Objecthood and The Historical Development of DOC in Chinese by Guohua Zhang

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Objecthood and the General Tendency of the Historical Change of

Chinese Double Object Construction
Guohua ZHAG
!"esearch #enter of #hinese $anguage History% Zhe&iang 'ni(ersity% Hang)hou% P"#*
!School of Foreign $anguages% Zhongnan 'ni(ersity of +conomics and $aw% ,uhan% P"#*
ro-ert)gh.gmail.com
Abstract /he author gi(es a definition of o-&ect in #hinese grammar -ased on the uni(ersal
syntactic and semantic features of o-&ect in natural languages -efore he ma0es an ela-oration on
the significance of the o-&ect and 1er-23-&ect semantics in #hinese from cogniti(e and #4G
perspecti(es. 3n that -asis% he goes on with a definition and description of 5ou-le 3-&ect
#onstruction !53#* in Archaic #hinese along with an ela-oration on the characteristics of the
historical change of 53# in #hinese and its general tendency% ta0ing a formal definiti(e criterion.
6t is re(ealed that #hinese 53# generally undergoes formally2sta-le e(olution with speciali)ation
in semantics. 5ue to its semantic o(er-urden which easily caused am-iguity% (agueness and other
communicati(e difficulties% many su-types of 53#s semantics gradually grew out of use under
the influence of the general requirements and tendency of the change in #hinese grammar and
were su-stituted -y other more powerful syntactic structures. #onsequently% #hinese 53# has
-ecome increasingly narrower in its form2meaning correspondence and changed into a
construction speciali)ed in e4pressing possessional transfer -etween two entities.
Key wordso-&ect% 5ou-le 3-&ect #onstructionhistorical changespeciali)ation
I. Introduction
$7 !89:9; <=* says% 3-&ect>is a syntactic element that deser(es most careful study?. 6t is
true that o-&ect and 5ou-le 3-&ect #onstruction !53#* ha(e -een generating intense studies.
/ypologically% 53# is a mar0ed construction% -ut it is a frequently used structure in #hinese.
Howe(er% a -ig contro(ersy still remains concerning how to define an o-&ect and a 53#.
#onducting a research into the e(olution of 53# on the -asis of ma0ing an e4hausti(e description
and analysis of the related linguistic facts% rather than stic0ing to some preconcei(ed ideas and
mismatched analysis of facts -etween Archaic and @odern #hinese% will% hopefully% help re(eal
the general characteristics and tendency of its e(olution and reconsider the scientificity and
(alidity of the grammatical category system. /his paper is intended as a rough diachronic
in(estigation into the #hinese 53#% with a (iew to re(ealing its syntactic and semantic
characteristics and historical change in general. A few #hinese specific glossing sym-ols are used
in the paper% as listed -elow.
AA /he prepositionBmar0er b mo(es post(er-al definite or specific noun phrases into the
pre(er-al position
A+6 passi(e mar0er bi #3C con&unction
DP question particle S'AC su-&ect mar0er
@35 modification mar0er de/zhi PAS/ past tense
$3# locati(e PF1 perfecti(e aspect
P particle 8BEBFSG firstBsecondBthird person singular pronoun
+G negation mar0er 8BEBFP$ firstBsecondBthird person plural pronoun
@, @easure word
8
II. Defining object
5efining o-&ect in #hinese grammar is notoriously difficult% either theoretically or practically
!cf. Fan; EGGH*. Plan0 !89<I* points out that an o-&ect does not e4ist in isolation and one needs to
consider or reconstruct circumstances when defining it% -ut the circumstances do not necessarily
warrant the recognition of the whole gamut of grammatical o-&ect relations in all language ali0e.
#ollinge !89<I*% Anderson !89<I*% Gi(Jn !89<I* and Sanders !89<I* show that cross2linguistic
studies ha(e demonstrated that it is unli0ely to find a neatly clear2cut and (alid definition for
o-&ects in natural languages. 6t seems that the category of o-&ect has relati(ely uni(ersal defining
properties and a-solute characteristic properties pertaining to specific languages.
66.8 /he defining features and characteristic properties of o-&ects
Generally% grammatical relations may -e defined in terms of a cluster of properties% which can
-e syntactic% semantic andBor pragmatic ones. And defining o-&ect is necessarily related to su-&ect
identification. Fan !EGGH* ma0es that point. Aut some suggest that the notion of su-&ect !S* is not
grammatically (ia-le% for e4ample in languages of the Philippines% while some other languages%
li0e +nglish% $ango and Pima% do not differentiate the category of indirect o-&ect !3i*. And e(en
the notion of direct o-&ect !3d* is not uni(ersal% an idea which finds it proof in at least one
language% i.e.% /agalog !cf. Gil 89<I*. Some argue that a language without S cannot ha(e 3d% while
others -elie(e that such a language can ha(e o-&ect% the definition of which is not in terms of
su-&ect !cited in Gil 89<I*. Gil !89<I* holds that% logically% whether a language has 3d is not
related to whether it has S. For e4ample% /agalog is a Patient Prominent language
8
% without
prototypical su-&ect or o-&ect categories% -ut some Ps can qualify as quasi2S or quasi23d as they
possess some properties that ma0e them (ery close to S or 3d. Gil !89<I* proposes that ma0ing
sweeping generali)ations a-out whether language as 3d is -oth unsafe and unwiseK the fact is that
languages may (ary with respect to the (ia-ility of 3d in their grammars. @ore generally% it seems
that languages may -e characteri)ed in terms of a num-er of parameters reflecting the (ia-ility of
(arious grammatical relations in their grammars% whose types and num-ers (ary among
languagesK whether a language has S or 3d is dependent on multiple factors. Some may ha(e no
3d% -ut for different reasons compared with /agalog. /herefore% it is a matter of degree whether a
language has 3d or 3dLli0e syntactic elementsK o-&ects can -e classified as prototypical and
peripheral ones. According to Gil !89<I*% an Ps a-ility to demonstrate characteristics of 3d is
proportionate to its a-ility to function as 3d.
/hen% defining 3d is a language2specific practice. #hinese grammar has the o-&ect category%
with relati(ely strict formal and semantic criteria. Howe(er% as Fan !EGGH* points out% it is (ital to
gi(e due proper consideration to the criteria when defining it. ,ith regard to #hinese% 3d is a-o(e
all a syntactic notion% -ased on which 6 adopt a rather loose criterion in defining it in that formal
requirements should -e gi(en top priority and semantic ones come ne4t. /hat is a stance identical
in essence to the one ta0en -y Fan !EGGH*.
66.E /he formal and semantic properties of o-&ect in #hinese
8
According to Gil !89<I*% a language is patient prominent to the e4tent that it e4hi-its the following properties; 8*
prominence of passi(e clauses !in te4tual% grammatical and psycholinguistic aspects*K E* greater referential
strength of patients than actors. Patient prominence is a mi4ed syntactic2semantic property% which (arious
languages may possess to different degrees. @ost familiar languages are not patient prominent% -ut patient
prominence is characteristic of Austronesian languages% including /agalog. Gil !89<I* holds that neither +nglish
nor #hinese is patient prominent% and +nglish has S while #hinese has no S or no full S.
E
E.E.8 #onnotations and representations of form and meaning
A feature of @odern #hinese grammar is that it is not dependent on strict morphological
changes% -ut rather on word order% function words and other means for e4pression of grammatical
relations and meanings !Shao et al. EGG9; =28G*. /herefore% changes in word order and use of
function words !or not* can affect syntactic structures and lead to differences in their meanings
and functions !cf. Shao EGG:*. Additionally% there is no one2to2one correspondence -etween word
class and their syntactic functions. And phrases% compound words and sentences follow -asically
the same structural rules. Aesides% #hinese grammar is well 0nown for its frequent use of measure
words% disylla-li)ation of (oca-ulary% and reduplication of some (er-s% ad&ecti(es and nouns
E
.
"oughly% the meaning of a linguistic form refers to the grammatical meaning and
communicati(e function it e4presses. 6t can -e (iewed from (arious perspecti(es% e.g. the stylistic
meaning and pragmatic meaning. ,hile one form may e4press more than one meaning% one
meaning can -e roughly e4pressed -y (arious forms. Howe(er% there are always su-tle differences
-etween such meanings.
#hinese grammar has undergone no ma&or changes e(er since its recorded history
F
% as its -asic
S13 word order has not changed. Howe(er% syntactic structures ha(e undergone changes in terms
of semantics to (arious degrees% and such a semantic change is e(ident in relation to 53#.
E.E.E /he form2meaning pairs and their cogniti(e significance
#ogniti(e2functional and #4G approaches are ta0en in this study. Accordingly% linguistic a-ility
is (iewed as a part of human cogniti(e capacity and language is used as a primary tool for human
communication. $inguistic forms are representations and pro&ections of human cognition of the
world and stand in relati(ely sta-le correspondence with meaning or function. /he form2meaning
pairs are constructions% which is sym-olic in nature and represented as patterns of (arious types.
Grammar% especially syntactic constructions% is conceptuali)ation. 3nes grammar 0nowledge is
-ased mainly on language use and constructions are con(entional and learna-le.
Formal changes will always lead to semantic changes. Shao !EGG:* points out% for e4ample% that
function words on certain conditions can -e omitted and will not affect semantics much. /hat
indeed lends supports to the point that #hinese grammar en&oys certain fle4i-ility% -ut it does not
mean that one can omit such words at will. 6n fact% omitting function words in phrases and simple
sentences usually leads to semantic change or inaccuracy% e.g.
8* a. wM -N-a O wM de -N-a
6 dad 6 @35 dad !meaning Pmy dad?*
-. wM de qiQn-R S T wM qiQn-R
6 @35 pencil 6 pencil !intended meaning is Pmy pencil?*
c. -N-a mQma -N-a de mQma
dad mom !dad and mom* dad @35 mom !meaning Pdads mom?% i.e. grandma*
E* a. )hUngguJ wVnhuN )hUngguJ de wVnhuN
#hinese culture #hina @35 cultuure !meaning Pcultures in #hina?*
E
Shen !EG88; <2FI* mentions si4 other features% one of which is that #hinese grammar is closely interwo(en with
pragmatic factors.
F
#lassification of it (aries. Aased on Wu !EGGH*% it is roughly classified into four periods; !i* 3ld #hinese !88th
century A#L8st century A5*% !ii* @iddle #hinese !8stL<th century A5*% !iii* +arly @odern #hinese !<thL8:th
century A5*% and !i(* @odern #hinese !from 8<th century A5 till present*. /here are transitional periods in
-etween% especially the +ast Han period !E=2EEGA5*. PArchaic #hinese? is used to refer to the first three periods%
especially the first two.
F
-. mXiguJ pVngyMu OmXiguJ de pVngyMu
American friend America @35 friend !meaning Pfriend of America?*
c. 4iYgZi shYgZo S 4iYgZi de shYgZo
!for one to* rewrite draft rewrite @35 draft !meaning P the draft rewritten?*
Additionally% shortened forms li0e acronyms are different from their full forms in register and
other respects. See the following e4amples where the change of syntactic positions of PP affects
meaning or leads to inaccuracy or aw0wardness;
F* sh[ng y\ 89EI ni]n% )\ y\ EGGG ni]n S^^ y\ 89EI ni]n sh[ng% y\ EGGG ni]n )\
-orn in 89EI year% die in EGGG year in 89EI year -orn in EGGG year die
I* 4iZo hJu)i )Ni mZ-_i shNng tiNo 4iZo hJu)i tiNo )Ni mZ-_i shNng
little mon0ey at horse-ac0 $3# &ump little mon0ey &ump onto horse-ac0 $3#
=* tQ dZo )Ni 4u_pU lR S T tQ )Ni 4u_pU lR dZo
he fall in -loodshed inside he in -loodshed inside fall
He fell in -loodshed.
H* a. -Z shMu w` )Ni Xrduo shNng
AA hand co(er on ear $3#
a3neb co(ered his ears with his hands.
-. ST -Z shMu )Ni Xrduo shNng w`
AA hand on ear $3# co(er
c. ST )Ni Xrduo shNng -Z shMu w`
I
on ear $3# AA hand co(er
/herefore% how a function word is used is related to different constructions. Some propose
Ppreposition omission?% i.e.% two syntactically related constructions are in nature identical -ecause
a preposition is omitted in one of them. For instance% there were Pc1? and P1c? patterns in
3ld #hinese and during the Pre2Din Period !-efore EE8 A#* generally no preposition was used in
them. Howe(er% in the e4egetical commentaries in +ast Han period !E=2EEG A5*% prepositions
were used and e(en word orders were changed. Some -elie(e that was -ecause the prepositions
were omitted in the original te4ts. See the following e4amples !from Sun 899I; H:% :G% :F*;
:* sZo nd% yu]n )he yR shMu)R yf shu yun tiQn4iN hY^
sister2in2law drowned sa(e FSG with hand you want hand sa(e world DP
6f !your* sister2in2law falls into water% sa(e her with your hands. 5o you want me to sa(e the
world with my hands^ !MenciusL Lu Shng*
6nterpretation; )R yf shR wM y! shu yun tiQn4iN hY^
you want let me with hand sa(e world DP
<* tiQn4iN w\ dNo% 4iZo yd dN% rug yd qi]ng!MenciusL Lu Shng*
world no 5A3 small wor0 -ig wea0 wor0 strong
,hen the world has no law and order% the wea0 are wor0ed -y the strong.
