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EE 204

Lecture 26
The Root Mean Square (RMS) Value





The RMS Value of a Periodic Function of Time:


The RMS [Root Mean Square] value of the periodic function ( ) f t is defined as:

2
2
[ ( )]
( )
o
o
avg
t T
t
rms
f t
f t dt
f
T
+
= =




The RMS value is also called the effective value
eff rms
f f =


Example 1:

Find the average and effective (rms) values of the sawtooth waveform.



Solution:

By inspection 25
av
Y =
For the interval 0 2, t < < 25; y t = then
2 2
0
1
T
rms
Y y dt
T
=


2
2
0
1
625 834,
2
t dt = =

and
28.9
rms
Y =



Example 2:
Find the average and effective (rms) values of the waveform shown.

y
t[s]
0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0.04
10


Solution:
For 0 0.01, t < < 10; y =
For 0.01 0.03, t < < 0; y = the period is 0.03s
0.01
0
1 10(0.01)
10 3.33
0.03 0.03
av
Y dt = = =


and
0.01
2 2
0
1
10 33.3
0.03
rms
Y dt = =

therefore 5.77
rms
Y =



The RMS Value of the General Sinusoidal Function:


Let us find the RMS value of the general sinusoidal function ( ) cos( ) f t A t = +


2 2 2 2
1 cos(2 2 )
[ ( )] [ cos ( )] [ ]
2
avg avg avg rms
t
f t A t A f


+ +
= + = =


[1 cos(2 2 )] [1] [cos(2 2 )]
2 2
avg avg avg rms
A A
t t f + + = + + =

1 0
2
rms
A
f = + [because the average value of a general sinusoid equals zero]

2
rms
A
f =



The R.M.S. value is commonly used in sinusoidal circuits.

For instance, the sinusoidal voltage ( ) cos( )
v
v t V t = +

Has the R.M.S. value
2
rms
V
V =

The value V represents the peak voltage

And the value
2
rms
V
V = represents the R.M.S. voltage

Similarly, the sinusoidal current ( ) cos( )
i
i t I t = +

Has a peak current I and an R.M.S. current
2
rms
I
I =


Household voltage varies sinusoidally in time. The commonly used 120V household
voltage is actually an R.M.S measure, it is not a measure of the peak voltage.

This means that if the outlets at a certain household provide120V (actually
120 ( ) V rms ), then:

120 ( ) V rms 120 2 169.71 170 V V = = (peak voltage)



Figure 1


We shall use the units ( ) V rms & ( ) I rms when the R.M.S. measure is used.


Example 1:

The outlets at a certain household provide 110 ( ) V rms at 60 Hz. Write an expression
for the voltage ( ) v t supplied by those outlets. Assume the phase angle to be zero.


Solution:

( ) cos( ) cos( 0) cos
v
v t V t V t V t = + = + =

2 110 ( ) 2 155.56
rms
V V V rms V = = =

2 2 60 120 376.991 377[ / ] f rad s = = = =

( ) 155.56cos377 v t t V = (supply voltage as a function of time)



Power Expressions in terms of the R.M.S. Voltage and Current:


The power expressions must be revised when R.M.S. values are used.

For instance, the average power expression
1
cos
2
P IV =

Can be rewritten as ( )( )cos cos
2 2
rms rms
I V
P I V = =

The expression cos
rms rms
P I V = , which assumes R.M.S. values for the voltage and
current does not have the factor of
1
2
.

Similarly, when R.M.S. values of the voltage and current are used, we must drop the
factor
1
2
from the expressions for the reactive power, apparent power and the
complex power. Thus:


1
cos
2
P IV = cos
rms rms
P I V = (average power)

1
sin
2
Q IV = sin
rms rms
Q I V = (reactive power)

1
2
S IV =
rms rms
S I V = (apparent power)

1
2
S I V

=
rms rms
S I V

= (complex power)


It is important to keep in mind that the values of the above powers remain the same,
whether we use peak values or R.M.S. values.

