Human Body (ระบบร - างกายมน - ษย - เล - ม 1)

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THEFACTS ON FlLE
lLLUSTRATED GUlDE TO
THE HUMANBODY
SKELETAL AND
MUSCULAR SYSTEMS
THE DlAGRAM GROUP
The Facts On FiIe IIIustrated Guide to the Human Body:
SkeIetaI and MuscuIar Systems
Copyright 2005 The Diagram Group
EditoriaI: LioneI Bender, David Harding, Denis Kennedy,
Gordon Lee, Steve Parker, Jamie Stokes
Scientific consuItant: Stephen Rudd
Design: Anthony Atherton, Richard Hummerstone,
Lee Lawrence, Kim Richardson, Ben White
IIustration: PaveI KostaI, KathIeen NcDougaII
Picture research: NeiI NcKenna
ndexer: Jane Parker
AII rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or
utiIized in any form or by any means, eIectronic or mechanicaI,
incIuding photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or
retrievaI systems, without permission in writing from the pubIisher.
For information contact:
Facts On FiIe, nc.
132 West 31st Street
New York NY 10001
eSBN 9J8-1-4381-2546-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The Facts on FiIe iIIustrated guide to the human body. SkeIetaI and
muscuIar systems / The Diagram Group.
p. cm.
ncIudes index.
1. NuscuIoskeIetaI systemJuveniIe Iiterature. . TitIe: SkeIetaI and
muscuIar systems. . Diagram Group.
QN100.F33 2005
611'.Jdc22
2004022096
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purchased in buIk quantities for businesses, associations,
institutions, or saIes promotions. PIease caII our SpeciaI SaIes
Department in New York at 212/96J-8800 or 800/322-8J55.
You can find Facts On FiIe on the WorId Wide Web at
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Printed in the United States of America
EB Diagram 10 9 8 J 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Note to the reader
SECTlON4
ARMS & SHOULDERS
ntroduction 64
ShouIder muscIes 66
Arm muscIes 68
Wrist and hand muscIes J0
Exercises and disorders J2
SECTlONS
LEGS & FEET
ntroduction J4
Leg muscIes J6
Foot bones and muscIes J8
Leg and feet exercises 80
Leg disorders 82
Foot disorders 84
SECTlON6
!OlNTS
ntroduction 86
Joint types 88
Joint movements 1 90
Joint movements 2 92
Joint mobiIity exercises 94
Posture probIems and exercises 96
Joint disorders 1 98
Joint disorders 2 100
GIossary of the human body 102
Web sites to visit 108
ndex 109
Introduction: About this book 4
SECTlON1
BODYSYSTEMS
ntroduction 6
Parts of the skeIetaI system 8
SkeIetaI key words and diagrams 10
Bone types and deveIopment 12
Bone and cartiIage structure 14
NuscIe system 16
NuscIe features and key words 18
NuscIe IayerssuperficiaI 20
Deep muscIes and motor units 22
NuscIe contractions and names 24
NuscIe attachments and fibers 26
SkeIeton and muscIe care 28
Fitness and exercise 30
SkeIetaI disorders 32
NuscuIar disorders 34
SECTlON2
HEAD& SPlNE
ntroduction 36
Vertebrae 38
PeIvic girdIe 40
Nouth, |aws, and teeth 42
Head muscIes 44
SpinaI muscIes 46
PeIvic and Iower back muscIes 48
ReIaxing the neck and back 50
Strengthening the neck and back 52
SECTlON3
CHEST & ABDOMEN
ntroduction 54
Chest muscIes 56
AbdominaI muscIes 58
sometric exercises 60
Strengthening exercises 62
Contents
lntroduction
TIIs book Is n concIso, IIIuslrnlod guIdo lo lIo

nnnlomy, pIysIoIogy, voIIboIng, nnd
dIsordors oI lIo Iumnn skoIolnI nnd muscuInr
sysloms. Il Ins boon vrIllon nnd IIIuslrnlod
spocInIIy Ior sludonls nnd InypoopIo Inloroslod
In modIcIno, IonIlI, IIlnoss, nnd IIrsl nId. TIo
subjocl Is donIl vIlI In cIonr slops, so lInl lIo
rondor cnn slondIIy ncquIro n good ovornII
undorslnndIng. LpInnnlory lols, dIngrnms,
IIIuslrnlIons, cnplIons, nnd Incl boos nro
combInod lo IoIp rondors grnsp Imporlnnl
InIormnlIon nl n gInnco. A gIossnry oI
scIonlIIIc nnd jnrgon vords doIInos modIcnI
lorms In ovorydny Inngungo. A IIsl oI Vob sIlos
provIdos IInks lo olIor roIovnnl sourcos oI
InIormnlIon, nnd lIo Indo onnbIos quIck
nccoss lo nrlIcIos.
TIoro nro sI soclIons In lIo book. TIo IIrsl
soclIon Iooks In dolnII nl lIo compononls oI
lIo skoIolnI nnd muscuInr sysloms. TIo olIor
soclIons survoy oncI mnjor rogIon oI lIo
body, Irom lIo Iond lo lIo loos nnd joInls.
VIlIIn oncI soclIon, dIscussIon nnd
IIIuslrnlIon oI lIo slrucluro nnd IunclIon oI
nnnlomIcnI pnrls nro IoIIovod by lIo gonornI
prIncIpIos oI IonIlIcnro, IIlnoss, nnd oorcIso,
nnd n survoy oI lIo mnIn dIsordors nnd
dIsonsos nIIoclIng lIo rogIon. InIormnlIon Is
prosonlod ns doubIopngo lopIcs nrrnngod In
subsoclIons.
Section 1: BODYSYSTEMS donIs vIlI lIo
IndIvIdunI bonos nnd muscIos lInl mnko up
lIo skoIolon nnd muscuInluro. Il Iooks nl lIo
mIcroscopIc slrucluros oI bono, muscIo coIIs,
Human body systems
This book is one of eight
titIes in THE FACTS ON
FLE LLUSTRATED
GUDE TO THE HUNAN
BODY series, which Iooks
at each of the ma|or body
systems in turn. Some
of the titIes in the series
incIude more than one
system. The skeIetaI and
muscuIar systems, and
the bIood and Iymphatic
systems, for exampIe,
work in con|unction and
so are treated together.