6nterpretation;
w\ dNo )he shh% 4iZo guJrug guJ w_i&f Vr yd y" dN guJqi]ng guJ yX
I
+.g. I*% =* and H* show that a PP placed pre(er-ally or post(er-ally will cause semantic difference. 6t is generally
placed -etween S and 1% lea(ing the post(er-al position to the prominent complement. Aut some PPs are placed
post(er-ally -ecause they e4press the result of the (er-K e.g. in I*% the pre(er-al P)Ni mZ-_i shNng? functions as an
ad(er-ial meaning the place where the mon0ey &umped% while placed post(er-ally it functions as a complement
meaning to where the mon0ey &umped. And PmbiBhorse-ac0? placed pre(er-ally tends to -e non2focused gi(en
information% whereas it is focused new information when placed post(er-ally. Similar analysis can -e made of e.g.
=* and H*. /he PAAc3? structure placed pre(er-ally must -e immediately followed -y a (er-2complement
structure.
I
no 5A3 @35 time small sate wea0 state fear #3C wor0 A+6 -ig state strong state P
/he fact is that sentences without the preposition of Py? !including 53#* made their appearance
earlier than the ones with it% and the same is true of con&unctions. Sun !899I; :<2:9* critici)es the
point a-out its logical fallacy. Zhang !EG8F; 8E928FG* gi(es more e(idences to refute the
Pomission? hypothesis. He finds out that the loss or omission of Py? in Pre2Din Period was not
optional -ut rather conditioned. For e4ample% Pxin? !to present in a respectful% su-missi(e and
solemn way* is found to ha(e -een used mainly in -oth Pxin c3dc3i? and Pxin c3dc yc3i?
patterns in a parallel way% and Pxinc yc3i? was also a(aila-le at that time% -ut not a single use
of Pxinc3i? has -een found from corpus. 6n the present study% :* is ta0en as a case where
functions as an ad(er-ial of 1% and <* shows that S13 permits a passi(e interpretation. 6f one
follows the Pomission? hypothesis% Pyu]n )he yR shMu? in :* could ha(e -een rephrased or
paraphrased as Pyun zh shu?% with the preposition Py? omitted% -ut corpus search does not gi(e
a single case of Pyun zhctool?. /hat is why Zhu !89<E* warns that Piomission means the case in
which some structurally necessary elements do not ma0e their appearance under certain
conte4ts>the term cannot -e o(erused% especially when a sentence is not semantically self2
sufficient when one interprets it?.
For similar reasons% the following sentences are identified as of different constructions;
9* a. #h` w]ng cd jNn)R &i`!Ynz h!n"i!#
#hu 0ing -estow jan)i liquor
/he 0ing of #hu State -estowed on jan)i some liquor.
-. #h` w]ng cd jNn)R yR &i`
#hu 0ing -estow jan)i with liquor
/he 0ing of #hu State -estowed liquor on jan)i.
c. #h` w]ng yR &i` cd jNn)R
#hu 0ing with liquor -estow jan)i
/he 0ing of #hu State -estowed the liquor on jan)i.
9* a is a typical case of 53#% while Py $i%? in 9* - functions as a complement and in 9* c an
ad(er-ial. /hey also differ in informational structure. As Shi !EGG<* says% what is introduced
pre(er-ally is usually definite while post(er-ally indefinite. 6t seems that 9* a lies in -etween in
that aspect. juan !EGGF* gi(es a full description of the semantic differences caused -y the
structural changes among semantically related constructions.
Another less typical su-type of 53# is li0e the following;
8G* @]o Suh f_ng tJng p]n Vr gud &dn )he #h` w]ng
@ao Sui hold respectfully copper plate #3C 0neel ad(ance FSG #hu 0ing
!Sh$&'(ngyun$!n y"ng )izhun*
"espectfully holding the copper plate% @ao Sui 0neeled and ad(anced to offer it to the 0ing of
#hu State.
According to jang !89HF; 8:F28:I*% a pronoun referring to something must -e placed immediately
after the (er- and -efore the noun o-&ect. /hat ma0es the so2called Pspecial 53#?.
Ariefly% #hinese word order patterns and their changes render different constructions which
reflect different restrictions and communicati(e functions% connecting with differences in
cognition and informational effects and em-odying those principles go(erning word order in
#hinese% such as the Principle of /emporal Sequence !P/S*% the Principle of Salience and the
Principle of 6conicity of ,ord 3rder.
=
E.E.F /he uni(ersal formal2semantic properties and characteristic properties of o-&ect
6n its prototypical sense% 3d refers to a patient that recei(es an effect caused -y the actions
denoted -y a (er- and hence changes in a way !cf. Fan EGGH*% or it is Pthe landing site for the
itransfer of action? !#ollinge 89<I*. Howe(er% defining an o-&ect turns out to -e difficult when
one applies formal2semantic criteria. Cespersen !89FF; 8G<88.F89EI; 8=:% 8HE* points out
that 3d is a purely syntactic notion% and defining 3d and 123 relation using only semantic criteria
wont pro(e uni(ersally (alid% -ut Anderson !89<I* dou-ts Cespersens !89F:;FF.H* consistency
in properly handling and employing the formal2semantic criteria.
#ollinge !89<I* pro(es that his categorical operations as testing means are in(alid in finding out
what can function as o-&ects and how prototypical they are. He proposes that such parametric
properties as semantic properties% properties of -eha(ior and control% and coding properties
=
ad(anced -y others are impractical% and one cannot neatly distinguish o-&ects -y using such
semantic properties as definiteness% affectedness% animacy% referentiality and indi(iduation as
criteria. #ollinge !89<I* finds out that the whole thing is a more2or2less matter when it comes to
some idioms and e4pressions in(ol(ing the use of (er-s of low transiti(ity;
88* a. /he Aishop kpa(edBownedBsurrenderedBli0ed/walked >l the first two miles of road.
-. He kflew planesB cargoesB $ufthansa Bthe Atlanticl.
Some indicate that 3ds fall in with other non2su-&ect items elsewhere where 3is do not% which is
supported -y the rarity of 3i2-ased formants as opposed to those deri(ed from other non2su-&ect
items in +nglish P*+ing? structures% e.g. ,-x+hun.ing/ .igh.0-1e 23)4ing% -ut not ch30i.y+gi5ing.
#ollinge !89<I* considers that feature as uni(ersal% and holds that the transfer of effect in itself is
a matter of degreeK defining o-&ects will show a continuum of difference among languages. 6n the
following sentences% what comes immediately after the (er- is most affected -y the action and
therefore is treated as 3d% -ut in "elational Grammar% 3 )e..e0 is at -est an e42o-&ect;
8E* a. #lare wrote a letter to Santa #laus.
-. #lare wrote Santa #laus a letter.
c. #lare wrote Santa #laus that fa#ous $%ro bono %ublico& letter of hers.
6n 8E* c% the demoted low transiti(ity item )e..e0 is more definite and equally referential% and more
gi(en and more fully affected% -ut it is short on animacy. P.he .0uc4? in 8F* - in the following is
more affected than that in 8F* a% which again demonstrates that primacy of o-&ect is hard to assess
arithmetically and directness usually is unstata-le.
8F* a. ,e loaded hay onto the truc'.
-. ,e loaded the truc' with hay.
Aoth #ollinge !89<I* and Anderson !89<I* argue that -inding a patient to the most affected P
does not mean other types of o-&ect are impossi-le% -ecause non2patient semantic roles can
function as o-&ect as well% &ust li0e .he h3nne) in PSomeone swam the #hannel at the cost of his
own health?. 'nfortunately% the typological significance of non2patient o-&ects is not clear.
Anderson !89<I* points out that% formally% an o-&ect is Pthat P which is immediately
dominated -y 1P?% which is naturally related to passi(i)ation used as a traditional means to
measure accessi-ility and identify o-&ects !cf. Cespersen 89FF; m8E.F*. Aut Anderson !89<I* and
#ollinge !89<I* rightly point out that such a means may -e in(alid cross2linguistically -ecause
there are language that lac0 passi(i)ation -ut possess o-&ects% or that contain other ad(ancements
=
/hese properties may -e of 8* inde4ing on the nominal% !e.g.% case2mar0ing*% E* inde4ing on the (er-% F*
adpositions% and I* position in the clause.
H
to su-&ect. See the following Capanese sentence !#ollinge 89<I*;
8I* /ana0a2san ga tuma ni sin2are2ta.
/ana0a2/6/$+ S'AC wife -y die2PASS2PAS/
@r. /ana0a has had his wife die.
Similar e4amples are a(aila-le in #hinese;
8=* ,]ng @iZn qe sud shh sR2le ffqin
,ang @ian se(en year time die2PF1 father
,ang @ian had his father die on him when he was se(en.
@ore similar incon(enient linguistic facts can -e found in other language such as +nglish !cf.
Anderson 89<I*. 6n a -road sense% therefore% any P that stands in sta-le and regular formal2
semantic connection with a (er- and is immediately dominated -y it can -e treated as an o-&ect.
/he paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations -etween 1 and 3 as a whole ma0e a linear pattern% i.e.
a construction% which is a form2meaning pair. /o languages li0e +nglish and #hinese% the
construction in(ol(ing a (er- and its o-&ect is reali)ed as 13 pattern% and the construction is also a
Psyntactic slot? !cf. #ollinge 89<I* where -oth positions are conditionally open and natural
languages differ in terms of the degree of that openness. #ollinge !89<I* claims that there should
-e a -ig class of o-&ects across languages.
Anderson !89<I* suggests that an o-&ect is a mem-er of the syntactically acti(e !only ne4t to
su-&ects* su-set of non2su-&ecti(e a-s arguments !or a-s and erg arguments in some cases*. /he
most acti(e su-set of such arguments undergoes su-&ect2formation and has the highest
accessi-ility of all. /he mem-ership of the su-set may (ary from regularity to regularity% and its
ran0 and status (ary according to the array of case relations and may form a hierarchy in the same
way as those arguments that can function as su-&ect. Anderson !89<I* foresees that the semantic
role of o-&ects can -e comple4 cross2linguistically% as he says that what can function as o-&ects in
some languages may follow special regularities% e(en including e4tra2propositional arguments or
non2nuclear B circumstantial arguments. For e4ample% some Aantu languages ha(e Ps with
instrumental or other a-s arguments as o-&ect% while in German only erg and $3# arguments may
at -est count as o-&ect. #ollinge !89<I* approaches it from a cogniti(e perspecti(e and defines
where an o-&ect may appear as situation2-ased actions% processes and modailities of which the
syntactic (ehicle is the (er-% and other potentially e4istential entities% of which some are
circumstantial in the situation and dispensa-le in the synta4. /hat will -ecome more comple4 than
the case as discussed -y Cespersen !89FF;88.F* when he ela-orates on the di(ersity and
comple4ities of the semantic relations -etween 1 and 3 in +nglish.
/hus% not only intra2propositional arguments -ut also many e4tra2propositional ones can
function as o-&ects in natural languages in theory. /he only difference lies in that fact that the
su-types and num-er of those arguments (ary among languages. 1iewed from a cogniti(e
linguistic perspecti(e% in addition to prototypical 123 semantic relation% some languages may well
possess atypical o-&ects and 123 semantic relations. Such an array of atypical 123 semantic
relations pro-a-ly forms a continuum.
66.F /he 123 semantic relations in Archaic #hinese
,hat is afore2discussed is rele(ant to the description and e4planation of o-&ecthood and 123
semantic relations in #hinese% especially Archaic #hinese. /a0e 8F* again as an e4ample. /he (er-
)-3d enters into two semantically2related constructions; in sentence a% the construction encoded as
:
PS13cPP? denotes caused motion% whereas sentence - is a transiti(e construction encoded as
PS13!cPP*?. #onstruction a requires the necessary use of PP li0e (er-s of 1u..ing and renders an
iconic depiction of a caused motion e(ent% i.e. P,e caused hay to mo(e onto the truc0 -y loading
it?% while construction - e4presses P,e produced an effect on the truc0 -y loading hay?% or P,ith
hay% we caused the truc0 to -ear something?% in which the e4pression of Pwith hay? is optional.
Howe(er% the two constructions differ in the sentence end2focus. Hence% for (er-s li0e )-3d to -e
used indifferent constructions is usually functionally moti(ated.
$i0ewise% on the -asis of their personal life e4perience human -eings ha(e esta-lished frames
of 0nowledge a-out e(ents which are centered on (er-s. /he 0nowledge usually consists of agent
and recei(er of an action and other circumstantial participants% all of which ma0e a complete
conceptual frame. All those participants are associated with the (er- within the frame and each of
them can acti(ate the frame 0nowledge when connected with the (er-. /he connection is pro&ected
onto a 13 pattern whose prototypical meaning is% as stated pre(iously% an agent -rings a-out an
effect on patient and causes it to change as a result. Howe(er% when a non2agent atypical o-&ect
occupies the position% the frame 0nowledge is acti(ated and the corresponding semantic role is
gi(en salience.