There is no such thing as R.M.S. power. This measure applies only to voltages and
currents.


Example 2:

For the load impedance Z , calculate:

a) the load current I

b) the complex power

c) the average and the reactive powers

d) the current ( ) i t as a function of time if the source frequency is 50 Hz.

1560 =
o
Z
220 0
o
S V =
I

Figure 2

Solution:

a) The supply voltage 2200 ( )
o
s
V V rms = is clearly given in the R.M.S. measure.

2200 ( )
14.667 60 ( )
1560
o
o s
o
V V rms
I A rms
Z
= = =



[Since
s
V is given in R.M.S. units I is also in R.M.S. units]


b) The voltage and current associated with the load Z

2200 ( )
o
s
V V rms = & 14.667 60 ( )
o
I A rms = (both in R.M.S. units).

Therefore, to we drop the factor
1
2
in all power expressions:

rms rms
S I V

= (14.667 60 ) (2200 ) (14.667 60 ) (2200 )


o o o o
S

= = +

3226.74 60
o
S VA = + (the load complex power)


c) The load average and reactive powers can easily be obtained from S :

Re( ) Re(3226.74 60 ) Re(1613.37 2794.44) 1613.37
o
P S j W = = + = + =

Im( ) Im(1613.37 2794.44) 2794.44 Q S j VAR = = + =


d) Since 14.667 60 ( )
o
I A rms = & 50 f Hz = , then:

( ) 14.667 2cos(2 50 60 ) 20.742cos(314.16 60 )
o o
i t t t A = =


1560 =
o
Z
220 0
o
S V =
I

Figure 2

Power Factor Correction:

The addition of a reactive element (capacitance or inductance) in parallel with the
load in order to increase the power factor is known as power factor correction


Figure 3


When the load has a lagging pf, power factor correction is done by connecting a
capacitor in parallel with the load.


Figure 4


When pf of the load is leading, power factor correction is done by connecting an
inductor in parallel with the load.


Figure 5


There are a number of methods to carryout the power correction procedure. The most
efficient approach utilizes the complex power.


Example 3:

The load has a power factor of 0.6 (lagging) and it absorbs 8 KW of average power
when connected to the220 0 ( )
o
V rms , 60 Hz source. Calculate the capacitance C to
be connected in parallel with this load so that the combined load has a pf of 0.90
(lagging).

L
I
220 0
o
S V =
L V

Figure 6

Solution:

Because the capacitor is connected to the load in parallel, the load voltage (
L
V ) and
current (
L
I ) do not change. Therefore, the power absorbed by the load also does not
change.

The load average power 8000
L
P W =

The pf angle of the load
1
cos (0.6) 53.130
o
L


= + = ( 0
L
> due to the lagging pf)

L
I
220 0
o
S V =
L V
1
j C

Figure 7

Using the load power triangle:

tan
L
L
L
Q
P
= tan53.130
8000
o L
Q
= 10666.67
L
Q VAR =


Figure 8

Therefore, load the complex power is:

8000 10666.67
L L L
S P jQ j VA = + = +

The capacitor does not absorb average power, therefore:

The combined load average power 8000
com L
P P W = =

The pf angle of the combined load
1
cos (0.9) 25.842
o
com


= + =

L
I
220 0
o
S V =
L V
1
j C

Figure 7

Using the combined load power triangle:

tan
com
com
com
Q
P
= tan25.842
8000
o com
Q
= 3874.58
com
Q VAR =


Figure 9

Therefore, the combined load complex power:

8000 3874.58
com com com
S P jQ j VA = + = +

The combined load complex power (
com
S ) equals the sum of the load complex power
(
L
S ) and the capacitor complex power (
c
S ).

com L c
S S S = + (8000 3874.58) (8000 10666.67)
c
j j S + = + +

Giving:

(8000 3874.58) (8000 10666.67)
c
S j j = + +

6792.09 6792.09 90
o
c
S j VA = =

This result is to be expected, since the real part of capacitor complex power must be
zero.