There is a separate titIe
for human ceIIs and
genetics, which are the
buiIding bIocks and
underIying chemistry of
aII body systems.
SkeIetaI and
MuscuIar Systems
Brain and
Nervous System
Heart and
CircuIatory System
ABOUT THlS BOOK

D
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A
G
R
A
M
nnd lIssuos, nnd Iov lIoso roInlo lo lIo
IunclIonIng oI sysloms.
Section 2: HEAD & SPINE survoys lIo
skoIolon nnd muscuInluro oI lIo uppor pnrl oI
lIo body. TIIs IncIudos dIscussIon oI lIo
loolI.
Section 3: CHEST & ABDOMEN Iooks nl lIo
bonos nnd muscIos nssocInlod vIlI lIo rIb
cngo nnd Iov oorcIso oI lIIs rogIon cnn IoIp
vIlI gonornI IIlnoss.
Section 4: ARMS & SHOULDERS Ionluros
lIo uppor IImbs nnd IImb gIrdIos.
Section 5: LEGS & FEET Iooks nl lIo bonos
nnd muscIos oI lIo Iovor IImbs nnd IImb
gIrdIo. TIo oorcIsos nnd dIsordors donIl vIlI
Ioro nro pnrlIcuInrIy roIovnnl lo nlIIolos.
Section 6: 1OINTS onmInos lIo vorkIngs oI
skoIolnI joInls, vIoro muscIos nnd bonos vork
logolIor lo provIdo body movomonl.
TIIs book Ins boon vrIllon by nnnlomy,
pIysIoIogy, nnd IonIlI oporls Ior non
spocInIIsls. Il cnn bo usod:
ns n gonornI guIdo lo lIo vny lIo Iumnn
body IunclIons
ns n roIoronco rosourco oI Imngos nnd lol Ior
uso In scIooIs, IIbrnrIos, or In lIo Iomo
ns n bnsIs Ior onmInnlIon propnrnlIon Ior
sludonls oI Iumnn bIoIogy, modIcIno,
nursIng, pIysIolIornpy, nnd gonornI
IonIlIcnro.
CeIIs and
Genetics
Digestive
System
The Senses Respiratory
System
Reproductive
System
SkeIeton and muscIe acts
The bones of the skeIeton
make up about 12 14 percent
of the body s overaII weight.
NuscIes make up about 45
percent of body weight in a
typicaI maIe, and 40 percent
in a typicaI femaIe.
lntroduction
Thv skv1vta1 systvm cons1sts of a11 thv honvs 1n thv
hody, and prov1dvs an 1ntvrna1 protvct1vv and
support1vv framvvork. Most honvs arv 11nkvd at
movvah1v ]o1nts to makv thv systvm f1vx1h1v. Bonvs act
as anchor po1nts for musc1vs and arv pu11vd hy thvm to
producv hody movvmvnts. Hovvvvr, not a11 of thv
muscu1ar systvm 1s assoc1atvd v1th thv skv1vton.
Musc1v t1ssuv 1s a1so found 1n thv 1ntvst1nvs, hvart,
and othvr 1ntvrna1 organs.
MuscuIar system unctions
To produce movement
MovemenIs nnd ncIIons oI IIe
body nre cnused by conIrncIIon
(sIorIenIng) oI skeIeInI muscIes.
To maintain posture
CerInIn muscIes vork consInnIIy Io
mnInInIn sInIIonnry body posIIIons
nnd bnInnce, ns vIen sIIIIng or
sInndIng. TIey Iense ngnInsI IIe
Iorce oI grnvIIy nnd IIe puII oI
oIIer muscIes.
To stabiIi e oints
SkeIeInI muscIes Iense Io sIrengIIen
nnd sInbIIIze very IIeIbIe joInIs,
sucI ns IIe sIouIder, vIen IIese
joInIs come under sIrnIn due Io
body ncIIons.
To heIp internaI processes
SevernI Inner orgnns conInIn muscIe
IIssue vIIcI conIrncIs Io squnsI,
squeeze, or move IIe subsInnces
IIey conInIn. TIese subsInnces
IncIude Iood In IIe dIgesIIve IrncI,
urIne In IIe urInnry IrncI, bIood In
IIe IenrI, nnd eggs or sperm In IIe
reproducIIve sysIem.
To generate heat
NenrIy 85 percenI oI IenI produced
In IIe body Is IIe resuII oI muscIe
conIrncIIon.
E ampIes o ma or
skeIetaI muscIes
Gastrocnemius
Transversus
abdominis
TemporaIis
Biceps brachii
FIexor carpi
radiaIis
DeItoid
Rectus femoris
TibiaIis anterior
SECTlON 1 BODY SYSTEMS
E ampIes o ma or
bones in the
skeIetaI system
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SkeIetaI system unctions
To support so t parts
Bones provIde supporI Ior IIe soII
orgnns oI IIe body ngnInsI grnvIIy.
Lnrge bones oI IIe Iover IImbs IoId
up IIe body vIen sInndIng.
To take part in movement
Bones provIde poInIs oI nIIncImenI
Ior muscIes IInI move IIe body.
Bones nnd muscIes vork IogeIIer ns
dIIIerenI Iypes oI mecInnIcnI Ievers
Io produce moIIon. IIIerenI Iypes
oI joInIs deIermIne IIe Iype nnd
rnnge oI movemenI.
To protect deIicate organs
TIe skeIeIon proIecIs some InIernnI
orgnns. For enmpIe, IIe skuII
proIecIs IIe brnIn; rIbs sIIeId IIe
IenrI nnd Iungs; IIe spIne (verIebrnI
coIumn) proIecIs IIe spInnI cord.
To store mineraIs
Bones serve ns sIornge reservoIrs Ior
cerInIn mInernIs. Among IIe mosI
ImporInnI nre cnIcIum nnd
pIospInIe. In IImes oI dIeInry
sIorInge, ns nn emergency mensure,
IIese sIored mInernIs nre reIensed
Irom bones InIo IIe bIoodsIrenm, Io
be dIsIrIbuIed Io vIere IIey nre
needed. IIer mInernIs conInIned
In bones IncIude mngnesIum nnd
poInssIum. eposII nnd vIIIdrnvnI
oI mInernIs Io, nnd Irom, bones Is
mnInIy under IIe conIroI oI
Iormones.
