‘Over the years the Family has been able to maintain what sociologists call high tension with the surrounding so ciocultural environment, living apart from the institusions of| secular society and estranged from the conventional church- cs It has done so by periodically launching revivals it calls revolutions and by refusing to compromise with the ambient culture, By placing high demands on membership, it sustains commitment but makes it difficult For people t0 join. The scholars and social scientists who have followed the Family ‘over its history agree that it entered the ewenty-first century facing some difficulty in keeping second-generation mem- bers as they enter adulthood and in preventing local schisms. TThe cultural milicu in which ic was formed, California of the late 1960s, is long past, but comparable recruitment episodes may arise in one or more of the roughly ninety nations in which the Family's missionaries are secking to save souls Thus eis impossible co prediee how much longer the Family will be able to sustain its revolutionary ministry. There is no evidence that members of the Family con- sider that the continued existence ofthe sinful world eontra- dicts their millenarian prophecies, Rather, the sin and misery of life on earth prave to them that exch person must urgently accept Jesus. They note that the world does end for the thou sands of people who die every day, and they stress chat each person should not waste a single day further. In their world- wide ministry they tend to measure success in terms of the many people who kneel in prayer with them to let Jesus into their hearts, not in terms of recruits to Family membership. Social scientists have found the Family to be a veritable trea- sure trove of research challenges, and ie will be interesting to sce whether historians and theologians also benefit by study- ing this radical movement over the coming decades. SEE A1so Jesus Movement. Binuiocraray Bainbsidge, William Sims. The Sociology of Religious Movements New York, 1997. This general text on religious movements contains a chapter about the Family based on interviews and observation, Bainbridge, William Sims. The Endime Fumi: Children of God Albany, N.Y., 2002. A seudy of the contemporary group Taegely based on a questionnaire completed by 1,025 members, Chancellor, James D. Lif in the Family: An Oral History ofthe Children of God. Syracuse, NY., 2000. A scholarly seudy based om interviews and extensive observation, Davis, Rex, and James T. Richardson. "The Organization and Functioning ofthe Children of God.” Sociological Anabsis37 (1976): 321-339. An early examination ofthe group by so- al scents Lewis, James Rand J. Gordon Melton, eds. Sex Slander, and Sal- ‘ation: Investigating the FamilfChildren of Gad. Stanford, Cali, 1994. A collection of essays by cholas from various academic disciplines. Pattck, Ted, with Tom Dulak. Ler Our Children Ga! New York, 1976. A book by the profesional deprogrammer who fist ied vo deconvere members. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION FANGSHI 2989 Van Zande, David E. Living in the Children of Gad. Princeton, NJ. 1991. An ealy desripcive acount. Wallis, Rey. Saltaion and Prost. New York, 1979. This book contains a section on the eatly group. Williams, Mitiam. Heavens Harlon: My Fifteen Years at a Saored Prostitute in the Children of God Cult. New York, 1998. A petsonal memoir, appatendy packaged by the publisher to emphasize controversial aspects ‘Wusaa Sis Barsanuncs: (2005) FANGSHL. he fangshi (specialists in occule prescrip tions"), alo called “magicians” and “recipe masters,” and later knoven 2s daoshi ("specialists in the Way") were impor- tant contributors to the development of religious Daoism. TThey were experimental philosophers and occult technicians who, in the course of thei observations of nature and search for physical immorality, created a body of prescientifi knowledge tha formed the bass of Chinese medicine, phar- macology, chemistry, astrology, divination, and physiologi- cal alchemy. A major part of this knowledge was later incor porated into the Daoist eligion TThe origin and precise meaning of the term fangshi are far from certain; but they may have developed from the wu, shamans of sorcerers who were involved in mediating be- ‘ween the human and spiritual realms from the earliest times in Chinese court and village life. By che second century 8C= the term was used to refer to a group of practitioners of vati= ‘us esoteric arts who were generally outside the literati main stream, These practitioners apparently maintained their own texts and lore and transmitted their knowledge from master to disciple, yet they have never been regarded as constituting a distinct philosophical