5ue to differences in cognition and its effects of language users% the end results of the
pro&ections can (ary among languages% and num-ers and types of non2patient arguments that can
function or qualify as o-&ect in the 13 construction (ary as well. /o users of some languages%
such an acti(ation of frame semantics is easy and natural% li0e #hinese% while to users of other
languages% the acti(ation is hard or e(en impossi-le% li0e Germany% in which acti(ation is achie(ed
in other ways. As through a su-stituti(e operation a non2patient argument can -e treated and
interpreted as a patient so that it is gi(en salience% the so2called Pmost affectedness? is no longer a
pure semantic notion% -ut rather a part of the construction which allocates salience. And the
allocation is highly su-&ecti(e. ,hen the 13 construction is esta-lished and learnt as a
con(ention% it will (ery li0ely -ecome a prototype from which e4tended uses ta0e place. /hough
what !can* qualify and function as Pthe most affected? o-&ect (aries among language users% those
e(ent participants together with all the rele(ant !e(ent2-ased* 0nowledge e4ists in their minds and
the distances -etween the peripheral arguments and the prototype argument in the psychological
space of language users (ary. /heoretically% the closer one is to the prototype% the more easily the
132-ased language use can trigger the acti(ation. And that o-&ect accessi-ility forms a hierarchy
and is li0ely to ma0e a continuum% a feature of #hinese. 6n Andersons terms !89<I*% the semantic
roles of e4tra2propositional a-s arguments that can function as o-&ect are much more in #hinese
than in +nglish and Germany% and pro-a-ly e(en more than some Aantu languages. And this
reliance on e(ent2-ased semantic and logical connections rather than formal means for encoding
and decoding 13 construction reminds one of parata4is of #hinese grammar.
@oreo(er% due to su-tle differences in the semantics of synonymous (er-s% li0e xin and c&
H
%
which acti(ate different e(ent 0nowledge% the pro&ections can -e represented as different syntactic
H
Aoth Pxin? and Pc&? mean igi(e% with differences in the social status of gi(er and recei(er% and what is gi(en.
According to ,ang !EG88; HG=% HEF* and ,ang !EGGG; 8FE8% 8FFI*% Pc&? denotes personal gi(ing as a fa(or -y a
superior to an inferior% not for the latters outstanding ser(ice or merit?K Pxin? denotes respectful offer of
something -y an inferior to a superior or some-ody respected% including offering or proposing toasts to guests.
According to Pan !EG8G*% Pc&? is found II times in 13i3d in 6u 6hun% -ut not a single one in PS13cPP?
construction% where the preposition is supposed to -e y !ito*% while Pxin? is found EEI times% EEE of which is
used in PS13cPP? construction and E other in 13d3i. /hat complementary distri-ution of syntactic structures for
the two (er-s is also found in pre2Din te4ts li0e 73n 8ei 6i. Similar cases can -e found in +nglish% e.g. d-n3.e is
used only in PS13cPP? construction.
<
constructions. /hat is e(en true of the same (er- when a language user needs to gi(e salience to
different aspects or participants of the same e(ent% e.g.% the process% result% and location% etc. for
communicati(e purposes.
6t is common that in Archaic #hinese (arious types of non2patient semantic roles can enter into
the 32position in 13 construction% so the 123 semantic relations can -e comple4. According to
the semantic roles of o-&ect% the following types of 13 construction are identified;
8. Patient2type 13
3 is patient% including result.
8H* shR rVn su (i)n*u+% yR t]o Dhn yR!7n,9iz 'Y: L-#
send man see0 Aianque already flee Din P
/he 0ing sent for Aianque% -ut he had already fled to the State of Din.
E. Agent2type 13
3 is agent% and S is patientK it is passi(e in natureK cf. e.g. <*.
8:* -eng pg #hVn Sh_dd du, -h.h,u;Yn <i= L:n ' >i? 7?#
troop defeat #hen She land capture (assal state
/he troops were defeated -y #hen She% and the land was captured -y the (assal states.
F. #ausati(e 13
3 is agent% meaning Pthat -eing caused or rendered?. Such a use was a(aila-le in oracle2-one
inscriptions !8Hth288th century A.#.% commonly 0nown as the earliest written form of #hinese*.
8<* a. &iNngrVn )huJ Vr /i)o -h0 ;Mencius 'Ling 7u& @ng Ai#
craftsman cut #3C small FSG
/he craftsman cut it and made it smaller.
-. ,\ w]ng Ad fZnyf c,ng 1!nyu+ ... d\ 5UngUu cJng ,\;Sh >& 'BCngYu Li 6hun#
,u 0ing Ai re-el want follow @inyue...only 5ongou follow ,u
$iu Ai% the 0ing of ,u% re-elled and wanted to ma0e the State of @inyue follow him... only the
State of 5ongou followed ,u.
I. #onati(e 13
3nly some nouns and ad&ecti(es can -e used !tentati(ely* as (er-s in the 13 pattern while 3
means Pthat -eing considered as?. Such a use was a(aila-le in oracle2-one inscriptions.
89* nMng ZR d[ng 5Ung ShQn Vr /i)o 23;Mencius ' >&n An Shng#
#onfucious mount 5ong @ountain #3C small $u
#onfucious considered the State of $u small after he mounted @ount 5ong.
=. Wei2type 13
:
3 means purpose or -eneficiary !sometimes maleficiary* of an action.
EG* a. ARng WiN y4 56 h,u!6u 6hun ' h?ng DCng 0 Ein*
Aing Wia dri(e Di 0ing
Aing Wia dro(e the chariot for the 0ing of the State of Di.
-. P)huJ )V shuh 4iQn^? yu[P4iQn -hu, /i7ngr8n? !Mencius ' D- 6 Shng*
pour #3C who first say first pour (illager
PAut for which of them would you first pour out liquor at a feast^? He answers% PFor the fol0
(illager.?
:
jang o He !899E; =EF2=EI% =E<2=E9* distinguish two su-types of o-&ect; 3-&ect of Purpose and 3-&ect of
Su-stitute. 6n the former case% 3 means the purpose of action or for whom an action is done% while in the latter
case% 3 means someone instead of whom one does an action as a su-stitute. Since in -oth cases% 3 is a -eneficiary
of the action% they are grouped into one.
9
H. #ause2type 13
3 means the cause of acting !denoted -y 1*. Such a use was a(aila-le in oracle2-one
inscriptions.
E8* !CdngguU CYn ...* qe rd% /i+ b9ng qiZng ch!6hn Du 'F G Y*
!Cingguo Cun...* se(en day decline illness resolutely deny
!Cingguo Cun...* on the se(enth day% resolutely denied !the offer of the post* with an e4cuse of
illness.
:. Association2type 13
3 means what the action is associated with% directed to or done together with.
EE* Xr hV wVi '. w" sh0^ !DCng Yng 6hun 'A DCng SHn Sh SHn Ein*
jou what for cry my troops
,hat are you crying atBtoward my troops for^
<. 5ati(e2type 13
3 means recei(er of something gi(en.
EF* a. Hud GUng )he ZNi $i]ng yX% $i]ng AJ *0 -h0!6u 6hun ' A DCng Sh F Ein*
Hui Gong P in $iang P $iang ning wife FSG
,hen Hui Gong was in the State of $iang% the 0ing of $iang ga(e him a wife.
9. YiB,ith2type 13
3 means what is used when an action is done% including material% tool% etc. /he e4tended use
of it can include manner% status% foundation% reference% what is relied on% etc.
EI* !Hu]n GUng * #8ng y0#+i Vr &uV hY shgugUng!LI Sh& h!n Fi! '6h Ji9*
!Huan Gong* co(er slee(e #3C die in imperial.-edroom
Huan Gong co(ered himself with his slee(es and died in the imperial -edroom.
8G. Spatial2type 13
3 means a wide (ariety of spatial entities li0e location% place% direction% source% goal% etc. that
an action is related to. +4tended use of it is common. !cf. e.g. 8H**
E=* rd ch. d:ngf7ng Vr rf y\ 4e &h!6huHng 6 '@i (iHn '<in 6 8Hng*
sun come.out east #3C set into west pole
/he sun comes out of the east and sets in the west.
88. aming2type 13
3 means what is named or called.
EH* &iNn gUng qeng -\ wVi2lRw\ gud &iNn&i[ r3 -h0!Su Sh! 'Yng Kchu 6hun*
@eet du0e no-le not salute no high low all ESG FSG
,hen jang Aochou met the high officials% he would not salute to themK he made no distinction
of them no matter what a high position one too0 and addressed them all Pyou?.
jang o He !899E; =FG% =II2=I:* distinguish si4 other types of o-&ects% -ut they are not related to
the present topic% and will not -e discussed here. Howe(er% they !899E; =F:* and $7 !EGG<; :G*
ma0e special reference to the e4treme comple4ity of 13 semantics in #hinese language% which
calls for closer e4amination.
/he afore2discussed 88 types of o-&ect are all represented in the 0ey single (ehicle of 13
construction. jang o He !899E; =EF* group such ten types of o-&ect as purpose% cause% tool%
location and association% etc. into a general one entitled Prelational o-&ects?% 6n the present study%
those types of o-&ect as semantic roles all represent participants in related e(ents% and in
interpreting them% one needs to refer to prepositions and treat them as PPs. 6n fact% the use of some
8G
of such PPs is temporally parallel to 13 constructions in 3ld #hinese% -e they placed pre2(er-ally
or post2(er-ally.
/he 13 construction can accommodate not only transiti(e (er-s% -ut also other word
classes that are used as transiti(e (er-s% which is traditionally termed as Ptentati(e fle4i-le use?%
including some nouns% ad&ecti(es% intransiti(e (er-s and e(en locati(es% pronouns and numerals.
/he e4cessi(e semantic load o-(iously pinpoints the fact that using 13 construction in 3ld
#hinese in that way follows the principle of economy -ut (iolates the principle of effecti(eness of
communication. /he construction itself can easily cause am-iguity or (agueness% -ut the situation
-ecomes e(en worse when omission ta0es place% which is common in 3ld #hinese% e.g.; !cf. Sun
899I; :I*
E:* )R ye she Vr 4hng!DCng Yng 6hun 'A DCng SHn Sh SHn Ein*
son salute troop #3C mo(e
/he son saluted !his father with his hands clasped* !from* the troop and went away with it.
jang o He !899E; =EF* gi(e more similar e4amples. 'nderstanda-ly% the language changes for
that reason% among many others. 3ne of the solutions is using more and more adpositions !mainly
prepositions* so as to share the semantic -urden pre(iously -orne -y 13 construction and
changing word order. #onsequently% 132-ased language uses decrease. Ay around the ,est and
+ast Han Periods !EGE A# to EEGA5*% the comple4ities of 13 semantics in #lassics had -ecome
so different from the li(ing grammar of the language that PPs and other means were used in the
e4egetical commentaries for interpretation
8
. e(ertheless% the 13 construction remains acti(e and
e4pressi(ely powerful throughout the history of the language e(en till now for stylistic% pragmatic%
semantic% phonological and other reasons.
/he way the 13 construction is used in 3ld #hinese e4erts great influence on 53# and its
change.
III. The definition and classification of DOC
53# is &ust a su-type of ditransiti(e construction which consists of ditransiti(e (er- with a
theme and a dati(e -esides S% which is structurally reali)ed in multiple ways !cf. $iu EGG8*. /o
define 53# is a-o(e all of syntactic nature% which requires that it should -e formally rigid% i.e.%
S1383E% though the two o-&ects are conditionally re(ersi-le in order. Aoth are related to the same
(er- -ut not related to each other -etween themsel(esK (er-s that enter into 53# are limited in
num-er !cf. jang o He 899E; ==9*. Accordingly% the ditransiti(e constructions encoded as
PSc1c3cPP? and PScPP c1c3?
9
as distinguished -y Peyrau-e !89<H* are not treated as 53# in
the present study !cf. also Wu 899G*. According to the semantic relation -etween 1 and 38% the
following su-types of 53# are identified;
8. Gi(ing2type 53#
6n its prototypical sense% it means S gi(es 3E to 38 so that the possessional transfer of 3E is
achie(ed -etween S and 38 after the action is done. /ypical (er-s include Pshng/ xin/ shLu/
chun/ g=i/ c&? etc. For e4ample
<
@ost of the 13 semantics in 3ld #hinese are e4pressed with su-stitutes of PPs in later periodsK therefore% the
semantics of 13 in @odern #hinese is much purer and more e4plicit or speciali)ed. e(ertheless% remnants of old
uses remain as idioms or fi4ed e4pressions and some monosylla-ic (er-s are sill powerful in forming 132
patterned words% word groups and phrases of rich semantics% including P1-Brun% .i-B&ump% .-Bflee% xi=Bwrite%
4-Btest% $iH-Bteach?% etc. #hus !899<* proposal that the 132-ased phrases in #hinese ha(e -ecome more and
more structurally simple and e4plicit -ut semantically comple4 in their e(olution seems un(ia-le and is refuted -y
Wie !EGGI*. /hat is the case only with the limit set of (er-s listed afore !cf. $7 EGG<; :G*.
9
6n addition to 53#% Zhang !EG8F; 8H28:* discusses I other constructions in(ol(ing the use of ditransiti(e (er-s.
88
E<* a. wM yf )hUngguJ Vr sh;u 1+ng-! sh9M !Mencius<?ng @?n DCng Shng*
8SG want #apital.#ity #3C gi(e @encius house
6 wanted to gi(e @encius a house in the #apital city.
-. &en 4iQn sh_ngrVn wVi shY% Vr chun -h0 h;u sh9!ShHng >!n Sh! 'B&ng 89n*
now late saint write -oo0 #3C pass FSG later generation
6ts the same as those saints in the past who wrote -oo0s and passed them to later generations.