To make ne bIood ceIIs
MosI bIood ceII IormnIIon
(IemnIopoIesIs) Inkes pInce In IIe
red mnrrov oI bones, In IIe skuII,
rIbs, sIernum, cInvIcIes, verIebrne,
nnd peIvIs. FnI Is sIored In IIe
yeIIov bone mnrrov.
SkuII
Ribs
Humerus
Vertebrae
Femur
FibuIa
Tibia
PeIvis
NetatarsaIs
P rts o t e s e et s ste
Structure
There are 206 bones in
the skeIeton. These are
grouped as the axiaI and
appendicuIar skeIetons.
SkuII
TIe 22 bones oI IIe skuII comprIse eIgII In
IIe crnnIum (n rIgId sIeII gunrdIng IIe brnIn),
nnd 14 IncInI bones, IncIudIng IIe mnndIbIe
(IIe sIngIe Iover jnv bone).
ertebrae
TIe bnckbone`s 33 verIebrne Iorm n veIgII
benrIng coIumn IInI Ins n sIIgII Scurve
vIeved Irom IIe sIde. TIere nre seven cervIcnI
(neck) verIebrne, 12 IIorncIc (cIesI), nnd IIve
Iumbnr (Iover bnck) verIebrne. BeIov IIese IIe
IIe sncrum (IIve Iused IondbenrIng verIebrne)
nnd coccy (Iour Iused InII verIebrne).
Rib cage
TIe rIb cnge or cIesI Ins 12 pnIrs oI IInI bones,
IIe rIbs, curvIng Iorvnrd Irom IIe IIorncIc
verIebrne. True rIbs (upper seven pnIrs) joIn
IIe sIernum nI IIe IronI oI IIe cIesI. FnIse
The axiaI skeIeton has 80
bones and consists of the
skuII, vertebrae incIuding
sacrum , ribs, and sternum.
The appendicuIar
skeIeton has 126 bones
and consists of the Iimbs
and their attachments.
rIbs (pnIrs 810) joIn IIe sevenII pnIr. FIonIIng
rIbs (pnIrs 1112) end sIorI.
Limb girdIes
TIese nncIor IIe IImbs Io IIe nInI skeIeIon.
In encI sIouIder gIrdIe IIere Is n scnpuIn Iung
nI IIe bnck oI IIe cIesI, nnd n cInvIcIe brncIng
II Io IIe sIernum. TIe IIp gIrdIes consIsI oI
Ivo IIp bones (encI mnde up oI IIree Iused
bones) IInnkIng IIe sncrum nnd vIII II
IormIng IIe peIvIs.
Limbs
FncI nrm Ins n Iumerus (upper nrm), rndIus
nnd uInn (Iorenrm), nnd 27 bones oI IIe Innd:
cnrpnIs (vrIsI), meIncnrpnIs (Innd), nnd
pInInnges (IIngers). In IIe Ieg Is n Iemur
(IIIgI), IIbIn (sIIn) nnd IIbuIn, nnd 26 IooI
bones: InrsnIs (nnkIe), meInInrsnIs (soIe), nnd
pInInnges (Ioes).
D
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Feature
CondyIe
Diaphysis
or shaft
Epiphysis
Facet
Fissure
Foramen
Fossa
Head
Neatus
Neck
Process
Spinous
process
Trochanter
TrochIea
Description
A concave or convex prominence
forming part of a |oint.
The part of a Iong bone between
the epiphyses.
Near the end of a Iong bone the
Iast part to become true bone.
A smooth, fIat surface forming part
of a |oint.
A sIit or furrow.
A hoIe for the passage of bIood
vesseIs, nerves, or Iigaments.
A depression, hoIIow, or cavity.
Rounded pro|ection at the end of a
bone nearest the main body.
A canaI or passageway running
through a bone.
Constricted part of a bone,
supporting the head.
A prominent pro|ection.
A pointed, sIim pro|ection to which
connective tissues attach.
A Iarge, bIunt pro|ection to which
connective tissues attach.
Joint surface grooved Iike a puIIey.
E ampIes
NediaI and IateraI condyIes of
the humerus at the eIbow.
Shaft of the femur in the thigh.
Epiphyses of the humerus near
the shouIder and eIbow.
ArticuIar facet of a vertebra in the
backbone.
Superior orbitaI fissure of the
sphenoid bone.
Foramen magnum at the base of
the skuII, for the spinaI cord.
Canine fossa in the |aw bone.
Head of the femur head of the
humerus.
ExternaI auditory meatus outer
ear canaI in temporaI bone.
Neck of the humerus neck of the
femur.
Nastoid process of temporaI
bone of skuII, behind the ear.
Spinous process of a vertebra.
Greater and Iesser trochanters of
the femur, at hip |oint.
TrochIea of the humerus.
AcetabuIum A sockeI In IIe IIp
bone Ior IIe Iemur`s round Iend.
Backbone ertebraI coIumn.
Bone marro SoII red or yeIIov
subsInnce InsIde n bone.
CaIcaneus TIe InrsnI (nnkIe)
bone IInI Iorms IIe IeeI.
Carpus TIe vrIsI`s Irnmevork oI
eIgII smnII cnrpnI bones.
CartiIage CrIsIIe, dense, vIIIe
connecIIve IIssue.
Cranium TIe pnrI oI IIe skuII
IInI conInIns IIe brnIn.
FrontaI bone TIe IoreIend bone.
Haversian canaIs ( sIeonIc
cnnnIs) TIny cnnnIs In bone,
conInInIng nerves nnd bIood
vesseIs.
Hip bones ( InnomInnIe bones)
FInred bones IormIng IIe peIvIs,
encI vIII IIree Iused bones:
IIIum, IscIIum, pubIs.
IntervertebraI disk TIe
IIbrocnrIIIngInous dIsk beIveen
Ivo verIebrne.
