Power System Analysis

Electrical Power System
Fault Analysis
Prepared by: Jonryl P. Novicio
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Fault Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Fault Studies play an important role of the power system analysis. The
problem consists of determining bus voltages and line currents during various
types of faults.An electrical fault is any failure which interferes the normal flow
of current.

Faults on power systems are divided into three-phase balanced faults
and unbalanced faults. Different types of unbalanced faults are single line to
ground fault, line to line fault, and double line to ground fault.

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Fault Analysis

The information gained from fault studies are used for:

Proper relay setting and coordination.

Three phase balanced fault is used to select and set phase relays
Line to Ground Fault is used for ground relays

To obtained the rating of the protective switchgears (Three phase Faults).

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Now, consider the typical system below.

Fault Analysis
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The magnitude of the fault current depends on the internal impedance of the
generators plus the impedance of the intervening circuit.

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What are the Causes of Faults?
There are several causes of failures and outages which are classified according to the
reasons for its occurrence:

a) Deterioration of insulation which are inherent in the system. As a result
breakdown may occur at normal voltage.
b) Damage due to external causes such as birds, trees and kites. Failure may also
occur at normal voltage. Example of damage on open, outdoor equipment are due to
birds with widely stretching wings by spanning an insulation or phase fault by bridging
the bare conductors.
c) Breakdown due to deterioration of insulation accelerated by self generated surges
following switching or other disturbances.
d) Collapse of insulation resulting from either direct lightning stroke or consequent
disturbances. The fault would not be at normal voltage.

Fault Analysis
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Fault Analysis
Types of Faults on
3-Phase System

Faults in 3-phase system are
classified as follows :( see-
Fig.1)

a. Balanced or symmetrical
three-phase fault
b. Single-line to ground fault
c. Double line-to-ground
fault
d. Line-to-line fault
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Fault Analysis

A fault occurs when two or more conductors that normally operate with a
potential difference come in contact with each other. The contact may be
physical metallic one or it may occur through an arc.

What are the Effect of Faults?

The directly resulting damage from system faults can be classified as follows:
a) Thermal
b) Mechanical
c) Dielectric

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Fault Analysis

Thermal Effects. The amount of current will be much greater than
the designed thermal ability of the conductor in the power lines or
machines feeding the fault.

As a result, temperature rise may cause damage by annealing
of conductors and insulation charring.

Please note that the thermal stress varies as a function of both
RMS current squared and the duration of current flow (I
2
t).

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Fault Analysis

Mechanical Effects of high instantaneous current involves
magnetic forces (repulsion/attraction) of hundreds of pounds
per foot run of conductor or bus as normally spaced and feed by
modern generators.

The mechanical stress varies as a function of the peak current
squared and the ratio of the length of the peak conductor to the
spacing between conductor centers (KI
2
peak
L/S).

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Fault Analysis

Dielectric Effects have several causes. One obvious cause of
impairment or weakening of insulation strength or dielectric
strength is the high temperature of the conductor carrying the
fault currents, which may result to the burning or blistering of
varnish insulation or cracking of ceramic ones.
Such defects may be present but not visible for months and may
never be discovered due to the later breakdown destroying the
evidence of its cause.
Similar danger of unsuspected latent weakness arise from surge
voltage, either generated by fault switching or rapid
displacement of the neutral following a ground fault or one
phase.


(a) utility systems
(b) generators
(c) synchronous motors
(d) induction motors

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Fault Analysis
Sources of Short-Circuit Current
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Fault Analysis

The utility system usually supplies power through step-down transformers at
the costumers desired voltage level. Although transformers are sometimes
considered a source of short-circuit current, strictly speaking this is not
correct. Transformers change voltage and current magnitude, but do not
generate them.

Generators in the customers system can be a source of short-circuit current.
They are driven by prime movers such as steam or gas turbines, diesel engines
and water wheels. When a short-circuit occurs, the generator continues to
be driven by its prime mover and to produce voltage, since field excitation is
maintained by the generator rotating at normal speed.

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Fault Analysis

Synchronous motors behave similarly to synchronous generators.
When a fault occurs and the voltage of the system is reduced to a very
low value, the synchronous motor stops taking power from the system
to rotate its load, and starts slowing down.

But the inertia of the load tends to prevent the motor from slowing
down quickly. The inertia acts as a prime mover and, with excitation
maintained, the motor acts as a generator supplying short-circuit
current for several cycles after the short circuit occurs.

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Fault Analysis

Induction motors contribute short-circuit current because of generator action
produced by the inertia of the load and rotor driving the motor after the fault
occurs.

But there is a major difference between the short-circuit current contribution
of induction motors and synchronous motors. The field flux of the induction
motor is produced by induction from the stator and not from a dc field
winding.

Since this flux decays rapidly after a fault, the induction motor contribution
drops off quickly and dies out completely after a few cycles. There is no
steady-state fault-current contribution. Consequently, induction motors are
assigned only a sub-transient value of reactance, Xd.