E. @essage2e4changing type 53#
6t accommodates (er-s meaning message transferring and means that S gi(es information 3E to
38./his is an e4tended use of the Gi(ing2type 53# in that the transferring process in material
space is pro&ected into non2material space through metaphor. /ypical (er-s include Py:Btell%
sh&Bshow% $iH-Bteach% 2nBas0?% etc. For e4ample
E9* a. GUng y4 -h0 g4% qiX g<o -h0 hu! !6u 6hun pjRn GUng ju]n i]n*
ning tell FSG reason and tell FSG regret
/he 0ing told him the reason and his regret !a-out his earlier acts*.
-. ANo wZng dNo j_% hud )hZnglZo% w+n -h0 #6n su j6'3
Aao went reach je% meet respecta-le.senior as0 8SG people P suffer
'pon arri(ing at je city% Aao summoned local respecta-le seniors and as0ed them a-out the
sufferings of the local people. !Sh >& '7u$ Li 6hun*
F. /a0ing2type 53#
6t is structurally parallel to the Gi(ing2type 53# -ut with a re(erse transfer in the sense that S
ta0es 3E from 38. +4tended use of it is also common. #ommonly used (er-s include PduBcapture%
"%Bta0e% d?Bget% shLuBaccept% shBpardon or a-sol(e? etc. For e4ample;
FG* a. w\ w_i gUng *3 b! y0 ji<ng!Sh >& 'Aing Y% K=n >&*
8Sg for ESG capture FSG one general
$et me capture one general from the enemy for you.
-. Whngy\ )he rVn% hV shd nZi gZn *! y!n -h)ng-h=^ !7n,9izqEi h% ShuC Ai*
punishment @35 man what do A51 dare -eg drin0 no-le
How dare a man li0e you who recei(ed corporal punishment -eg drin0 from a no-le man^
I. Wei2type 53#
8G
6t means S does or ma0e something denoted -y 3E for 38% namely% the structure can -e ta0en as
Pfor or to 38% S 1 3E?. Frequently used (er-s include P2?i
NN
Bdo% zh&Bma0e% zuLBdo% )&Bset?% etc. /he
interpretation of the (er- of general meaning 2?i is conte4t2dependent and thus fle4i-le. For
e4ample;
F8a. Phng ju]n CYn ... yR qiQn &en w8i 23 2in sh;u!6hn Du '6h- SHn*
Ping juan Cun... use thousand gold do $u $ian -irthday
Ping juan Cun...congratulated $u $ian on his -irthday with generous gift of gold.
-. Dhn &e% Cdn b9 -h0 d6!6u 6hun ' A DCng Sh @% Ein*
Din famine Cin shut FSG grain2-uying
,hen the State of Din had a famine% the State of Cin closed grain2-uying -y Din.
=. Association2type 53#
8G
Wei2type 53# and Association2type 53# share something in common in that the non2patient o-&ect in them can
-e someone towards whom an action is directed !cf. $iu 899<% 8999% EGG8*. /herefore% sometimes sentences
related to those two su-types are somewhat am-iguous and a closer e4amination of conte4tual clues is necessary
for correct interpretation.
88
5ifference in tones of monosylla-ic character of the same form distinguishes meaning. 6n this case% 2?i is a (er-
of general or e4tensi(e meaning and 2i is a preposition meaning Pfor? !cf. FG* a*.
8E
6t means S does 38 together with 3E. /hat is% PS1383E? can -e ta0en as PS 1 38 together with 3E?
!note that in the following e4ample -% the two o-&ects are re(erse in order.* /heoretically% the
position for 1 is an open one. For e4ample;
FE* a. Cdn CYn #,u -h0 *"n ch8n!Sh >& 'Fn K=n >&*
Cin 0ing consultBscheme FSG group official
/he 0ing of the State of Cin schemed it with his officials.
-. "Jng qRng mVng > ff /i. >,ng h)o yX!6u 6hun pjRn GUng _r i]n*
"ong plead swear again foster "ong cordial.relations P
/he /ri-e of "ong pled !with the State of $u* to swear peace>$u again fostered cordial
relations with "ong.
H. #ausati(e BShi+Ling 53#
$iu !89<=* and jang o He !899E; =H8* point out that it is -ased on #ausati(e 13 which ta0es its
own o-&ect. 6t means S causes 38 to doB1 3E% namely% in S1383E% 38 is the action doer and 3E is
the patient of the action !note in e.g. - the two o-&ects are re(erse in order.* Generally% (er-s that
can enter into this su-type are characteri)ed with Pchange of state? semantically and ergati(ity
syntactically. #ommonly used (er-s include Ps&Bfeed% y&Boffer clothes% y&nBoffer drin0s% ,:B-ear%
sh9ngBli(e? etc. For e4ample;
FF* a. Cdn hJu y9n ?h<o D4n ji3!6u 6hun pAuHn DCng 0 Ein*
Cin 0ing feed Zhao 5un liquor
/he 0ing of the State of Cin offered Zhao 5un liquor and made him drin0 it.
-. juZnfQng t\ wf% g;ng j0n ji3 #4!6u 6hun pAuHn DCng SHn Ein*
remote area picture things tri-ute copper nine chief
/he things in the remote areas were drawn and the nine chiefs was made to offer tri-ute of
copper !so as to ma0e the imperial tripod*.
:. Spatial 53#
3ne of the o-&ects denotes a spatial entity. /he construction means S does something to 3E in the
place of 38% or causes 3E to mo(e in a way related to 38% -e it source% goal% direction location% etc.
Some argue that this su-type has a meaning of caused motion or spatial disposal. /heoretically%
the position for the (er- in the construction is an open one. For e4ample;
FI* a. >ygu ZR Hu] Vr sh7 -h0 @nl!!6u 6hun pAuHn DCng SHn Ein*
allure Zi Hua #3C 0ill FSG anli
/he 0ing of Zheng allured Zi Hua to anli and 0illed him there.
-. !Aing Y%* nZi shR shR /! A9d9 Chngsh7 ChBn /i<n!Sh >& ' Aing Y% K=n >&*
Wiang ju then send en(oy mo(e ning ji #hangsha #hen county
Wiang ju then sent en(oy to mo(e 0ing ji to #hen #ounty in #hangsha.
c. !,` ZR4Y* &iQng sR% yu[% sh4 w" #4 ji)!6u 6hun pHi DCng Sh Y Ein*
!,u Zi4u* will soon die say plant my tom- Cia
,hen ,u Zi4u would soon die% he said% PPlant some Cia trees around my tom-.?
d. &uV w\ yZn -h9 -h0 C" D:ngD#8n!Sh >& p@ <i K Sh& >iH*
pluc0.out my eyes put FP$ ,u +ast Gate
Pluc0 out my eyes and put them at the +ast Gate of the State of ,u.
e. p\ chVng yR )hf cR shY% cng -h.
8E
#6ng sh7n!K- O?n Hn Sh!*
8E
/he FSG pronoun zh! is a com-ination of zhBFSG and y !which is a adposition with general meaning*% ma0ing
it syntactically and semantically compati-le to 53#. 6h! is functionally the same as zh in their reference.
/herefore% the use of zh! in such a way shows the o(erlap of 53# and S13cPP. Zhang !EG8F; 8FG28F8* gi(es a
8F
8SG really already finish this -oo0 hide FSGcin famous mountain
6 ha(e really finished writing the -oo0 already and 6 hide it in a famous mountain.
Spatial 53# remains in @odern #hinese not only in some idioms and also in some orthern
dialects and oral discourses.
<. aming2Appointing 53#
6t means S names 38 3E% or S appoints 38to 3E as a &o- or official position. 6n the former case%
frequently used (er-s include Pm&ng/ h!/ hun/ 2i
8F
? etc. and some nouns meaning names of
(arious types can also -e used as (er-s% li0e Pmng/ z&/ h-/ sh&?% among others. 6n the latter case%
(er-s meaning appointing or changing official position usually can enter into the construction%
such as PbiBappoint% ,9ng
NP
Bappoint% "iHnBtransfer or demote% xBtransfer or demote% minBremo(e%
chBappoint% zh9ngBin(est or appoint% ,iBremo(e or demote% m&ngBappoint? etc. For e4ample;
F=* a. #h` rVn w+i r3 g3% w+i h3 w.t"gf mdng )he yu[ 5gu g` wYt\
#hu people call mil0 gu call tiger wutu thus call FSG as 5ou mil0 tiger
People of #hu called mil0 gu and tiger 2u.u% so they descri-ed it as P5ou was mil0ed -y tiger?.
!6u 6hun pAuHn DCng S& Ein*
-. &d w]ng% fBng -h)ng -! A0ng E0/i7ng H,u!SHn Du 6h& '6hHng Y 6hun*
already die appoint oldest son jing Wi4iang 5u0e
After he died% the 0ing granted his oldest son the title of 5u0e of Wi4iang.
9. #ausal 53#
6t means S does something !i.e. 13E* -ecause of or for the sa0e of 38. 'sually% the o-&ect
indicating cause or purpose precedes the o-&ect of patient% -ut e4ceptions are not uncommon. Such
a use was a(aila-le in oracle2-one inscriptions. For e4ample;
FH* a. ye fY -\ g[ng% hug sh;u -h0 j0!L:n > 6h: Sh!*
one man +G plow someone suffer FSG hunger
6f one farmer does not do farming% someone will suffer hunger -ecause of that.
-. gf ZhUu sh0 -h0 ru;% Dhn sh0 -h0 *ing% -\ -iNn )he huNn yX
/hus Zhou lose FSG wea0ness Din lose FSg strength +G change @35 cause P
/hus the State of Zhou declined for its wea0ness while Din% its strength% -oth due to their
ina-ility to carry out reforms in proper time. !Sh >& '(ng$n 7u 6h%,: Li 6hun*
8G. YiB,ith2type 53#
6t means that S does something to 38 with or through the means of 3E. Ay Pwith? something% it is
understood in a -road sense and can -e su-di(ided into tool% manner% material% principle% premise%
or foundation% etc. which descri-es how the action is done or the effect is achie(ed. Such a use
was a(aila-le in oracle2-one inscriptions. For e4ample;
F:* a. b3 -h0 gu0% guN)hNo dV dN hVng!Sh >& 'Ai- @?n K=n >&*
di(ine FSG tortoise.shell di(inatory.sym-ols get -old trans(erse
.
lines
ning of 5ai ordered his man to di(ine it with tortoise shell !-urning*% and the di(inatory
(ia-le analysis of the origin and de(eloment of such a usgae of zh!.
8F
2i is a typical one of this type. ,hen an o-&ect is a FSG pronoun li0e sh& and cR% as a rule in Archaic #hinese%
especially in 3ld #hinese% it should -e placed pre(er-ally. /he rule applies to interrogati(e and negated sentences
when a pronoun o-&ect is used% including 53# sentences. And sometimes another pronoun zh can -e used
-etween the pronoun and the (er- li0e 2i to re2refer to preceding noun or pronoun and for purpose of laying
stress. A closely2related construction is one in which another (er- 2?i or yu9 is inserted -etween the two o-&ects
!cf. F=* a*. Aoth constructions are used in the same period% -ut sometimes they show distri-utional differences. For
e4ample% 2i is mainly used in 53#% while mng mainly in the other% namely $i3nyu shi !lit. idual2function
constituent predicate construction in which the first post(er-al o-&ect functions -oth as a patient and an agent*.
8I
,9ng as a (er- means Pfor a feudal 0ing to grant titles and territories to the no-les?.
8I
sym-ols showed -old trans(erse

lines.
-. )hgu cQn )hY rd)hUng )he &Rng% y_ ')o -h0 j6/0ng%
day refer to FSG noon.sun @35 shadow night refer to FSG Polaris
yR )h_ng )hQo 4e 6hCu L 'BCng DuHn Q- DCng >&
6n.order.to find.out morning e(ening
/he craftsmen in the daytime made reference to midday sun shadow and at night Polaris so as
to find out the directions of east and west.
3ne of the -ases on which those ten su-types of 53# are identified is that the 13 syntactic2
semantic relations -etween the (er- and the two o-&ects each hold and -oth o-&ects are e(ent
participants rather than otherwise% e.g.% description or a modifier of the (er- or action itself.
Another condition is that syntactic operations of the two o-&ects are possi-le and smooth. And the
(er- itself is dynamically transiti(e and carries enough force. 3n that understanding% the other
three su-types of 53# distinguished in relation to numerals -y jang o He !899E; =HF* are
e4cluded from 53# in this study
8=
. /hey are identified as other constructions in @odern #hinese
grammatical theories% or at most mem-ers of other constructions narrowly o(erlapping with 53#.
For one thing% not all 13 com-inations can ma0e 53#% due to the semantic restrictions on the
part of the (er-s% e.g. #onati(e 13. 3nly transiti(e (er-s with considera-le causati(e meaning are
possi-le for 53#% which in turn renders interpreting some 53# sentences tric0y. For e4ample;
F<* a. jhng>gf &i` l9 G:ng-! chBj9 sh9 -h:ng!Sh >& '@i DCng 6 Li 6hun*
jing thus long time stay Prince chariot -usy.street $3#
Hou jing> thus had the Princes chariot stay in the -usy street for a long time.