Ligament FIbrous IIssue IInI
connecIs bones.
Ma iIIa ne oI IIe Ivo bones oI
IIe upper jnv (pIurnI: mnIIIne).
Metacarpus TIe IIve meIncnrpnI
bones In IIe pnIm, beIveen IIe
vrIsI nnd IIe IIngers.
Metatarsus TIe IIve meInInrsnI
bones In IIe IooI, beIveen IIe
nnkIe nnd IIe Ioes.
OccipitaI bone A bone nI IIe
Iover renr oI IIe skuII, vIII n IoIe
In II Ior IIe spInnI cord.
OssicIes TIny bones, especInIIy
IIe nudIIory ossIcIes (mnIIeus,
Incus, sInpes) In IIe mIddIe enr.
Osteocytes MnIure bone ceIIs.
ParietaI bones Tvo Iused bones
IormIng IIe Iop oI IIe skuII.
PateIIa TIe kneecnp.
PeIvis A bony bnsIn Iormed by
IIe Ivo IIp bones, IIe sncrum,
nnd IIe coccy.
PhaIanges FInger nnd Ioe bones.
Sacrum FIve Iused verIebrne
joIned Io IIe Ivo IIp bones.
Spine ertebraI coIumn.
Suture An ImmovnbIe IIbrous
joInI beIveen IIe skuII bones.
Symphysis A cnrIIIngInous joInI.
SynoviaI oint A movnbIe joInI
encnsed by synovInI membrnne
nnd IubrIcnIed by synovInI IIuId.
Tarsus TIe seven smnII InrsnI
bones vIIcI Iorm IIe nnkIe.
TemporaI bone ne oI n pnIr oI
bones IormIng IIe skuII`s Iover
sIde vnIIs.
Tendons Bnnds oI IIbrous
connecIIve IIssue joInIng muscIes
Io bones.
UIna TIe InnermosI nnd Ionger oI
IIe Ivo Iorenrm bones.
ertebra A bone oI IIe verIebrnI
coIumn (pIurnI: verIebrne).
ertebraI coIumn ( Bnckbone
SpIne) TIe coIumn oI verIebrne
beIveen IIe skuII nnd IIe IIp
bones, supporIIng IIe body nnd
sIIeIdIng IIe spInnI cord. II Ins
IIve secIIons: cervIcnI, IIorncIc,
Iumbnr, sncrnI, nnd coccygenI.
ygomatic bone TIe cIeekbone.
SkeIetaI system: key ords
S e et e ords nd di r s
Carpus
OccipitaI bone
PeIvis maIe,
inferior view
UIna
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hoIe skeIeton diagrams
The skeIeton as a whoIe is biIateraIIy
symmetricaI, that is, Ieft and right are
mirror-images. Apart from a few midIine
bones such as the mandibIe Iower |aw ,
sternum breastbone , and vertebrae, aII
other bones are paired, having
opposing partners. LateraI stabiIity is
enabIed by the peIvis which acts as a
bridge over the Iegs. SkuII, chest, and
abdomen are on top of one another and
baIance over the feet.
Anterior ront vie Posterior rear vie LateraI side vie
Bone t es nd de e o ent
Type
Long bones
These bones are
Ionger than they
are wide.
Short bones
GeneraIIy boxy or
cube-shaped.
FIat bones
FIat or curved
sheets of bone.
IrreguIar bones
Do not fit into the
above categories.
Structure
A diaphysis shaft .
Two epiphyses
extremities .
NostIy compact
bone with spongy
bone at the ends.
Spongy bone
covered by a thin
aII-over Iayer of
compact bone,
which is thicker in
some parts to
resist greater
stresses.
A middIe Iayer of
spongy bone.
A Iayer of compact
bone on each side
of the spongy bone
Iayer.
NainIy spongy.
Thin Iayers of
compact bone.
Proportion of
spongy to compact
bone varies.
Function
Act as Ievers and
shock absorbers.
Form bone groups
or cIose units Iike
the wrist some
sesamoids a
speciaI type of
bone found within
tendon change the
direction of puII of
a tendon.
Provide Iarge
anchorage areas for
muscIes.
Protect organs such
as the brain skuII
and Iower
abdominaI parts
peIvis .
Function varies,
generaIIy compIex
shapes.
Often severaI faces
or facets for |oints
and aIso fIanges or
ridges for muscIe
attachment.
E ampIes
The bones of the
thighs, Iegs, toes,
upper arms,
forearms, and
fingers.
Bones in the
wrists and ankIes
the pateIIa
kneecap is an
exampIe of a
sesamoid bone.
SkuII, ribs,
sternum, hips,
and scapuIa
shouIder bIade .
The vertebrae of
the spine, the
faciaI bones, and
some ankIe and
wrist bones.
Humerus
Wrist
SkuII
Vertebra
Types o bone
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DeveIopment o bones
1 BeIore bIrII, IIe embryonIc
skeIeIon consIsIs noI oI bones,
buI oI cnrIIInge sIrucIures
cnIIed modeIs, In sImIInr
sInpes Io IIose oI IIe evenIunI
mnIure bones.
2 TIe ouIer bone membrnne or
perIosIeum Iorms nround IIe
modeI. Hnrd or compncI bone
begIns Io soIIdIIy ns nn ouIer
Inyer nround IIe cnrIIIngInous
cenIrnI regIon.
3 In IIe cenIer oI IIe bone, nI
n regIon cnIIed IIe prImnry
ossIIIcnIIon cenIer, IIe cnrIIInge
begIns Io cInnge InIo spongy
bone. AII IIe IIme IIe modeI
sIrucIure enInrges vIIIIn IIe
grovIng body.
4 As IIe cnrIIInge cInnges Irom
IIe cenIer ouIvnrd InIo
spongy bone, IIe mIddIe IIseII
sInrIs Io brenk dovn Io Iorm
vInI vIII become IIe mnrrov
cnvIIy. Secondnry ossIIIcnIIon
cenIers Iorm nI IIe ends.
5 AIIer bIrII, IIe bone
conIInues Io IengIIen nI
grovII nrens beIveen IIe sInII
nnd encI end, cnIIed
epIpIysenI pInIes. A Inyer oI
nrIIcuInr cnrIIInge Iorms over
encI end Io cover IIe bone
InsIde IIe joInI.