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Fault Analysis

The total symmetrical short-circuit current is a combination of
all the sources of short-circuit current we have described.

Utility supply, generators, synchronous and induction motors all
contribute short-circuit current into a fault.

The flux in the machines decays with time after the inception of
the fault, hence their fault-current contribution also decays with
time.

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Fault Analysis

Consequently, the resulting total short-circuit current decays
with time as shown at E in Fig. 3.

The current magnitude is highest during the first half-cycle and
decreases in value after a few cycles.

After one or two cycles, the induction-motor contribution
disappears.

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Fault Analysis
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Fault Analysis

Fault Calculation should be made to ensure that the short-circuit ratings of the
equipment are adequate to handle the currents available at the location of the
fault.
In general, the procedure is as follows:

a.) Develop a graphical representation of the system with symbolic voltage
sources and circuit impedances.

b.) Determine the total equivalent impedance from the source to specified
points.

c.) At each point, divide the voltage by the total impedance to that point to
determine short-circuit current.

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Fault Analysis

To simplify the calculations, certain simplifying assumptions are usually
made. The following assumptions are usually made:

a.) The fault is bolted that is, it has zero impedance. This assumption
simplifies calculation since the resulting calculated values are
maximum, and equipment selected on the basis will always have an
adequate rating.

b.) A 3-phase fault is assumed because their type of fault generally
results in the maximum short-circuit current available in a system. In
most systems, a 3-phase fault is frequently the only one calculated.

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Fault Analysis

Most faults actually involve arcing resistance or other undefined
impedances or both not considered in the fault calculation because of the
assumed bolted fault condition as mentioned earlier.

Fault which are not 3-phase will usually be less than the 3-phase fault value.

These are the following:
a.) Bolted line-to-line current -, 87% of the 3-phase value

b.) Bolted single-line-to-ground current - About 25-125% of the 3-phase fault
depending on system parameters.
This is the most common among the faults, about 75% of the faults.

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Fault Analysis

Single-line-to-ground currents of more than 100% of the 3-
phase value rarely occurs in industrial, institutional and
commercial power systems.

In low- voltage systems, single-line-to-ground arcing fault
currents are sometimes less than normal load currents and yet
can be extremely destructive.

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Fault Analysis

Other assumption which effected simplification of the fault calculations
are also being done as follows:

a.) Load currents are not considered.

b.) The voltages of power company and generator sources are
assumed to be equal to their nominal values at no-load. The actual
values could be 5% of the nominal values.

c.) Motors are running with their rated voltage at the terminal when a
fault occurs.

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Fault Analysis


d.) The transformer percent impedance values used will be actual
values or are often nominal values possibly subject to their
7.5% tolerance to anticipate worst case.

e.) The source X/R ratio will be assumed at relatively high value
( above X/R ratio of 15). This normally results in calculated
values of short- circuit that are slightly high.

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Fault Analysis


f.) Switchboard and panel board bus impedances can be neglected.

As the Impedances of the bus are usually of small values,
excluding them from the calculation, the increase of fault current
values is only very slight.

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Fault Analysis

Symmetrical Faults
or
Balanced Faults
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Fault Analysis

The balanced three phase fault and three phase to ground fault occurs very
rarely, accounting for only about 5% of the total.

For the purpose of fault studies, the generator behavior can be divided into
three stages.

1) The subtransient period

2) The transient period

3) Steady state period
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Fault Analysis

Subtransient exists for a period of few cycles from the instant of short circuit
followed by transient period appears for another few cycles. With less
magnitude compared with subtransient and finally settling at a still higher
synchronous (steady state) value called the steady state period.

In a modern large interconnected power system, heavy currents will flow
through the fault which must be interrupted much before the steady state
conditions are established.

The maximum current that a breaker has to carry momentarily is the peak
value of short circuited current which must also be determined.
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Fault Analysis
Transient due to Short Circuit

When there is a sudden change in the current, because of the inductive property of
the power system component which give rise to transients.
Transient condition in power system rises due to faults on the system which is
accompanied by sudden change in current.

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Transients due to Short Circuit in a 3-Phase Alternator at No-load

Consider a three phase alternator running on no-load. Under steady state
short circuit conditions, the armature reaction of a synchronous machine
produces a demagnetizing flux. The effect of armature reaction is modeled as
a reactance Xa in series with induced e.m.f.

The combination of Xa with the leakage reactance X
l
of the synchronous
machine is called Xd synchronous reactance (direct axis synchronous
reactance in case of salient pole machines).

Armature resistance being small can be neglected. The steady state short
circuit model of a synchronous machine is shown in Fig. 4.3 (a).
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THREE-PHASE FAULTS
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From the previous equations, the
volume of copper is inversely
proportional to the square of the
transmission voltage and the
power factor.
Thus greater is the transmission
voltage level, lesser is the volume
of copper required.

The weight of copper used for the
conductors
The required material is LESS for
higher transmission voltage.
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Fault Analysis

Power System Analysis

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