
rock classification or Q-system to assist tunnelling in jointed and faulted rock and has also provided
(Barton,1996) a correlation of Q with seismic velocity in rock containing discontinuities. While this
situation is not exactly equivalent to the geological conditions encountered in the boreholes along this
tunnel alignment, variable strength voided calcarenite with intervening sand layers and filled voids can
be expected to have similar seismic P-wave velocity characteristics to rock with soil filled fractures.
Bartons (1996) equation is,
Log Q = V
a
3.5 km/s . (2)
where V
a
is the average P-wave velocity of the mixed material containing sand filled voids and rock.
Barton (1999) also derived a similar parameter specifically from Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs,
Q
TBM
) again from rock mechanics. This parameter spans six orders of magnitude from 0.001 to 1000
and can be related to the relatively difficulty of ground for TBM use. Table 9 (from Barton, 1999, Fig.
4) lists these parameters.
Table 9: Relative difficulty of ground for TBM use (Barton, 1999).
Q
TBM
Relative Difficulty of Ground for TBM Use
0.001 0.01 Very problematic
0.01 0.1 May be problematic
0.1 1.0 Fair/Good
1.0 10 Very good
10 - 100 Good/Fair
100 - 1000 Tough
Eqn. 2 may be applied to compute Q
TBM
for a range of average seismic velocities as listed in Table 8.
Table 10: Inferred tunnelling conditions from seismic velocity.
Average Seismic
Velocity
Dominant Colours
on Seismic Image
Estimated Q* Relative Ground
Difficulty for TBM
Use**
> 2500 Yellow Orange > 0.1 Fair/good
1400 2500 Green 0.01 0.1 May be problematic
< 1400 Blue Black <0.01 Very problematic
* from Barton (1996) ** from Barton (1999)
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Table 10 suggests that along this section of the tunnel variable tunnelling conditions can be
expected along this section (Figure 12) with estimated Q values of < 0.1 suggesting tunnelling may be
problematic near BH7 and beneath the limestone pinnacle to very problematic approaching BH8.
Conclusions
Geotechnical engineers are increasingly applying engineering geophysics to improve site
characterisation for civil engineering projects and assist with specific problems within Australias major
coastal cities and urban areas. The selected case studies illustrate a range of geophysical methods and
applications.
In Darwin, integrated application of VSSP, SPT and SUBS-STI imaging improved the
confidence of the designers that fill materials and construction processes for a new berth construction
were meeting specifications and for identifying problem areas.
The route of pipelines for a desalination plant at the Gold Coast, traversed an old landfill whose
margins were identified with EM31 profiling. Seismic refraction and MASW imaging on this route a
showed variable bedrock levels and soft soils at some locations. This led to the abandonment of shallow
tunnel construction in favour of rock tunnelling a much greater depth.
A heavily contaminated former steelworks site in the industrial city of Newcastle was to be
remediated by capping and containment on three sides within a soil-bentonite groundwater barrier wall
with the riverfront remaining open for future development as a container port. This project was
challenging as the barrier wall was 1.5 km long and over 50m deep, on a highly fill, sediments and a
variable bedrock surface. Gravity and ERI proved very effective in providing sufficient subsurface
information on rock levels thicknesses of the extensive shallow fill materials for initial design of the
barrier wall and for the construction bid process. Ground subsidence near the Helipad at Sydney Airport
was believed due to groundwater and sand being drawn into leaking sections of a buried concrete
encased sewer. Conventional drilling, CTP testing and CCTV inspection were combined with
innovative geophysics, SEWREEL-STI, to rapidly define the extent of loosened ground. Following
remediation, SEWREEL was again applied to evaluate the effectiveness of the remedial works that
involved extensive grouting. The contrast between pre and post remedial SEWREEL images was
substantial. In the case of lesser grouting and the use of dynamic compaction the velocity contrast was
less but still measurable. The site has not undergone further subsidence since the remediation was
completed.
Webb Dock is one of Melbournes main container terminals sited on reclaimed land underlain by
soft to very soft sediments of the Yarra River Delta. These have extremely low strength and are highly
compressible. As a result, settlements and bearing capacity were key issues in the development of the
site. During initial construction, failures occurred in this material, resulting in the formation of mud
waves. A revised reclamation strategy was required that minimised the risk of damage to the bund walls
and also reduced displacements of the soft sediments during the reclamation operations. The
combination of drilling, seismic refraction and SUBS-STI provided a clear indication throughout the site
of the degree of sediment displacement due to construction. This as constructed subsurface profile
was then used to calculate settlement profiles across the site that accounted for the varying subsurface
conditions allow improved preloading strategies to be adopted for future construction.
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A major residential development was proposed on elevated ground adjacent to an old limestone
quarry near the city of Adelaide. Inspection revealed open caves and other major karst features. Initial
geophysical screening of the area with ERI discovered a number of possible likely cavities but did not
provide information that could be easily correlated with geotechnical properties nor sufficient detail on
the actual ground conditions beneath each allotment. Geotechnical information from limited drilling
showed that the site was overlain by a layer of natural soils and variably weathered siltstone and
limestone with voids. In order to better define the subsurface beneath allotment that further drilling near
the centre of each proposed house foundation would be supplemented by seismic refraction, SUBS-STI
and calibrated with VSP and geotechnical logging of each borehole. Throughout the development area
this approach identified areas of weak and potentially voided limestone and using these results,
residential allotments and development plans were modified and this proceeded with approval from
regulatory authorities.
To the north of Perth a detailed seismic refraction survey was completed along the alignment of
proposed shallow waste water tunnel in highly variable geology, mainly coastal limestones and siliceous
calcarenites with karst features and pinnacles, generally buried beneath dune sands. The area is within
sensitive parkland and aboriginal heritage lands only limited sites were available where drilling was
permitted.
The seismic images obtained showed a highly irregular subsurface velocity distribution with
velocities generally increasing with depth from about 200m/s to about 2500m/s, consistent with the
sandy/gravelly soils and calcarenite rock encountered in the widely-spaced boreholes. The results
obtained were used to estimate the expected rock-fraction at the tunnel level and the rock mechanics
parameter, Q
TBM
. Variable tunnelling conditions were predicted from seismic with some sections
having estimated Q
TBM
values of < 0.1 suggesting tunnelling may be problematic beneath many of the
limestone pinnacles to very problematic with estimated Q
TBM
values of < 0.01 in other section of the
route.
The selected case studies from around Australia demonstrate the improved engineering
opportunities that both conventional and innovative engineering geophysics can bring to specific
projects when the subsurface is complex or when problems occur.
The selected case studies from around Australia demonstrate the improved engineering
opportunities that both conventional and innovative engineering geophysics can bring to specific
projects when the subsurface is complex or when problems occur.
Downunder, engineering geophysics is alive and well!
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