Periosteum
membrane
Compact bone
Secondary
ossification
center
EpiphyseaI pIate
ArticuIar cartiIage
EpiphyseaI pIate
ArticuIar cartiIage
Secondary
ossification
center
Primary ossification center
1
2
3
4
5
Bone nd c rti e structure
Bone microstructure
Compact bone is made up of
cyIindricaI units caIIed
Haversian systems osteons .
These run Iengthways aIong
the bone and comprise a
centraI canaI the Haversian
canaI housing bIood vesseIs
and nerves, surrounded by
IameIIae concentric tubuIar
pIates . LameIIae can withstand
stress and act Iike tiny weight-
bearing piIIars. They are |oined
to each other by simiIar canaIs
caIIed VoIkmanns canaIs.
GeneraI bone structure
A Iong bone consIsIs oI boII compncI nnd
spongy bone IIssue.
Diaphysis sha t A mnInIy IubuInr sInpe
mnde oI compncI bone. TIIs Is Inrd, vIII n
rIgId sIrucIure (Ior veIgII benrIng), yeI
IIgIIveIgII (Io permII movemenI).
MeduIIary cavity A cnvIIy InsIde IIe
dInpIysIs, IIIIed vIII yeIIov bone mnrrov.
SomeIImes cnIIed IIe mnrrov cnvIIy. TIIs Is
vIere IIe bone sIores InI.
Epiphyses TIe ends (Iend/IooI) oI IIe bone,
mnde oI spongy bone IIssue.
ArticuIar cartiIage FncI epIpIysIs Is covered
vIII n Inyer oI smooII, sIIny cnrIIInge IInI
ncIs IIke n cusIIon Io proIecI IIe joInI Irom
venr nnd Ienr.
PeriosteumTIIs Is n sIrong IIbrous
membrnne IInI covers IIe enIIre bone vIII
IIe ecepIIon oI IIe joInI surInces. TIe
perIosIeum provIdes nn nncIorIng poInI Ior
Iendons nnd IIgnmenIs.
EndosteumA IIbrous membrnne IInI IInes
IIe meduIInry cnvIIy.
Bone ceIIs Bone conInIns boneIormIng ceIIs
cnIIed osIeobInsIs nnd bonedesIroyIng ceIIs
cnIIed osIeocInsIs.
ArticuIar cartiIage
NeduIIary marrow cavity
Endosteum Periosteum
BIood vesseIs
and nerves
VoIkmanns
canaI
CentraI canaI
Periosteum
LameIIae
Haversian
system

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Bone and cartiIage
Compact hard bone is
dense and strong.
Spongy canceIIous
bone has honeycomb-
Iike spaces. HyaIine
cartiIage incIudes
articuIar |oint cartiIage.
EIastic cartiIage is
springy and found in
Iocations such as the ear
fIap. FibrocartiIage is
denser and stronger, and
reinforces some |oints.
Section through a
short bone
Microscopic section
through hyaIine cartiIage
Microscopic section
through eIastic cartiIage
Microscopic section
through ibro cartiIage
Section through a
Iat bone
Compact bone
Chondrones
Chondrocytes
Spongy bone
Compact
bone
nterceIIuIar matrix
ground substance
nterceIIuIar matrix
Chondrones
CeII haIo
CoIIagen fibers
Compact bone
Spongy
bone
EIastic fibers
Chondrones
Musc e s ste
Super iciaI muscIes
These are muscIes |ust under the skin.
Beneath are intermediate and deep
muscIe Iayers.
MuscIes comprIse bundIes oI eInsIIc IIbers IInI
conIrncI Io produce movemenI vIen
sIImuInIed by nerve ImpuIses. TIere nre IIree
mnIn Iypes oI muscIe IIssue, dIIIerenIInIed In
boII sIrucIure nnd IuncIIons: skeIeInI,
smooII, nnd cnrdInc.
SkeIetaI muscIe AIso knovn ns sIrInIed
(sIrIped) or voIunInry muscIe, skeIeInI muscIe
opernIes IIe bony skeIeIon. SkeIeInI muscIes
nre mosIIy under conscIous or voIunInry
conIroI (IIey cnn be conIrncIed nI vIII).
SkeIeInI muscIe ceIIs nre Iong, sIIm, nnd
cyIIndrIcnI vIII muIIIpIe nucIeI sIIunIed nenr
ceII membrnnes. TIe ceIIs nre coIIecIed InIo
bundIes nnd covered by InscIne oI connecIIve
IIssue Io Iorm IndIvIdunI muscIes. SkeIeInI
muscIes nre nIIncIed Io bones, cnrIIInges,
IIgnmenIs, skIn, or oIIer muscIes.
ConnecIIons nre dIrecI, or vIn cordIIke
Iendons (sInevs), or nponeuroses (IIbrous
sIeeIs). SkeIeInI muscIes IuncIIon eIIIer ns
prIme movers, ns nnIngonIsIs opposIng prIme
movers, ns IInIIon muscIes (sIendyIng one
pnrI ns n bnse Ior oIIers), or ns synergIsIs
vorkIng vIII prIme movers Io prevenI
unvnnIed movemenIs.
Smooth muscIe IIer nnmes Ior IIIs Iype
oI muscIe nre unsIrInIed (unsIrIped),
InvoIunInry, or vIscernI muscIe. SmooII
muscIe ceIIs nre spIndIesInped (Iong vIII
InperIng ends; IIIcker In IIe mIddIe IInn nI
IIe ends) nnd under IIe mIcroscope Inve no
crosssIrIpes. TIe ceIIs nre nrrnnged cIose
IogeIIer InIo sIeeIs. TIIs Iype oI muscIe
IIssue Is Iound In IIe vnIIs oI bIood vesseIs
nnd InIernnI orgnns sucI ns IIe sIomncI nnd
InIesIInes. II vorks nuIomnIIcnIIy, vIIIouI IIe
need Ior conscIous conIroI.