L
I
220 0
o
S V =
L V
1
j C

Figure 7


6792.09 90
o
c c c
S I V

= = & 2200 ( )
o
c s
V V V rms = =

6792.09 90
30.873 90 ( )
2200
o
o
c o
I A rms


= = 30.873 90 30.873 ( )
o
c
I j A rms = + =

1
c
c
V
j C I
=
1
2
c
c
V
j fC I
=
1 2200
2 60 30.873
o
j C j
=



4
30.873
3.722 10 372.2
2 60 220
C F F


= = =



C
I
220 0
o
S V =
1
j C
C V

Figure 10

Example 4:

The load has a power factor of 0.7 (lagging). It absorbs 5 KW of average power when
connected to the120 0 ( )
o
V rms , 60 Hz source.

a) Calculate the capacitance C to be connected in parallel with this load so that the
combined load has a unity pf.

b) Calculate the magnitude of the current supplied by the voltage source before and
after power factor correction.

I
120 0
o
S V =

Figure 11

Solution:

a) The same procedure will be used to calculate the value of C.

1
cos (0.7) 45.557
o
L


= + =

C
I
1
j C
C V 120 0
o
S V =

Figure 12


5000tan45.557 5098.17
o
L
Q VAR = =


Figure 13

5000 5098.17
L L L
S P jQ j VA = + = +

The combined load has pf 1 = (unity pf) 0
com
=

Therefore, the combined load is purely resistive. We know that a purely resistive
impedance has zero reactive power. Thus:

0
com com com com com
S P jQ P j P = + = + =


Since the combined load average power equals the load average power, then:

5000
com com L
S P P VA = = =

com L c
S S S = + 5000 (5000 5098.17)
c
j S = + +

5098.17 5098.17 90
o
c
S j VA = =


5098.17 90
o
c c c
S I V

= = & 1200 ( )
o
c s
V V V rms = =

5098.17 90
42.485 90 ( )
1200
o
o
c o
I A rms


= = 42.485 90 42.485 ( )
o
c
I j A rms = + =

1
c
c
V
j C I
=
1 1200
2 60 42.485
o
j C j
=



42.485
939.12
2 60 120
C F

= =



C
I
Load
1
j C
+
C V 120 0
o
[V] rms
S V =
f=60Hz
5 kW
p.f.=0.7
lagging

Figure 12

b) Before pf correction, the supply current equals the load current:

s L
I I =

Using cos
L L L L
P I V = 5000 120 0.7
L
I = 59.514 ( )
L s
I I A rms = =

120 0
o
S V =
S
I
L
I

Figure 14

After pf correction, the supply current does not equal the load current, because:

s L c
I I I = +

Using cos cos
com com com com s s com
P I V I V = =

5000 120 1
s
I = 41.667 ( )
s
I A rms =

Thus:

59.514 ( )
s
I A rms = (before pf correction)

41.667 ( )
s
I A rms = (after pf correction)

We can see that when the pf is raised from 0.7 to unity, the supply current drops

In practice, pf correction is done in order to reduce the supply current
s
I

C
I
1
j C
120 0
o
S V =
S
I
L
I

Figure 15


Household and industrial voltages are supplied by electric power companies. The
generators at a power company are connected to the users using transmission lines.

In this simplified diagram,
s
V represents the generator voltage.

A practical transmission line has a nonzero resistance R

This nonzero resistance results in electric power loss in the transmission line, because

2 2
R R s
P I R I R = =

By increasing the pf of the load,
s
I is reduced resulting in reduced
R
P . The power
company will save money in this case.


S V
S
I
L V

Figure 16


When the load has a leading pf, a similar procedure can be used for pf correction.
However, an inductive reactance must be connected in parallel with the load.

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