-. >yd qh she% -h=n -h0 g3
16
Vr 0Y )he
>clothe his -ody pillow FSG thigh #3C cry FSG
>He clothed the dead -ody and rested it on his thigh and cried on him.
!6u 6hun pAiHng DCng 0 Sh F Ein*
6n F<*% -oth e4amples ha(e causati(e and spatial interpretations while e4ample - also has a
YiB,ith2type 53# interpretation. Similar cases are not uncommon.
#ausal 53# is closely related to /ri23-&ect #onstruction and #ausal 13 construction. #hen
!8998* and Shen !899E* identify the /ri23-&ect #onstruction with three o-&ects indicating
#A'S+% /A"G+/ and SA#"6F6#+ related to sacrifice e(ents as recorded in oracle2-one
inscriptions in ancient times% encoded as P1c3causec3targetc3sacrifice?. /he (er-s semantically related
to the construction are highly limited in num-er. 3pinions on the construction (ary !cf. Wu EGG9%
EG8F o Shi EGGF*. Howe(er% it is recogni)ed in the present study -ecause such a construction was
sta-le% terse% highly formali)ed and frequently used at that time for its e4treme economy. 6n
addition to that con(entionali)ed use% the causal complement mar0er was not a(aila-le at that
time% so the construction cannot -e ta0en as a shortened form of complementary construction in
com-ination with 53#% as suggested -y some researchers. 6n fact% most syntactic constructions
a(aila-le in oracle2-one inscriptions are consistent with the constructions in #hinese in later
generations and therefore are recogni)ed as the origin of them !cf. #hen EGG<*. /he /ri23-&ect
#onstruction was no longer a(aila-le in documents handed down to later generations since around
8=
Shi !EGGF* ma0es similar su-di(isions. Additionally% other possi-le miscellaneous su-types of 53# in 3ld
#hinese are possi-le in addition to the afore2discussed ten ones% -ut they are rare in use and do not share much
semantics in common. For length limit reasons% they are not discussed here.
8H
According to Shao !EGGE*% interpretations of zh=n zh g% (ary due to different treatment of g% as a locati(e or
tool. 6 follow Shaos treatment of it as an o-&ect of tool and interpret it as PHe made his own thigh a pillow for the
dead -ody to rest on?. Another possi-le one is PHe mo(eed the dead -ody to rest it on his own thigh?.
8=
88th century A# mainly for its communicati(e inefficiency. #hen !8998*% Hu !EGGE*% Zheng
!EGGI* and Shi !EGG:* discuss its defects in con(eying information% primarily in that the style of
matching three participants to a single (er- (iolates the Pone sentence% one focus? principle and
causes (agueness or am-iguity. /hat functional inefficiency is also responsi-le for the demise of
some other constructions% e.g. the Purpose2@aterial type of 53# !cf. Shi EGGF*. Wu !EGG9*
discusses other pragmatic reasons for the demise of the /ri23-&ect #onstruction.
Such four su-types of 53# as YiB,ith2type 53#% #ausal 53#% aming2Appointing 53#
and Spatial 53# are recogni)ed for another reason% i.e.% non2argument elements li0e ad(er-ials
and complements share much in common with o-&ects and sometimes -ecome undistinguisha-le.
Sanders !89<I* points out that the syntactic status or function of an constituent does not hold one2
to2one correspondence with its semantic role and the distinction -etween o-&ects and ad(er-ials is
fundamentally formal in nature rather than functional% and -asically relati(e and scalar rather than
a-solute and discrete. 6n terms of the 0ey characteristics% o-&ects are syntactically quite
homogeneous -ut semantically di(erse while ad(er-ials are &ust opposite to that. Ad(er-ials
constitute a class that is fundamentally semantic in nature% while direct o-&ects constitute a
syntactic class rather than a semantic one% a class in which a wide (ariety of semantic distinctions
are formally neutrali)ed. /hat the choice of a case mar0er for a noun is dependent on the (er-
associated with it is a rule uni(ersal to all nominals. Such a relationship holds not only -etween
o-&ects and ad(er-ials -ut also -etween o-&ects and complements in #hinese. Sanders !89<I* also
proposes that to a certain specific language% to gi(e the -est description and definition of the full
range of o-&ects and all their possi-le su-types is possi-le only when the description and
definition are made within a (ery small -ut fi4ed pattern of syntactic position and an array of
morphological mar0ers% -ut those pure syntactic factors will (ary among languages. /hat feature is
typical of #hinese grammar% according to which post(er-al nominals without morphological
mar0ers are collecti(ely treated as o-&ects while either pre(er-al or post(er-al ones with
morphological mar0ers as ad(er-ials or complements.
IF. Cord order %atterns of DOC in Archaic Chinese
/hough 53# is encoded as P1cP8B38cPEB3E?% the two o-&ects can switch their positions in
most su-types of it in Archaic #hinese. /herefore% the two o-&ects mar0ed 3i and 3d can enter into
two patterns; P1c3ic3d? !/ype 6* and P1c3d c3i? !/ype 66*. 3i generally refers to an animate
-eing and 3d an inanimate entity. /he most frequently used su-types are the first four. Since some
Wei2type 53# sentences imply Pintended gi(ing?% the core su-types of 53# mean Ppossessional
transfer? -etween a source and a goal. 6n /ype 6% 3i is mainly personal pronouns placed
immediately ne4t to 1 most pro-a-ly -ecause it is short and gi(en information that tends to come
first% while 3d following it is structurally more comple4 and carries richer and new information.
/herefore% it is placed in the sentence2final end2focus position% which conforms to the regular
pattern of information organi)ation and meets phonological requirements. /ype 6 is the dominant
form of 53#% -ut there are cases of /ype 66 in which a personal o-&ect is placed at the end of
sentence. Howe(er% it is not a pronoun% -ut a noun or nominal. For e4ample;
F9* a. >qh ff qi_ y]ng Vr y+ -h0 l9!7n 89i 6 '@% B:*
his father steal goat #3C report FSG official
His father stole a goat and he reported it to the local official.
-. chVn w8n -h0 l6nr8n -h0 nG!6hn Du 'F *
8H
6 hear FSG neigh-or @35 daughter
6 heard it from my neigh-ors daughter.
c. qiX qh 4iQn &Yn > d8 -u9 -h.h,u% )hYhJu nf )he w_i &iX
and his deceased 0ing> recei(e -lame lords lords anger P +G relie(ed
And his deceased 0ing>offended the lords% and they are still angry.
!h!n Fi! 8n L: '6h Ln*
6n contrast to /ype 6% /ype 66 is used mainly to e4press transfer in a general sense. 6t is a rule that a
pronoun o-&ect should -e immediately ad&acent to the (er- whate(er it refers to% -ut when -oth
o-&ects are nouns% the animate noun usually comes -efore the inanimate noun and the formally
simpler one comes -efore the formally more comple4 one% including their phonological structures.
As to interrogati(e personal o-&ect and pronoun o-&ect in negati(e sentences% as stated earlier% they
are placed pre(er-ally
8:
. /ype 66 53# is still common in Southern dialects in @odern #hinese%
e.g. #antonese.
Zhen !89<=* finds out that the choice of 53# word order pattern is greatly affected -y the
semantic features of specific ditransiti(e (er-s related. As stated earlier% c& and xin are typical
e4amples since they are used in different syntactic patterns mainly due to their sociolinguistic
differences. yn and y:% two frequently used (er-s of saying% are also good e4amples
8<
. 6n 53#
sentences with yn% inanimate o-&ects dominantly precede animate ones% while for y:% the order is
&ust opposite. So their word order distri-utions are complementary. For e4ample !cf. E9* a*;
IG* nZi yn -h0 C+i wng!Qng ng 6 'h?n Sh& Y&*
then say FSG ,ei 0ing
/hen he told it to the 0ing of ,ei.
@oreo(er% syntactic operations -etween the 53# sentences and P13c PP? sentences in(ol(ing
the use of such (er-s are sometimes restricted. Hence% one has good reasons to classify them into
different constructions. /he relation of the semantic features of a (er- to the syntactic pattern it
can enter into or enters into calls for closer e4aminations.
F. The general tendency of the deHelo%#ent of DOC in Archaic Chinese
/he core mem-ers the 53# category in Archaic #hinese ha(e -een de(eloping in a sta-le -ut
dominant way only with ma&or changes ta0ing place on the part of specific (er-s that came into
use or grew out of use in different periods% the structural properties of the two o-&ects% the
disylla-li)ation of !ditransiti(e* (er-s and -lending of 53# with other constructions. /he rest of
the se(en su-types% including part of Wei2type 53#% as peripheral mem-ers ha(e gradually grown
out of use and changed into or -ecame su-stituted -y other constructions. /he Spatial type and
aming2Appointing type partly remain in use till now% -ut they are generally treated as other
syntactic category !at -est* o(erlapping with 53#. /he following section of this paper will not go
into details a-out how they demised or changed% -ut rather will ma0e a -rief analysis of the
general tendency of change of 53#. @ore attention will -e directed to the change with Wei2type
53# and #ausati(eBShi+Ling 53#.
8:
Such a rule -egan to change since +arly @iddle #hinese !Fth century A5* until +arly @odern #hinese or%
specifically% Song 5ynasty !8Gth28Fth century A5* when it conformed to the then general S13 word order pattern.
8<
According to ,ang !EG88; :H=* and ,ang !EGGG; 8EHG% 8E:<*% yn means P(oluntarily tal0 to someone? and the
focus is on Psomeones reporting something? or what is said% while y: means Panswer questions or tal0 with
someone?% namely Ptell someone something?% and the focus is on Pthe other part one tal0s to?. So it implies -oth
Pto whom one tal0s? and Pwhat is told?. /hat is a feature yn does not possess. For that reason% yn is usually used
in P13 plus PP? pattern with the preposition y% and later y to introduce to whom one says something.
8:

=.8 /he grammaticali)ation of 2?i and the demise of Wei2type 53#
/he demise of Wei2type 53# is closely related to the grammaticali)ation of 2?i. According to
nang !8999*% its original meaning is Pto wor0 an elephant to help with manual wor0?% -ut in
oracle -one inscriptions it is mainly used as a noun meaning Pdoing something?. And the
e4tension continues until it finally -ecomes a general2meaning (er- whose interpretation is
dependent on conte4tual clues. Such a-stractness in meaning and fle4i-ility in use ma0e a
semantic condition for its grammaticali)ation.
Also% it has a syntactic condition for the grammaticali)ation. "estricted -y the temporal one2
dimensional property !cf. Shi 899=*% only one ma&or (er- in a clause can indicate temporal
information !e.g. adding aspectual mar0ers li0e zhe/ )e guL% and (er-al reduplication% etc.*% which
renders other (er-s in the same clause minor ones. As the (er-al qualities of those minor (er-s
0eep losing% frequent use of them in a fi4ed syntactic position adds to the consistent loss and
renders their meaning more and more a-stract until they no longer act as predicate (er-s -ut rather
-ecome modifiers of the ma&or (er-% ha(ing changed from a le4ical unit into a grammatical one.
As a preposition% it introduces e(ent participants closely related to the action denoted -y the ma&or
(er-% including agent% patient% locati(e% etc. /he grammaticali)ation of 2?i demonstrates that
process.
A significant use of 2?i in the inscriptions as a transiti(e (er- is related to a class of o-&ects
with personal possessi(e modifiers which can also -e interpreted as the -eneficiary of the action%
and such a use -ecomes common in documents in Pre2Din Period% for e4ample;
I8* q` -R h\li% w8i g:ng-! *i"!Sh >ng 'Du 89ng 'F Yu*
capture that fo4 do prince fur.garment
,e capture that fo4 and use its s0in to ma0e fur garments for the princes.
6n interpreting that 0ind of structure% one ma0es use of the function and meaning of an implied
2?i% and the whole structures reads more li0e Wei2type 53# when the modifier position is filled
with zh
89
!unnecessarily referring to animate -eings*. For e4ample;
IE* a. nZi mdng f\ shQ% hgu
20
w8i -h0 l! Vr gue )he!Du Y% '>&n Y% S&*
then order +G 0ill rich do FSG gift #3C return FSG
/he 0ing then ordered not to 0ill him. He ga(e him rich gifts and sent him -ac0 home.
-. sh_n w8i -h0 #6ng> !6h! DCng 7u 6hCng Mng2?n% i.e.% Aell 6nscriptions*
carefully do FSG inscription
,eB/hey carefully made hisBhim inscriptions !or inscriptions for him*.
c. &Yn)R &h fY shX yu[ Pyf )he? Vr -d w8i -h0 c6!Ln Y%'>& Sh&*
no-le.man hate that a-andon say want FSG #3C must do FSG e4cuse
A man of no-le character hates that 0ind of person who doesnt say P6d li0e it? directly -ut
definitely finds e4cuses for it.
+4ample IE* a clearly denotes possessional transfer. Aut when the 3d position is ta0en -y a cross2
89
As zh may function as a possessi(e pronoun li0e " in some cases% some sentences of such a type can -e
am-iguous.
EG
Similar cases are found li0e P-h;ng wVi )he lR Vr gue )he !6u 6hun phVng DCng SQn Ein*?% with sole
difference in the modifier -efore 2?i. PhLuBrich? semantically relates to P)Bgift?% and 2?i thus means Pgi(e?% while
PzhLngIseriously? semantically relates to P2?i Bdo?% and 2?i thus means Pconduct ceremony?. /he whole sentence
means Pthe ning conducted a ceremony seriously and sent the captured enemy general -ac0 to his own country.?