Cardiac muscIe TIIs Iype oI muscIe Is Iound
onIy In IIe IenrI, IormIng IIe myocnrdIum,
IIe IenrI vnII`s muscuInr mIddIe Inyer. IIs
ceIIs, vIIcI nre pnrIsIrInIed, nre cyIIndrIcnI
vIII brnncIes, oIIen YsInped, nnd
conInInIng n cenIrnI nucIeus. CnrdInc muscIe
ceIIs nre sepnrnIed by juncIIons cnIIed
InIercnInIed dIsks, nnd Iorm n dense neIvork
encnsed In connecIIve IIssue. CnrdInc muscIe
vorks vIIIouI conscIous conIroI Io produce
conIrncIIons (IenrIbenIs) IInI propeI bIood
nround IIe body.
D
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MuscIe groups SkeIeInI muscIes nre grouped
by IocnIIon InIo: Iend muscIes (opernIIng IIe
scnIp, eyeIIds, nose, mouII, nnd jnvs);
nnIeroInIernI neck muscIes (IncIudIng cervIcnI,
IyoId, nnd nnIerIor nnd InIernI verIebrnI
muscIes); Irunk muscIes (IncIudIng IIe IIorn,
nbdomen, bnck, peIvIs, nnd perIneum); nnd
upper nnd Iover IImb muscIes.
MuscIe actions Mnny dIIIerenI Ierms
descrIbe IIe ncIIons oI muscIes. TIese nre
oIIen IncorpornIed InIo IIe nnme oI IIe
muscIe. For enmpIe, IIe pronnIor Ieres In
IIe Iorenrm pronnIes IIe Innd, IurnIng IIe
pnIm dovnvnrd or bnckvnrd. TIe ndducIor
mngnus ndducIs IIe IIIgI, puIIIng II Iovnrd
IIe mIdIIne oI IIe body.
Smooth visceraI muscIe
Cardiac muscIe
SkeIetaI striated muscIe
LongitudinaI section
TypicaI Iocation
TypicaI Iocation
TypicaI Iocation
ntestinaI tract,
other viscera
Nyocardium in
waIIs of heart
Iimbs, head,
neck, trunk
CeII nucIei
CeII nucIei
Connective tissue
CeII nucIei
CeII nucIei
Connective tissue
Cross
-stripes
striations
Cross
-stripes
striations
Cross-stripes
striations
Connective tissue
CeII nucIei
ntercaIated discs
Connective
tissue
CeII nucIei
Connective
tissue
Musc e e tures nd e ords Musc e e tures nd e ords Musc e e tures nd e ords
SkeIetaI muscIe tissue eatures
E citabiIity
TIe nbIIIIy Io receIve nnd respond Io n
sIImuIus. MuscIes receIve sIImuII In IIe Iorm
oI nerve sIgnnIs Irom IIe nervous sysIem.
TIey respond by conIrncIIon.
ContractiIity
TIe nbIIIIy Io sIorIen. VIen sIImuInIed,
muscIes sIorIen Io produce movemenI. A
vIoIe muscIe mny conIrncI by 1520 percenI
oI IIs normnI or resIIng IengII.
EIasticity
TIe nbIIIIy oI n muscIe Io reIurn Io IIs normnI
or resIIng sIze nIIer conIrncIIon or eIensIon.
E tensibiIity
TIe cnpncIIy Io be sIreIcIed or eIended.
Mnny skeIeInI muscIes nre nrrnnged In
pnIrs so IInI vIen one conIrncIs,
IIe oIIer Is sIreIcIed Ionger In
reInIIon Io IIs reIned or
resIIng sInIe. Some
muscIes cnn be
eIended Io more
IInn IvIce IIeIr
normnI resIIng
IengII.
Smooth muscIe tissue eatures
Shape
Nost smooth visceraI muscIe is
arranged in Iayers, sheets, tubes, or
bags, which are not connected to the
skeIetaI system.
ContractiIity
Some smooth muscIe tends to shorten
with a rhythmic traveIing pattern,
sending a wave of contraction aIong or
through its structure. Other smooth
muscIe retains its contracted state
tonus for Ionger periods, from minutes
to hours, without the fatigue associated
with skeIetaI muscIe tissue.
E ampIes
Changing bIood vesseI widths changes
of eye pupiI diameter and Iens shape
erection of tiny hairs in the skin
propuIsion of urine from kidneys to
bIadder uterine contractions at birth.
Super iciaI
muscIes
Nany of
the back
muscIes
are in fact
concerned
with the
shouIder
and hip.
Extended
muscIes
Contracted
muscIes
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Abductor A muscIe IInI moves n bone (or
IImb) nvny Irom IIe body`s mIdIIne.
Adductor A muscIe IInI moves n bone (or
IImb) Iovnrd IIe body`s mIdIIne.
Biceps A muscIe vIII Ivo Iends: bIceps
brncIII In IIe upper nrm nnd bIceps IemorIs
In IIe IIIgI.
Brevis TIe sIorIesI oI sImIInrIy nnmed
muscIes, sucI ns peroneus brevIs.
Cardiac muscIe InvoIunInry sIrInIed
muscIe, Iound onIy In IIe IenrI.
Depressor A muscIe IInI resuIIs In
dovnvnrd movemenI.
DiaphragmTIe muscuInr sIeeI IInI
sepnrnIes IIe IIorn (cIesI) nnd nbdomen. II
conIrncIs nnd IInIIens durIng InspIrnIIon
(brenIIIng In), nnd IIen reInes nnd
becomes domesInped durIng epIrnIIon
(brenIIIng ouI).
E tensor A muscIe IInI Increnses (mnkes
Iess sInrp) IIe nngIe oI n joInI, ns vIen
eIendIng (sIrnIgIIenIng) IIe eIbov.
Fascia ConnecIIve IIssue Iormed InIo
Inyers. ne Iype, deep InscIn, Iorms sIenIIs
nround IndIvIdunI muscIes.
FascicIe ( FnscIcuIus) A bundIe oI muscIe
or nerve IIbers.
FIe or A muscIe IInI decrenses (mnkes
sInrper) IIe nngIe oI n joInI, ns vIen IIeIng
(bendIng) IIe eIbov.