school. This is pethaps due co the fact that, while early historians respected their arcane skills, they did not hold them in very high regard and only recorded cevents in which these abilities were used to strive for political power. The finighi were most influential in China duting a period of roughly six hundred years beginning in the third century BCE. While in later times they came from various areas on the periphery of the empire, the fimgehiwere first associated with the coastal states of Qi and Yan (now Shantung), and it is herein about 330 8Ce that we hear of them encouraging local rulers coset out to sea in search ofthe holy immortals (xian) who possessed the potions of immortality. Though cheit cexact relationship to the Naturalist school frst systematized by Zou Yan (340-270 sce) remains unclear, we know that they took the ideas of this school as the philosophical basis for their observations of nature and theie various experimen- tal techniques. According to this Naturalist philosophy, all phenomena are infused hy one of the Five Phases (wnxing) of Energy (gi), namely, Earth, Fire, Water, Wood, and ‘Metal. Phenomena infused withthe same phase of energy in- fluence and resonate with one another, and these phases themselves spontancously transform according to their own,2990 FANGSHI inherent laws, and so influence all ¢hings from the succession of seasons to the succession of dynasties, ‘When the first emperor of China, Qin Shihuangdi, united che country in 221 ack, fingehi from Qi and Yan flocked to his court. Their influence there is clearly atested to by the historical records. The emperor believed that he hhad come to power because the energetic phase of water had gained ascendancy in the world, and so he adopted water as the symbol of his reign. He also sent expeditions to search for Penglai che Isle of the Immortals, and was himself devor- cd to the quest for immortality In che succeeding century and 2 half, the cule of immor- tality flourished, and its principal proponents, the fangshi, were influential among the ruling clit. Their power reached its zenith under Han Wudi (140-87 sce), who appointed ‘number of them court officials when they promised ro con- tact the immortals and to provide him with their secrets of| avoiding death. On the advice of these specialists in occule prescriptions, the emperor undertook expeditions both to the eastern seacoast and to the sacred Kunlun mountains in the west in quest of these secrets. He also reinstated ancient sacrifices to the spirits, the most important of which were the _fengand shan sacrifices on Mount Tai. According to the fing- ‘hi the fong and shan sacrifices had last been performed by their patron and ancestor, the Yellow Emperor (Huang), who thereupon had achieved immortality. The ultimate fil- ure ofthese endeavors was discouraging to Emperor Wu, and after his ign the influence of these esoteric masters declined considerably on a national scale ‘On the local level, however, the fangshiwere sill power- ful ac the courts of a number of vassal states. The most nota- ble was the sate of Huainan, whose ruler, Liu An, was spon- sor and editor of che important philosophical compendium the Huainanzi. Lin An died in 122 ack. afer his presumed rebellion was discovered by imperial authorities, but accord- ing to legend, the fangshi gave him and his family a potion of immortality and they all ascended to heaven to live forev- cr. It is interesting to note that rulers of several other vassal states in which the specialists in occule preseriptions were in- fluential during the next two centuries aso plotted (unsuc- cessful) rebellions and that a number of them were associated with Wang Mang, who seized the reins of che empire for = con years early in che first century Cr. The sueviving records show the fingshito have been in- volved in a wide range of experiments aimed at lengthening life and avoiding death. Their experimentation with trans- ‘musing Ginnabar to mercury and gold in the search for the potion of eternal life is regarded as the origin of Chinese al- chemy and chemistry. Their creation of various plant and an- imal compounds for health and longevity isthe basis of the long Chinese pharmacological and medical traditions. Theit respiratory and gymnastic techniques, methods of dicaty hy- giene, and various “bedroom arte’ are among the earliest ex- amples of physiological alchemy. The fangshiwere also adept at shamanistic trance and at contacting and influencing spit- its and demons. Mantic practices were also an important as- pect of their tradition. Some of the large cache of medical and divinatory texts excavated at Mawang dui in 1973 are likely representative of fagohi writings. Ulsimately a large pare of the knowledge