,hen 2?i is used to mean Pgi(e?% the noun occupying the 3d position li0e P)Bgift? and Pc&Bgifts? does not gi(e a
clear reference. /hus% the 53# pattern Pc&c )hec? is communicati(ely more e4plicit and competiti(e.
8<
category word which can -e ta0en as a noun or a (er-% e.g. mng and c
E8
in +4ample IE* - and c%
and the reference of )h in some cases needs to -e replaced -y nouns that ha(e clearer references%
as the pattern of P2i zh 2?iJ? is una(aila-le in documents in Pre2Din Period and the two nouns
following the (er- can ha(e a possessional relationship% the correct interpretation of the structure
is mainly dependent on conte4tual clues. @eanwhile% in the structural pattern P2?i zh/E(RW?% the
(er- W is used grandually as a noun. /his am-iguity of word class interpretation of W ser(es as an
impetus to the grammaticali)ation of P2?i?. For e4ample;
IF* a. qiX &Yn ch]ng w8i K9n j.n c9
EE
yR!6u 6hun pAiHng DCng SQn Sh Ein*
and ESG once do Cin 0ing fa(or P
And you once did a fa(or to the 0ing of Cin.
-. )hd Hu]n GUng )R jUng y\ G`% jd j] f_ng )he yR w8i 23 yun
place Huan Gong son jong in Gu ji ja ser(e FSG in.order.to do $u aid
/he 0ing of $u had the son of the 0ing of Di detained in Gu% and ji ja ser(ed him in order to
ma0e it an aid to $u.
As more and more content (er-s occupy the 3E position in the pattern Pw8ic38c3E?% they
ta0e o(er from the general2meaning (er- 2?i the a-ility to indicate temporal information and
-ecome predicate as ma&or (er-s% while 2?i functions only as introducing the target an action is
directed to or done for. 3n the other hand% as stated earlier% the pattern of P2i cPc1!3*? was
already in use simultaneously. /he somewhat grammaticali)ed 2i and general2meaning (er- 2?i
thus go through the process of gaining and losing respecti(ely% in which the 1 position -ecomes
increasingly strengthened. For e4ample;
II* a. #h` ,]ng jZn ZhQng% w+i c,ng sh9 -h4!h% @ng Yn 6hHng >in Mng2?n*
#hu ning jan Zhang for follow soldier forge
!Sword inscriptions; jang Zhang% 0ing of #hu% forged this sword for his soldier followers.*
-. &Yn -\ > Vr qi\ w+i -h0 *i)ng -h<n!Mng 6 'D- 6 Ai*
0ing +G> -ut see0 for FSG unremittingly fight
/he 0ing>-ut his (assals see0 to fight for him unremittingly.
/he ad(er-ial "ing used pre(er-ally in II*- pro(es the full status of the content (er- zhn.
/hrough grammaticali)ation mechanisms such as reanalysis and analogy and due to its high
frequency of use% the (er-s in that position can ta0e their own o-&ects or -e replaced -y (er-s or
ad&ecti(es of sate of affairs% which indicates that 2?i is fully grammaticali)ed. For e4ample
I=* a. p]o 5eng w+i C8n Hu9 K.n ji= ni" >>w+i -h0 ch,uch"#)n-h9
chef 5ing for ,en Hui 0ing dissect -ull for FSG -e.self2satisfied
/he chef 5ing dissected a -ull for the 0ing ,enhui> !he was* enormously proud of his s0ill.
!6huHng 6 'Yng Sh9ng 6h%*
-. gf j\ yMu GUng Zheqh% Cdn WiNn GUng w+i -h0 -h:ng y+ b" #+i
therefore ju ha(e Gong Zhiqi Cin Wian Gong for FSG whole night +G asleep
/herefore% the State of ju had Gong Zhiqi% and the 0ing of the State of Cin could not fall asleep
for him !note; -ecause of the 0ings admiration for him*.
E8
According to ,ang !EGGG; 8=EF% 8I8:* and ,ang !EG88; FE<% FEH% HGH% HG:*% mng means -oth Pinscriptions?
and Pto inscri-e on metal?% and c means Pe4pressions in law suits or question answering% or e4cuse for declining?
and Pto decline?. c has other meanings% -ut in the present case% it can -e ta0en as am-iguous. Put in conte4t%
howe(er% zh refers to the fact that Pone state is going to attac0 another one?% so the whole pattern should -e ta0en
as 53#. Anyway% the pattern P2i zh/E(R1? is already in use parallel to the Wei2type 53#.
EE
2?i itself can mean Pto gi(e?% while c& is ta0en as Pfa(or? in the present case as deri(ed from the meaning of it
when used as a (er-% i.e. P!for a 0ing* to grant fa(or or gifts to his inferiors? !cf. ,ang EGG8; E8* .
89
!ShuC Yun '6!n Ain*
/he grammaticali)ation of 2?i and its use in the pattern of PPPc1!3*? ma0es the pattern
communicati(ely more e4plicit and competiti(e than the Wei2type 53# since the e4pression of
one of the two semantic roles formerly lin0ed -y the (er- is now reali)ed -y the preposition. /his
change conforms to the general tendency of the e(olution of #hinese grammar in that non2
argument PPs mo(e leftward to a pre(er-al position
23
.
/herefore% the Wei2type 53# dominant in 3ld #hinese was su-stituted -y the PPPc1!3*?
construction% and such a process -egan in the mid2late Pre2Din Period !cf. Song EGGE*. 6n fact%
since the end of the Din period !around Frd century A#*% PPPc1!3*? construction is commonly
employed to interpret the Wei2type 53# in -oo0s of commentaries. $iu !EGG8* points out that% as
a sign of the demise of the Wei2type 53#% it also e4plains why it grew out of use in oral #hinese.
=.E /he de(elopment of causati(e construction and the demise of #ausati(eBShi+Ling type of 53#
/he demise of the #ausati(eBShi+Ling type of 53# is closely related to the de(elopment of
causati(e category% i.e.% the 0ey causati(e (er-s of sh and )&ng -ecome grammaticali)ed into the
causati(e mar0er% which fundamentally sha0es the syntactic -asis on which the le4ical and
morphological causati(e e4pressions are reali)ed
EI
. ,hen the new PP8cShi/Ling
cPEc1!cPF*? construction and the 12#omplement construction gradually su-stitute the 132
-ased causati(e e4pression% the 132-ased causati(e 53# grows out of use.
Sh is first seen in oracle2-one inscriptions and it functions as a full content (er- which means
Psend or dispatch s- somewhere !to do sth*? in the Spring and Autumn Period and ,arring States
Period !::GEE8 A#*.
/he prototypical sense of sh used in the PP8c ShR!cPE*c1cPF? pattern is Pintended
causati(e?% i.e.% the causer P8 instructs the causee PE with (er-al message as an order to do
something !i.e. 1cPF*% and the causee is a-le to conduct the action independently according to
the causers intension !cf. 3nishi EGG9% $i EGGF*. 6mportantly% as #ao !EG88* points out% whether
PE will do the e4pected action or not depends on himself and the caused e(ent
E=
does not
necessarily happen. Since 88th century A#% the grammaticali)ation of sh germinates as it means
Pto issue an order or direct !s- to do sth*?. For e4ample;
IH* > ZR #hZn sh! /i<or8n /4 -h0 ch64iNorVn p[ng )he!Mencius@n 6hHng Shng*
Zi #han direct official raise FSG pond official coo0 FSG
!Prime @inister* Zi #han directed that the low2ran0 official in charge of the ponds raise it !the
fish* in the pond% -ut the official coo0ed it.
#ao !EG88* finds out that the primary semantic features of P8 are acanimateb and acdefiniteb%
and PE acanimateb and achumanb. /he relationship -etween P8 and PE is acsuperior2inferiorb.
For the 1P% it is ac(olitionalb. ,hen PE has indefinite references% P8 can -e missing !or
EF
6t is generally held hat this leftward mo(ement -egan in as early as 8st century A#. Shi !EG88; 8<2EG% 8<H28<9%
EGE* finds out that the process is achie(ed -y 8=th century A5% -y which time new constructions% largely in(ol(ing
the PP2related constructions% made their appearance. Howe(er% interpretations of the nature of such a fundamental
syntactic change (ary.
EI
According to #omrie !89<9; EG9*% typologically% three types of causati(es are identified% namely% le4ical
causati(es% morphological causati(es and syntactic or analytic causati(es. According to Shi !EG88; FI% 8:<288<F*
and Hong !EGGF*% the morphological causati(es in 3ld #hinese were mainly related to phonological means and
they declined since around 8st century and demised in Hth century. Since around 8st century% with the de(elopment
of the P1tc Shi/Ling c1i? construction% the causati(e use of intransiti(e (er-s gradually died out in oral #hineseK
until the Frd to Hth century% such uses were &ust remnants of classical style of writings.
E=
3nishi !EGG9* pints out that% typologically% a causati(e situation consists of a causing e(ent and a caused e(entK
the causer and the causee are prototypically animate arguments and the predictes of the caused e(ent are (olitional
(er-s.
EG
omitted*% which forms the P!P8*c shRPEc1P? pattern and triggers the semantic change of sh
from Pto order? into Pto let?. For e4ample;
I:* fY yang% hVng shf )he &h sh[ng% dZo shf )he &h sh[ng%
P poplar sideways plant FSG promptly grow upside.down plant FSG promptly grow
shV Vr shf )he ygu sh[ngr]n sh! sh6 r8n sh4 -h0 Vr ye rVn -] )he%
-rea0 #3C plant FSG again grow -ut let ten man plant FSG #3C one man pull.out FSG
)V w\ sh[ng y]ng yR !7n 89i 6 'ShuC Ln Shng*
then +G li(ing poplar P
$oo0 at that poplar. +(en if one plants it sideways% it will grow soon% or if one plants it upside
down% it will grow soonK e(en if one -rea0s it -efore he plants it% it will grow again. Aut if one lets
ten men plant it -ut one other man pull it out% then there will not -e any li(ing poplar left.
According to #ao !EG88*% the changes in those semantic features play significant roles in the
grammaticali)ation of sh. 3n the other hand% 3nishi !EGG9*% Wu !EGGF* and Wu !EGGH; 8E:% 8FH2
8F<* attach importance to the changes in the (olitionality of the predicate (er- in the caused e(ent.
Aoth approaches share much in common% -ecause the (olitionality is largely related to the
animacy of P8 and PE% and change in animacy and P82PE relationship will lead to decrease in
it% as well as the change in su-&ecti(ity of the causati(e relationship. ,hen a (er- of low
(olitionality appears in the caused e(ent% the causer P8 instead of PE -ecomes the agent that
accomplishes the caused e(ent. /hen sh -ecomes a causati(e category mar0er. #ao !EG88* finds
out that the (olitionality has -een decreasing in the de(elopment of the causati(e category and the
changes in all the other semantic features afore2mentioned ta0e place not only in the same
historical period -ut also in the same document or te4t. For e4ample;
I<* > rug )e 5Ungy]ng )he dNo sh! sh7 -h0% qh 0X hY
if !you% i.e. P@* gi(e money 5ongyang @35 -andit let 0ill FSg P 3n DP
>nZi sh! Ki7o 16ng -h<o *6 f4 Vr ff )he!Du Y% 'h% Y% Shng*
then order Ciao @ing summon his father #3C reinstate FSG
6f you gi(e money to the -andits in 5ongyang and let them 0ill him !i.e. Ciao Cu*% is that 3n^ ...
then Prime @inister ordered Ciao @ing to summon his father and reinstate Ciao Cu in his former
post.
6n e4ample I<* the superior2inferior relationship -etween P8 !i.e. P@* and PE !i.e. -andits* no
longer e4ists% so P8 is not in the position to issue an order to PE -ut rather P8 must do
something first so as to urge PE to do what is e4pected of him or her. 6n contrast with the
syntactic means for causati(e e4pression% as #ao !EG88* points out% that case indicates the
discoursal means for the same e4pression% i.e. through using sequential e(ents which are not
causally related. Still% the predicate (er- in the caused e(ent can -e (olitional. /herefore% shi must
-e interpreted as Plet? or Pallow? rather than Psend? or Porder?.
/he decrease in the (olitionality of the predicate (er- leads to the same result. For e4ample;
I9* tiQn &iNng Zh_ng hug% sh! y6n gu7n -hu<ng% *9 l! w8i *0n
God drop Zheng disaster let shamelessly peer na0ed.-ody discard manner (iolate clan
God -efell disaster to the State of Zheng% let him !i.e. the 0ing of Zheng* -eha(e rudely to our
clan relati(es% &ust li0e the ning of #ao% who rudely peered at your na0ed -ody. !Du Y% '>&n
Y% S&*
6n e4ample I9*% the underlined predicate (er- indicates a non2(olitional action done -y PE or the
0ing of Zheng in the conte4t% which gi(es shi a Plet? interpretation.