GIuteus ne oI IIe IIree pnIred muscIes In
IIe buIIocks. CIuIeus mnImus Is IIe body`s
InrgesI muscIe.
Insertion TIe poInI oI nIIncImenI oI n
muscIe IInI Is reInIIveIy movnbIe vIen IIe
muscIe conIrncIs.
Levator A muscIe IInI IIIIs or resuIIs In
upvnrd movemenI.
Ma imus TIe InrgesI nmong sImIInr
muscIes, sucI ns gIuIeus mnImus.
Minimus TIe smnIIesI oI sImIInr muscIes.
Myocardium CnrdInc muscIe IormIng IIe
mIddIe Inyer oI IIe IenrI vnII.
OrbicuIaris A muscIe vIII IIbers IInI run In
n cIrcuInr dIrecIIon, Ior enmpIe orbIcuInrIs
ocuII (nround IIe eye) or orbIcuInrIs orI
(nround IIe mouII).
Origin TIe poInI oI nIIncImenI oI n muscIe
IInI remnIns reInIIveIy IIed vIen IIe
muscIe conIrncIs.
PeristaIsis Vnves oI muscuInr conIrncIIon
IInI propeI subsInnces IIrougI pnssngevnys,
sucI ns IIe nIImenInry cnnnI.
Rectus A muscIe vIII sIrnIgII IIbers, sucI
ns recIus IemorIs In IIe IIIgI.
Rhomboideus A rIomboIdsInped muscIe,
sucI ns rIomboIdeus mnjor nnd
rIomboIdeus mInor In IIe upper bnck.
Rotator A muscIe IInI moves n bone
nround IIs IongIIudInnI nIs.
Sphincter A rIngsInped muscIe IInI
conIrncIs Io cIose nn orIIIce.
Tendons Bnnds oI IIbrous connecIIve IIssue
joInIng muscIes Io bones.
Tensor A muscIe IInI Increnses IensIon or
rIgIdIIy (sIIIIness).
Teres A round muscIe, sucI ns Ieres mnjor
nnd Ieres mInor In IIe sIouIder.
Transversus A muscIe vIII IIbers nI rIgII
nngIes Io IIe mIdIIne, Ior enmpIe
Irnnsversus nbdomInIs.
Triceps A muscIe vIII IIree Iends,
especInIIy IrIceps brncIII In IIe upper nrm.
astus A Ierm denoIIng n reInIIveIy Inrge or
Iuge muscIe compnred Io IIose nround II,
sucI ns vnsIus InIernIIs In IIe IIIgI.
MuscIe system: key ords
Musc e ers su er ici
Seen from the rear, the trunk is
dominated by muscIes
associated with moving or
stabiIizing the neck and Iimb
girdIes. True spinaI or vertebraI
muscIes are in deeper Iayers.
Posterior vie o the super iciaI muscIes
DeItoid
Triceps brachii
Gastrocnemius
Trapezius
Latissimus dorsi
SoIeus
Extensors for wrist and fingers
GIuteus maximus
D
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With arms supine paIms facing
forward , fIexors of the eIbow,
wrist, and fingers are visibIe.
Nany upper arm muscIes
brachii have their equivaIents
in the thigh femoris .
Anterior vie o the super iciaI muscIes
Rectus abdominis
Gastrocnemius
Trapezius
DeItoid
PectoraIis ma|or
Biceps brachii
FIexors for wrist and fingers
BrachiaIis
Sartorius
SoIeus
Dee usc es nd otor units
Nost deep muscIes Iie directIy against
bones. The ad|acent surfaces are
protected against rubbing by various
structures such as bursae fIuid-fiIIed
sacs or fibrous tendons.
Deep muscIes tense to prevent them
being squashed as superficiaI muscIes
overIying them contract and buIge,
which couId cause pressure disruption
to their bIood or nerve suppIies.
Anterior vie o deep muscIes Posterior vie o deep muscIes
TemporaIis
ObIiquus
internus
Adductor
magnus
Adductor
Iongus
SemispinaIis
capitis
Levator scapuIae
Piriformis
PIantaris
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Motor units
MuscIe IIbers Inve Io conIrncI quIckIy vIen
sIImuInIed In order Io brIng nbouI n gIven
ncIIon. To do IIIs IIey nre Ied by nerves Irom
IIe cenIrnI nervous sysIemIIe brnIn nnd
spInnI cord. A sIngIe neuron (nerve ceII vIII
IIs IIber) nnd nII IIe muscIe IIbers IInI II
sIImuInIes nre knovn ns IIe moIor unII.
IIIerenI muscIes Inve dIIIerenI numbers oI
moIor unIIs. MuscIes IInI requIre very precIse
ncIIon, IIke IIose movIng IIe eyebnII, Inve
smnII moIor unIIs vIII ns Iev ns Iour muscIe
IIbers encI. MuscIes vIII Iess precIse
movemenIs, sucI ns IIe bIg muscIes oI IIe
IIp nnd IIIgI, Inve Inrge moIor unIIs, encI
vIII mnny Iundreds oI muscIe IIbers.
Ho a motor unit orks
1 A nerve ImpuIse Is senI nIong IIe moIor neuron`s IIber
or non. VIen IIe ImpuIse nrrIves nI IIe moIor end
pInIe, n cIemIcnI cnIIed nceIyIcIoIIne Is reIensed Irom
IIe non IermInnIs.
2 TIe cIemIcnI crosses IIe mIcrognps beIveen IIe
non IermInnIs nnd IIeIr muscIe IIbers nnd sIImuInIes
IIe IIbers In IIe Iorm oI nn eIecIrIc cInrge. TIe cInrge
pnsses nIong IIe muscIe IIbers, vIIcI conIrncI. TIe
muscIe IIbers oI IIe moIor unII IIen reIn unIess IIere
Is nnoIIer nerve ImpuIse.
The aII or none principIe
A sIngIe muscIe IIber does noI ncI vIII grnded responses
ns IIe sIrengII or Irequency oI IIe IncomIng nerve
sIgnnIs Increnses. II eIIIer responds mnImnIIy or noI nI
nII. TIIs menns IInI IIe Iorce oI conIrncIIon oI IIe
vIoIe muscIe depends on IIe number oI IIbers ecIIed.