and practices of the fangshifound their way ino the Daoist religion. Theit ‘occult practices and philosophies included breath cultivation and a cosmology of the Dao that are also the hallmarks of | the famous foundational works of the Daoist religion, Lozi and Zhuang Zi, as well as some lesser known texts such as “Inward Training” (Nei-jeh) a fourth century BCE poetic work inchided in the Guan Zithat contains the oldest extant inese discussion of meditation and its results. The fimgehi ‘maintained theie own independent learning centers through- ‘out the Han dynasty and their lore and practices formed the foundations of the organized Daoist religion that coalesced around a few charismatic fangsh leaders between 140 and 184 CE. The oldest source of religious Daoism, the Taiping Ling, is said to have been authored by famgshi and was pres- ented to che imperial court by one in 140 CE. They also wrote the Con- that were collection of now lose subaltern commentaries fucian classics, the Zhanwei (“Wei Apochrypha also transmitted outside government sanctioned circles. Be- cause the rise of Daoism asa religious and politial force dur ing the second century CE took place largely outside the pur view of the official historians who are our main sources, the precise role ofthe fangehiin che beginnings of the Daoist reli- gion is difficult 10 clarify. However scholars have been able to identify cextual influences beeween Han dynasty fangshi works and the later Shang ging (“Highest Clarity”) and Ling- bao (“Numinous Treasure”) Schools of Religious Daoism. Sex Atso Alchemy, article on Chinese Alchemy; Daoism, overview article; Liu An; Xian: Yinyang Wuxing. Biouiocearny ‘There are thrce Westernlanguage sources devoted exclusively co the fanghi Ngo Van Xuyer’s Divination, magie et politique dans la Chine ancienne (Pasis, 1976) contains an accurate mandation of al he fangs biographics in the History ofthe Latter Han (Hou Har shu) as wel as excellent supporting ma retial including a detailed discussion ofthe historical context ‘of the biographies and appendices on the various esoteric techniques of the fang. Kenneth J. DeWoskin has pub- lished one article and one book on the fag. “A Source Guide tothe Lives and Techniques of Ha and Six Dynasties Fangs.” Sociesy for the Study of Chinese Relgin Bulletin 9 (1981): 79-105, isa valuable ls of biogeaphical sources and ‘makes an important artempe co define the finghi and dalin- ‘ate their activities, Many ofthe biographies listed in this a ticle, and all of chose translated in Ngo’s work, ate wanslated bby DeWoskin in Doctor, Divine, and Magicians of Ancient China: Biographies of Fangihi (New York, 1983), whieh also contains a sel introduction. This work isthe most com- prehensive ro date in the West bur unfortunately fis co deal ‘withthe very thorny problem of che role ofthe fingdhin the fise of the Daoist religion Information on the fangshi can be found in a number of other ‘works, the most valuable of which is Yu Yingshis "Life and ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITIONImmorsalty in the Mind of Han China,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 25 (1964-1965) 80-122. Anna K.Seida’s superb study Le divination de Lao-ten dans le daoiime des Han (Pais, 1969) contains some useful information on the fang and thee elationship tothe Yellow Emperor and to the Huang-L1o Daoiss, The activites of the fangs under ‘Qin Shihuangdi and Emperor Wu ofthe Han can be found in Burcon Warson’s erandation of Ssurma Qien's Shi oh, Records of the Grand Historian of China, vol. 2 (New York, 1963), pp. 13469. There are also scattered references wo the Jfanghi in Joseph Needham's Science and Ciilizaion in ‘China (Cambridge, U-K., 1956-1976), especially volume 2 ‘which contains an excellent discusion of che school of Nati ras, and volume 5, par 3, which discusses alchemy. Final Iy chere isa detailed discussion of the practices and cent of the fang’ along with a meticulous cranslaion of medical ‘writings that Hcely derived from chem in Donald Harper, Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdai Medical ‘Manuscripts (London, 1998). “There ate now several excellent sources forthe relationship be- tween the fang and the organized Daoist elgion, Solid ‘overviews can be Found in ewo general histories of Daoism, Teabelle Robiner's Daoism: Growth ofa Religion (Sranford, 1997) and Livia Koha’s Daviim and Chinete Culture (Bos- ton, 2001). Toshiaki Yamada’ “Longeviy Techniques and the Compilation of the Lingboo wufisi” in Kahn's edited collection Daoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques (Ann Arbor, 1989), pp. 99-123, is asupesb textual sey of the Tinks berween this religious Daoist work and the fing. ‘There ate also a number of