E8
/hat P8 and PE lost their acanimacyb ser(es as another significant impetus to the
grammaticali)ation of shi% and such a loss most pro-a-ly ta0es place simultaneously !cf. Shao
EGGF; E:<*. 6t is generally held that inanimate nouns ta0e the two syntactic positions through
analogy. For e4ample;
=G* a. w]ng)R gUngshd% ch[ mZ% yef\ duU y` rVn tong% Vr w]ng)R rug -R )hX%
prince room chariot horse clothing most to others same -ut prince li0e that P
*6 j. shR )he r]n yX!Mencius>&n Ang Shng*
his en(ironment let FSG that.way P
/he li(ing room% chariot% horse and clothes of the prince are mostly the same as other peoples%
-ut he loo0s so e4traordinary &ust -ecause the en(ironment ma0es him what he is li0e.
-. ZR #hZn shR d. b! yMu )hQng% sh<ng /i< yMu f\%
Zi #han let capital.city -order.lands ha(e order high.officers inferior.officers ha(e function
tin yMu f[ng4f% l\ &Rng yMu w`
fields ha(e -an0s.and.ditches hut.in.field well ha(e ta4
Zi #han made the capital city and -order lands of the State -e 0ept in good order% and the
high and inferior officers perform their respecti(e duties. /he fields were all mar0ed out -y their
-an0s and ditches. /a4 was le(ied on the households. !6u 6hun'AiHng DCng SHn Sh Ein*
6n logic% loss of animacy in either P8 or PE will lead to change of the meaning of shi from Pto
order? into Pto let% or -e responsi-le for a situation? and the caused e(ent is accordingly changed
from an unaccomplished one into an accomplished one. Howe(er% 3nishi !EGG9* argues that the
change in P8 in the causati(e construction points to the highest degree of grammaticali)ation of
shi% when it no longer dominates PE -ut -ecomes an agent that accomplishes the caused e(ent.
Another important de(elopment is that when the causati(e $i3nyu shi changes into the Pshic
3-&ect clause? construction% some ad&ecti(es and (er-s indicating state of affairs can enter into
rele(ant position in the clause% turning the role of the causee into e4periencer in the caused e(ent.
For instance;
=8* )hR )he )he dNo% shf pe qh mf% w\ shR )he #<o> ti]n qh 4iUng yuQn%
stop FSG @35 way often chop its tree +G let lea(es flourishing fill its tur-ulent deep.pond
w\ shR shuR *0ng !7n 89i 6'Yng Fun*
+G let water clear
/he way for a 0ing to a(oid that is &ust li0e he should trim his trees often so as not to let the
tree lea(es flourish>fill up the tur-ulent deep pond so as not to let the water -e clear.
/hat the construction PPEc1Pc!PF*? is used to mean PPE is left or caused to -e in a certain
0ind of state? mar0s another important stage of the grammaticali)ation of shi. See another
e4ample;
=E* >y\ -d sh! Xr % 6 y" bBn#9ng yR sR
8SG shall let ESG e4hausted due.to rush.a-out.on.errands #3C die
> 6 shall ma0e you e4hausted -y 0eeping you rushing a-out on errands and finally die.
!6u 6hunph?ng DCng F Ein*
According to #ao !EG88*% the shi2related use meaning Plet? or Pallow? in 3ld #hinese is
popular% -ut using discoursal means is dominant% which means the degree of semantic integration
of the causing and caused e(ents is not yet high enough. Howe(er% when the causal relationship
-etween them -ecomes more and more e(ident and the caused e(ent is accomplished% the
e4pression of causati(e relation -ecomes increasingly independent on conte4tual clues.
EE
#onsequently% the perspecti(e from which one e4presses the causati(e e(ent changes from the
angle of P8 who directly causes the caused e(ent to ta0e place into one himself who o-&ecti(ely
ma0es e(aluation of or pass &udgments on the causal relation -etween P8 and the caused e(ent.
/herefore% the causati(e e4pression -ecomes e(en more a-stract and non2(olitional or
unintentional and the syntactic means -ecomes e(en more functional and dominant than the
discoursal means. As a result of such a-straction% the e4pression of the causer and the caused e(ent
-ecomes structurally rich and colorful. For instance;
=F* w\ w]ng )he hNo ti]nli_% fY hV sh! wM )hd y\ cR &h yX
our 0ing P li0e hunting P why ma0e 8P$ reach to this e4treme DP
ff )R -\ 4iQng &iNn% 4iUngdd qe )R lh sNn
father son +G mutually see -rothers wife children isolate disperse
3ut 0ing lo(es hunting (ery much% -ut why does he ma0e us suffered to such an e4treme that
fathers and sons cannot see each other and -rothers% wi(es and children are isolated and li(e
scattered^ !Mencius'Ling 7u& @ng Ai*
6t is found out that such causal causati(e use of shi is considera-ly mature -y ,est Han period
!EGEA#9A5* and de(elopment continues until indefinite reference pronoun with generic
reference li0e P0enBpeople? can ta0e the PE position and -oth P8 and PE can -e inanimate ones
in the same clause. @ost importantly% as more and more (er-s !especially psych (er-s* and
ad&ecti(es of state of affairs enter into the 1P position% the pattern of P1PcshicAP? finally ma0es
its appearance% which indicates that shi has fully grammaticali)ed into a causati(e mar0er. 3nishi
!EGG9* claims that such a process is -asically accomplished -y the end of 3ld #hinese period and
the su-sequent de(elopment is quantitati(e in nature. $ius findings !8999; F=8* lend supported to
the claim.
According to $iu !EGG<% EG88* and #ao !EG88*% the grammaticali)ation of another important
causati(e (er- )ing is fundamentally the same as shi% with differences only in speed% stages and
popularity. At around the turn of ,est Han period and +ast Han period !8st2End century*% )ing
-ecomes a full causati(e mar0er and the P1Pc)ingcAP? pattern is frequently used% parallel to shi.
For e4ample;
=I* fY &uV shuR sh! )he dUng 4e% yJu rZn se l9ng )he qeng chd yX!L:n 7?ng 'K=n A&ng*
P -rea0 ri(er let FSG east west li0e dye sil0 let FSG green red P
People -rea0 ri(er -an0 and let water in it flow east or west. /hat is &ust li0e dying sil0 to ma0e
it green or red.
6t is generally agreed that the pattern P1PcshiB)ingcAP? not only mar0s the maturity of the
grammaticali)ation of the two (er-s% -ut also triggers the competition -etween itself and the
#ausati(e 13 which is -ased on the so2called tentati(e use of ad&ecti(es as (er-s and remain
dominant in e4pressing causati(e meaning in Pre2Din Period% which in turn causes the demise of
the #ausati(eBShi+Ling type of 53#. /he im-alance -egins to change during ,est Han period and
ma&or change ta0es place in +ast Han period. See the following three e4amples which depict the
same legend PGong Gong and Zhuan Wu fight for crown?;
==* a. Ggng GUng > nf Vr chf Af)hUu )he ShQn% -h8 tiQn )hf% ju8 ddwVi
Gong Gong>angry #3C hit Au)hou @35 mountain -rea0 hea(en pillar -rea0 +arth.rope
!Li 6'<Hng @n* !around =th to Ith centuryA#*
-. Ggng GUng > nf Vr chf Af)hUu )he ShQn% tiQn )hf -h8% ddwVi ju8
Gong Gong>angry #3C hit Au)hou @35 mountain hea(en pillar -rea0 +arth.rope -rea0
EF
!7ui En 6<iHn @?n A:n* !around 8=9r 8EG A#*
c. > nf Vr chf Af)hUu )he ShQn% shi tiQn )hf )hV% ddwVi ju8
angry #3C hit Au)hou @35 mountain let hea(en pillar -rea0 +arth.rope -rea0
!L:n 7?ng ' Bu& 6uL* !around <H A5*
Gong Gong !fought Zhuan Wu for crown*>was so angry that he hit Au)hou @ountain and !as a
result* the hea(en pillar -ro0e and the +arth rope -ro0e off.
6t is clear that in the earliest (ersion of the three% le4ical causati(e 13 pattern is used which means
Pto cause .i3nzhu to -rea0?% and in the later (ersion% the S1 pattern is used as the discoursal means
is employed to e4press the causati(e meaning. Aut in the most recent (ersion% the syntactic
causati(e shi is used. /his sharp contrast indicates the declining of the first construction and the
rising of the third one while the second one as transition.
As is shown in ==* a% the le4ical causati(e use applies mostly to actions of animate -eings upon
ianimate entities% so causati(e uses of shi/)ing wont challenge the dominant position of le4ical
causati(e use when -oth P8 and PE require acanimacyb. Howe(er% when the causati(e category
de(elops into its full form and with the frequent use of the Pshi/)ingc1PBAP? pattern% syntactic
means can -e employed to e4press the grammatical meaning formerly e4pressed -y le4ical
causati(e use !compare ==* aoc*. @oreo(er% the syntactic means pro(es more functional and
communicati(ely e4plicit as it is open to much more% if not all% word classes while the le4ical
causati(e 13 construction is rather limited in that respect. /herefore% the demise of the latter
-ecomes ine(ita-le% whose function is -orne -y $i3nyu shi and Pshi/)ingc1PBAP? which finally
e(ol(e into other syntactic patterns in(luding causati(e construction% 12#omplement construction%
etc. later. 3ther intralinguisic and e4tralinguisic factors are also responsi-le for the demise of the
le4ical causati(e 13 construction% -ut the functional e4tension of causati(e (er-s li0e shi and )ing
and the forming of the syntactic causati(e category is the dominant moti(ation. 3ne of the
consequences is the demise of the #ausati(e BShi+Ling type of 53#.
=.F /he demise of other atypical types of 53#
As is discussed earlier% the three prototypical mem-ers of 53# sur(i(e% while the other atypical
types gradually die out for (arious reasons. Howe(er% their demise is not -asically due to
grammaticali)ation or the appearance of new syntactic categories% -ut mainly the chanllenge of
their parallel alternati(e syntactic patterns used in the same period.
/hose parallel patterns all ha(e PPs% placed either pre(er-ally or post(er-ally. /hey differ
somewhat from corresponding types of 53# in terms of stylistic meaning% constructional meaning
and pragmatic meaning such as information structure. As stated earlier% the semantically
o(er-urdened 53# can easily cause communicati(e difficulties and some su-types are
functionally restricted% so using prepositions to clearly indicate the relationship -etween e(ent
participants and the 123 semantics -ecomes -oth necessary and more competiti(e. #onsequently%
(er-s tend to relate semantically to less and less types of o-&ects. As the dominance of parallel
constructions increases% corresponding su-stitutions -ecome frequent which leads to the decline of
53#. Some su-types gradually grow out of use. For e4ample% in the early stage of 53#s
de(elopment% two unsta-le su-types !as distinguished -y 323 roles* are #ause2/arget type and
Purpose2/arget type% whose parallel structures are mainly P13causecyuc3target? and
P13purposecyuc3target? respecti(ely
EH
. And the #ause2Patient type of 53# !encoded as
EH
According to Shi !EGGF*% other alternati(e forms include P2eic3purpose+1c!yu*c3target?% etc. 6n oracle2-one
inscriptions another sy-type is found% i.e. Purpose2@atieral type of 53#% -ut it falls into discuse due to its
EI
P13cause3patient? or P13patient3cause?% cf. FH** has an alternati(e form of P13patientcyuc3cause?. For
e4ample;
=H* H]n shd > gu; t0ng y" Ch8n ?h=n% sh0 j9 Hn L8ng
Han clan> wrongly follow.ad(ice -ecause.of #hen Zhen miss ad(ice Han Peng
!>that is -ecause* the 0ing of the State of Han wrongly followed ad(ice -ecause of #hen Zhen
and refused to follow the !right* proposal -ecause of Gong)hong Peng !of Han*.
!6hn Du 6Lng 7?ng >iH Sh! 'DCng 6hLng (?ng @i 7n @ng 6hHng*
As to the Spatial 53#% li0ewise% the Ps indicating spatial entities are introduced -y prepositions
li0e Pyu? or Phu? whate(er the word order of the two o-&ects is !cf. FI**. For the YiB,ith2type
53#% PPs in(ol(ing the use of prepositions li0e Pyi? or Pyu? are often used as ad(er-ials or
complements for the su-stitution.
6n summary% old or new prepositions% -e them Pyin ;2ei#?% Py-u? or Py-ng? introducing cause%
Pyu? or P.-ng? introducing associated o-&ect% P2ei? introducing purpose% Pdui? or Pxi3ng?
introducing target% goal or direction
E:
% Pyi?% P$i3ng? or P)3i? introducing tool% manner or material%
Pz3i? introducing location% Pzi? or Pc-ng? introducing source% Pd3-? introducing terminal point% or
Pb3? or P$i3ng? fronting a patient o-&ect to the pre2(er-al position so as to lea(e the former
post(er-al sentence2final position to the complement which functions as the focus information
!note that such a change directly affects Spatial 53#*% help share the semantic -urden of 53#%
and the syntactic patterns in(ol(ing the use of them% i.e. PScPPc1!3*?