notable articles in the masterful Handbook of Dasism edited by Kohn (Leiden, 2000): Robi- net's “Shangging-Highest Claiy,” pp. 196-224, an over- view of this important Daoise school in which she traces it roots back wo the Han dynasty fangs Yamada’s "The Ling ‘bao School.” pp. 225-255, which demonstrates che influence of the fing on the development of this second major school of teligious Daoism; Fabrizio Pegadio's “Elixes and Alchemy.” pp. 165-195, which argues chat the roo of innee land outer alchemy can be found in fangi practices and texts; and Mark Csikszentmihaly’s “Han Cosmology and Mantic Practices,” pp. 53-73, an analysis of the divination practices and cexs of the Han dynasty fangs’ and how they ‘were tansmitted. Finally, for a discussion of extly Daoist medication and its origins, see Harold D. Roth, Original Das: Inward Training and the Foundations of Davie Mya- um (New York, 1999). Hagot D. Romi (1987 aN 2005) FARABI, AL... Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Mubammad ibn Tarkhin ibn Awzalagh al-Farsbt (258-339 an/870— 9502 ce) was a Hellenized Muslim-Arabie philosopher (aylasap), known in the Islamic tradition as the “Second Teacher” (second to Aristotle); in Latin, a Avennasar of Alfurabius. His Arabie biographers called him the first great logician; modern scholars have declared him the chief political philosopher of Islam and the founder of | Islamic Neoplatonism. More than one hundred works are at- tributed to him, not all of which have survived, abi was called ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION FARABI, AL 2991 While the details of his life are unclear, with the histori- cal accuracy of many later biographical accounts suspect, the following reconstruction has a reasonable degree of certainty. Al-Farabi was of Turkish origin, bora in Farab in ‘Transosi- ana; he studied logic in Abbasid Baghdad under Nestorian (Christian scholars Yuhanna ibn Haylin (d. 910) and the prominent eranslator of Aristotle into Arabic, Abi Bishr ‘Matta (d. 940); his most famous student, too, was a Chris- tian, the Jacobite Yahy3 ibn ‘Adi (d. 974), another important translator and logician, After having crossed the age of seven- ty, he left for Syria and attached himself to the cour of the Shi't ruler, the Hamdanid Sayf al-Davwla; his writings do show some Shit leanings. After having traveled eo Aleppo and Egyps, he finally returned ro Damascus, where he died There seem to be good reasons why al-Farabi enjoyed the prestigious stature of the "Second Teacher” after Aristor- le, for in the history of Hellenized philosophy in Islam, he is the frsesystem-builder and one with a heightened sense ofa ‘cular organization and rigor. Thus the various cle- ‘ments of his philosophical discourses constiute a coherent body of thought in which every identifiable proper pare scems to be related to every other, This monumental synthe- ed out in an Aristotelian manner but supple- ‘mented, modified, and controlled by a peculiar brand of Pla- tonism, Neoplatonism, and Islamism, One of his celebrated works, Za was also known to medieval Europe in its Latin translation, “Ulm (Enumeration of the sciences), that contains a comprehensive didactic account of the hierarchi- cal relationship he saw between different kinds of sciences— rational, linguistic, cheological, and juridical—and their sub- divisions, establishing the precise order in which they should bre studied. Ie is a testimony to the integrative power of al-Farab's system that in his works different branches of philosophy begin to display inherent interconnections that are both un- expected and, to a good degree, original in their construc tion, For example, his theory of prophecy, revelation, and re- ligion is inextricably linked to and males sense only in the fuller context of his logic and philosophy of language on the fone hand, and epistemology and metaphysics on the other, and all of this is related to his psychology and philosophy of | ‘mind. But then, quite unexpectedly, his discourses on meta- physics are largely to be found notin isolated treatises on this subject, but in his politcal writings, in particular al-Madina al-Fadila (The vireuous city) and alSiisa al-Madaniyya (Civil polity). Likewise, he hardly dedicates separated trea- tises to psychology and philosophy of mind; his discussions fon these disciplines are again ro be found in his political works. Does it mean that political writings form the core of | a b's system? The answer to this question cannot be straightforward. The complesty arises because al-Farabi's system has multiple cores at once, each core having been worked with ‘equally uncompromising forensic diligence. Logie forms one of these cores, where he surpassed Syriac logicians by going