E<
and PS c1!3*cPP?%
gradually -ecome dominant mainly -ecause of their communicati(e e4plcitness. ,hen their
dominate position is well esta-lished in around $ate 3ld #hinese and +arly @iddle #hinese
periods% corresponding su-types of 53# die out. Zhang !EG8F* ascertains that they fall into
!practical* disuse since mid2,est Han period. aturally% certain su-types and remnants of old uses
sur(i(e. For instance% the pattern P1c3causeec3result? which came into use since +ast Han period is
still widely used in @odern #hinese. As to aming2Appointing 53#% some treat it as a su-type of
$i3n yu shi -ecause a (er- 2ei/ zu- or yue can -e inserted -etween the two Ps in the
P1cP8cPE? pattern. Aut in Archiac #hinese such (er-s often are not omitted% and in @odern
#hinese P2ei? cannot -e omitted. /herefore% -oth using such (er-s and not using them are
constructionally significant. For another reason% the two constructions o(erlap semantically -ut
also are restricted in a consruction2specific way. Some (er-s% for e4ample% can enter into $i3nyu
shi% -ut with the same meaning% cannot enter into 53#% such as P,eiBremo(e title or disthrone?%
and P"uBmarry?% while some other (er-s can enter -oth constructions -ut with drastic difference in
distri-ution. For instance% P$inBpromote? and PmingBappoint? are dominantly used in $i3nyu shi. 3n
the whole% 53# is more restricted than $i3nyu shi% the latter -eing more lenient and open to (er-s.
/he same is true of the Appointing2aming su-type of 53#. jang o He !899E; HGG% H8G*
communicati(e inefficiency.
E:
/he PScPPc1!3*? patern is dominant. According to Zhou o Shao !EGGH*% the preposition Pdui? appears in
around the end of End century A5 primarily -ecause of the semantic o(er-urden of Pyu? which has o(er
2generali)ed meanings. 6n around Frd to 8st century A# Pyu? is used to indicate most semantic roles of o-&ects in
13 pattern% such as location% time% source% goal% comparison reference% e4periencer% agent% dati(e% patient% etc. So
new means is -adly called for to share the -urden. /he num-er of prepositions increases from H in pre2Din Period
!i.e. yu/ z3i/ yi/ y-ng/ y-u/ zi* to around EG% including Pdui?. /he increase in the use of Pdui? indicates the decrease
in the use of Pyu?.
E<
Hong !EG8G; E=H2E9=* points out that locati(e elements first ta0e the post(er-al position% -ut since 3ld #hinese
Period% e4istential location role can -e partly used pre2(er-ally and all other roles are used pre2(er-ally e4cept goal
role. @ost word order changes -ecome accomplished or practically accomplished in 3ld #hinese or @iddle
#hinese periods% moti(ated and conditioned mainly -y P/S which e4erts profound influence on word order
patterns in #hinese in general. /he ma&or result of such changes is that locati(e elements as a whole are distri-uted
much more rationally.
E=
poins out that since appointing2naming (er-s are sta-le and limited in num-er and the (er-s
following the dual2funcion P is also limited in num-er% it is a well2esta-lished su-type of $i3nyu
shi. And appointing2naming (er-s that can enter into 53# are e(en more limited in num-er%
which in fact are mainly used in $i3nyu shi% such as Ph3-Bcall?% PzunBcall respectfully? and
PmingBname?. 6n @odern #hinese grammar% prototypical 53# denotes a possessi(e relationship
-etween 38 and 3E% mar0ed as acHA1+b. /hat is% after the possessional transfer is accomplished%
38 HA1+ 3E. 6n contrast% the relationship in the Appointing2aming su-type of 53# is
&udgement% mar0ed as acA+b. /hat is% 38 A+ 3E. /herefore% such a su-type has e(er -een atypical.
>i3nyu shi% on the other hand% is in itself different from 53# and -oth constructions de(elop all
the way along into increasingly different patterns% with the former -eing e4pressi(ely more
powerful and inclusi(e. 6n @odern #hinese grammar% the Appointing2aming su-type of 53# is
generally classified as 12#omplement pattern. Aut for its semantic and formal similarity% some
treat it as an atypical su-type of 53#.
=.I /he de(elopment of prototypical 53#
/he Gi(ing su-type of 53# is generally treated as the prototype of the construction. Since
gi(ing and ta0ing are counter2images to each other% they share homogeneity and form a
continuum
E9
. @essage2e4changing type 53# is often treated as an e4tension of the Gi(ing
su-type. /herefore% those three are treated as the core mem-ers of the 53# category. /hey ha(e
-een de(eloping all the way along since Pre2Din Period.
Wu !EG8F* and Zhang !EG8F* employ the same criterion for defining 53# and ma0e diachronic
in(estigation into it. /heir findings o(erlap and are in a sense complemenary% -ased on which
some stri0ing features and the general tendency of the historical de(elopment of 53# can -e
ascertained as follows;
Firstly% throughout the history% 53# has two word order patterns% namely% P1c3ic3d? !/ype
6* and P1c3dc3i? !/ype 66*% which co2e4ist and de(elop for a long time. Howe(er% /ype 6 has
always -een dominant whereas /ype 66 remains common only in pre2/ang period !-efore :th
century*. /he num-er of semantic types of the (er-s that can enter into /ype 66 reaches its
highest point during ,est Han and +ast Han periods and then decreases since then with less
language use and less semantic types. 6t declines further in Song 5ynasty !9HGs8E:9* and until
@ing 5ynasty !8FH<8HII* it -asically dies out in the common language and orthern dialects
of #hinese. e(erheless% /ype 66 is still in wide use in Southern dialects and certain registers
meaning mainly gi(ing or ta0ing.
Secondly% 53# as a whole -ecomes syntactically more and more comple4 as it can -lend
with other constructions. For e4ample% since pre2Din period it can -lend with topical sentenceK
since 8Fth century till present it can -lend with AA sentence and A+6Bpassi(e sentence. A 53#
senence can -e e4tended with another predicate to indicate the purpose of an action in the
sentence that is functionally related to either of the o-&ects. For instance;
=:* a. wM 4iZng sgng tQ ye -Xn shY 0Nn
6 want gi(e FSG one @, -oo0 read
6 want to gi(e him a -oo0 to read.
E9
3ne of the reasons for some linguists to e4clude the /a0ing253# is that the (er-s related meaning Pta0ing? in
general cant dominate an animate indirect o-&ect alone% -ut Zhang !EG8F* refutes the idea with solid linguistic
facts. Additionally% the three su-types of 53# identified in the present study ha(e -een de(eloping in parallel
ways e(er since ancient time% which lends further supports to the present treatment.
EH
-. wM 4iZng sgng tQ ye ti]o gMu 0Qn mVn
6 want gi(e FSG one @, dog guard door
6 want to gi(e him a dog to guard his house.
/he former pattern ma0es its appearance in Pre2Din Period and its ma&or form sur(i(es. /he
-lended constructions demonstrate the principles of -oth economy and efficiency. Another feature
is that some 13 com-inations -ecome so close that they le4icali)e. /he le4icali)ation ta0es place
since ,est Han period -etween monosylla-ic 1 and 38% and since 8Eth century some
monosylla-ic 1 and 3E -ecome closely tied up so that they le4icali)e into detacha-le or split
words. Such le4icali)ation is o-(iously influenced -y the le4ical disylla-li)ation.
/hirdly% in terms of (er-al semantic changes% since Pre2Din Period till present% the num-er of
(er-s that can enter into prototypical 53# has -een increasing on the whole% though some words
can no longer enter into it% e.g. P$i3Bmarry?% which drops out of 53# use since +ast Han period.
/he most frequently used (er-s -efore mid28<th century are PciBgrant or -estow? and PyuBgi(e?%
while they are replaced -y PgeiBgi(e? and Ps-ngBgi(e? in @odern #hinese. 6mportantly% the
num-er of those non2three2(alence (er-s that can enter into 53# when they meet certain
semantic conditions has -een increasing on the whole% especially those (er-s that are treated as
two2(alence ones. 3-(iously% this change relates closely to how the historical change in the
(alence of (er-s affects the syntactic patterns they can enter into.
Fourthly% in terms of the sylla-ic change of 53# (er-s
30
% Zhang !EG8F; 8IF* finds out that a
large num-er of disylla-ic 53# (er-s ma0e their appearance since ,est Han period which are
internally synonymous% e.g. Psh3ng+ciBlit. award2-estow?. Since Song 5ynasty% (er-s meaning
Pholding? regularly com-ine with other (er-s meaning Pgi(ing? somewhat li0e split words% e.g.
Pb3+hu3nBlit. hold2return?. Since 8Ith century% the P1cyu? pattern2-ased disylla-ic 53# (er-s
flourish. 6n addition% 53# (er-s sharing the same morpheme and meaning -ut re(erse in order
arise% e.g. Pshi+,eng? and P,eng+shi?% -oth meaning Pser(e? or Pwait upon?.
Fifthly% the a-ility of 53# (er-s to ta0e o-&ects changes always% which is mainly related to
P1cyu/gei? pattern and /a0ing2type 53#. Some change from neutral type into dati(e type% li0e
Pyu?% while for some others into theme type% li0e Pg-ng/pro(ide?% or re(ersely% some change from
dati(e type into neutral type% li0e Psh3ng?. Pyu? as a 0ey pure Pgi(ing? meaning (erused e(er
since 3ld #hinese used to -e of neutral type% -ut its dominant position is replaced -y Pgei? since
Ding 5yansty !8HII28988* which changes into neutral type (er- after it carries a pure Pgi(ing?
meaning .
Si4thly% the semantics and synta4 of o-&ects 0eep changing. Since Pre2Din Period till present%
the feature of acanimacyb of -oth 3d and 3i -ecomes generali)ed and can -e e4tended to location
through metaphorK formally% 3d can -e P and 1P.Since @ing 5aynsty !8FH< 8HII*% 1P2
-ased o-&ects -ecome more comple4./he numeral forms of 3d are Pnumeralc@,c? and P
cnumeralc@,?% with the former -eing dominant and the latter sharply decreasing since around
8Fth through 8:th century. Howe(er% the Pnumeralc@,c? pattern -ecomes more structurally
comple4 and semantically a-stract
31
. ,hen 3d is modified% the modifer can -e split up with the
FG
Guo !EGG=; E=<* points out the general tendency of the le4ical disylla-li)ation of #hinese% i.e.% it germinates
during ,est Zhou period !around 88th to <th century A#* and e4periences two periods of rapid growth in the
Spring2Autumn period and the ,arring States period !around <th to Fth century A#* and the ,ei2Cin period
!around Frd to Hth century* when a (ast num-er of disylla-ic words come into use. 'ntil /ang 5ysnaty and Post2
/ang period !around :th to 8Gth century*% disylla-ic words ha(e gradually esta-lished their position as the -asic
grammatical unit of #hinese language.
F8
Wu !EG8F; 88E288I* gi(es a detailed description of the structural changes of 3d and points out the significance of
the de(elopment of PyiBonec@,c? which ma4imali)es the e4pressi(e capacity of 53#.
E:
head. /hroughout the history% -oth o-&ects can -e pronouns% -e them personal or demonstrati(e
ones% -ut 3i is more often a pronoun. /he pronouns functioning as o-&ect in different periods (ary
much% -ut are increasing on the whole. Generally% 3i -ecomes more and more structurally
comple4 first% -ut then it -ecomes more and more simple. 6n contrast% 3d -ecomes formally more
and more comple4 e(er since ancient time
FE
. 3n the whole% 3i tends to -ecome definite and
semantically more and more simple% while 3d undergoes a re(erse process to that.
/o sum up% the dou-le2o-&ect structure used in the oracle2-one inscriptions is somehow not
sta-le% -ut it is the origin of 53#% which de(elops in a sta-le way constantly throughout the
history into maturity. /he changes that ta0e place to its prototypical mem-ers are fundamentally
minor
33
. Aut its de(elopment is ne(er autonomous or self2dependent -ecause it is closely related
to and conditioned -y other parallel structures used in the same period that are structurally and
semantically connected with it and constantly change as well. 6mportant grammatical categories%
such as aspectual mar0ers% mood and (oice mar0ers% etc.% that 0eep arising in different periods find
their e4pressions in 53#. /herefore% 53# de(elops within a dynamic -alance.
FI. Conclusion
/ypically% o-&ects in #hinese are characteri)ed with mar0ed syntactic homogeneity and
semantic heterogeneity so that the definition of them is formally restricted and the 13 semantic
relations are di(erse. A wide (ariey of participants in a (er-2-ased e(ent can function as o-&ects of
the same (er-% the com-ination of which acti(ates e(ent2-ased 0nowledge. 53# from (ery
-eginning is -ased on 13 construction of (arious semantic relations% so it is formally restricted as
well. 6n the early periods of de(elopment% it is o(er-urdened semantically% which comforms to the
principle of economy -ut (iolates the principle of effecti(eness. For e4plicit e4pression of the 123
semantic relations and in the de(elopment of #hinese towards a higher degree of compactness and
structural rationality% 53# goes a long way from an unsta-le syntacti(e structure through to a
fi4ed construction% during which grammaticali)ation and disylla-li)ation play important roles.
@ore frequent uses of more prepositions share the semantic -urden of 53# and most PPs are used
pre(er-ally% so most su-types of 53# are su-stituted -y newer and more effecti(e constructions%
i.e.% constructions in which a (er- ta0es only one o-&ect while the other is introduced -y a
preposition. 3nly the core mem-ers of 53# sur(i(e. /herefore% the general tendency of 53#s
de(elopment is that it grows more and more semantically speciali)ed until it is used to e4clusi(ely
e4press possessional transfer -etween two animate entities. Since +arly @odern #hinese period%
53#s de(elopment is confined within the present grammar system and the frame of the semantic
speciali)ation. /his general tendency% in a sense% demonstrates that #hinese language has -ecome
more and more analytic rather than synthetic and the correspondence -etween form and meaning
has -ecome simpler and simpler.
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FE

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