In Iurn IIIs depends pnrIIy on IIe number oI IIbers per
moIor unII.
1
2
Structure
FncI moIor unII Is served by one moIor nerve IIber or non Irom n moIor nerve. TIe non
IermInnIs oI IIe moIor neuron nIIncI Io IIe muscIe IIbers nI poInIs cnIIed moIor end pInIes or
neuromuscuInr juncIIons (see beIov).
Notor nerve fiber
axon
Notor
end pIates
NuscIe body
beIIy
Notor neurons
Notor nerve
Bone
NuscIe fibers
Musc e contr ctions nd n es
Isotonic contractions
Tension in the muscIe remains constant
whiIe the muscIe is contracting. For
exampIe, picking up a heavy book resuIts in
an isotonic contraction of the biceps in the
arm. sotonic contractions can be concentric
or eccentric.
Concentric contractions
The muscIe shortens whiIe contracting. For
exampIe, the biceps in the arm shortens as
the arm is raised and the tension in the
muscIe remains constant.
Eccentric contractions
The muscIe Iengthens even though exerting
tension, being puIIed by an opposing muscIe
or a weight such as a Iifted Ioad.
Isometric contractions
Tension increases but the muscIe
remains the same Iengthit neither
Iengthens nor shortens. For
exampIe, an isometric contraction
occurs when a weight is too heavy
to be Iifted: tension in the biceps
increases as the muscIe tries to
raise the weight, but the Iength of
the biceps remains constant.
sometric contractions occur aImost
constantIy in many body parts to
maintain posture and baIance.
Tetanic and t itch contractions
Tetanic contractions
For muscIes Io vork eIIIcIenIIy IIey need Io
produce coordInnIed, IIuId movemenIs. A
IeInnIc conIrncIIon Is produced vIen severnI
sIImuII bombnrd n muscIe In rnpId successIon.
RepenIed conIrncIIons oI seIs oI muscIe IIbers
nre coordInnIed InIo n susInIned overnII
conIrncIIon or IeInnus. TIIs Is IIe vny
muscIes normnIIy conIrncI.
T itch contractions
A IvIIcI Is n quIck, uncoordInnIed response Io
n sIImuIus. TvIIcI conIrncIIons In muscIe cnn
be produced under InbornIory condIIIons.
sometric contraction as muscIe puII tension
increases but Iength remains constant
Biceps brachii
reIaxed
Biceps brachii
reIaxed
Biceps brachii
contracts
Biceps brachii
contracted

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NuscIes can be named according to their Iocation,
shape, size, origins, insertions, action, and according
to the direction in which their muscIe fibers run.
a Location
Some muscIes have been named according to their
position on the body. For exampIe, the intercostaIs are
muscIes that run between the ribs costaIs the tibiaIis
anterior is Iocated on the front anterior of the tibia bone.
b Shape
Some muscIes are named with reference to their shape:
deItoid trianguIar , Iatissimus wide , teres round ,
rhomboid diamond shaped . For exampIe, the trapezius
in the back is trapezoid in shape.
c Si e
The terms maximus Iargest and minimus smaIIest are
used to differentiate between simiIarIy named muscIes.
For exampIe, the gIuteus maximus is a simiIarIy shaped
muscIe to the gIuteus minimus, which is Iocated in the
same area of the body. The terms Iongus Iong , brevis
short , and vastus huge are simiIarIy used.
d Direction o muscIe ibers
NuscIes are sometimes named for the way in which their
fibers run compared with an imaginary Iine running down
the midIine of the body.
NuscIes with the word rectus straight in the name have
fibers running paraIIeI to the midIinethe rectus femoris
in the front of the thigh, for exampIe.
Those with the word transversus have muscIes with
fibers running at right angIes to the midIinethe
transversus abdominis, for exampIe.
The term obIique indicates that the muscIe fibers run
obIiqueIy diagonaIIy to the midIine.
OrbicuIaris muscIes have fibers that run in a circuIar
direction, such as the eyeIid muscIes, orbicuIaris ocuIus.
Naming skeIetaI muscIes
a
b c
ntercostaIs
Trapezius
GIuteus
maximus
GIuteus
minimus
Transversus
abdominis
Rectus
femoris
d
Musc e tt c ents nd i ers
Group actions
Novement usuaIIy invoIves the
coordination of severaI muscIes.
Agonists or prime movers are
muscIes that initiate movement.
Antagonists are opposing muscIes.
They reIax when the agonists
contract, and contract to reverse the
agonist s action.
Synergists are muscIes that heIp or
assist movement.
Fixators are stabiIizing muscIes that
prevent unwanted movement.
Attachment o muscIe
MosI muscIes spnn one or more joInIs nnd nre nIIncIed Io IIe
bones IInI Iorm IIe joInIs. VIen IIey conIrncI IIey puII IIe
bones oI n joInI Iovnrd encI oIIer. IsunIIy, one bone remnIns
sInIIonnry reInIIve Io IIe resI oI IIe body, vIIIe IIe oIIer moves.
Tendon structure
Tendons consIsI oI coIIngen
IIbers nnd Inve n mInImnI
bIood suppIy. So IIey Inke n
Iong IIme Io IenI vIen
sIrnIned or Iorn.
Tendons
TIe beIIy Is IIe vIdesI,
buIgIng cenIrnI pnrI oI n
IypIcnI Iong muscIe. A Iendon
Is n IIbrous cord sIIunIed nI
IIe InperIng end oI n muscIe.
II nIIncIes IIe muscIe Io IIe
bone nnd Is nncIored InIo IIe
bone`s perIosIeum (ouIer
coverIng). Some muscIes Inve
severnI InperIng ends, encI
vIII n Iendon. TIe InrgesI
sIngIe Iendon IInks IIe
gnsIrocnemIus muscIe In IIe
cnII Io IIe IeeI. II Is knovn ns
IIe AcIIIIes Iendon or
AcIIIIes IeeI.
Biceps brachii
agonist
Triceps brachii antagonist
Tendons at origin
on scapuIa
Tendons at
insertion
BeIIy of
biceps brachii
NuscIe
Fibers
of tendon
Bone
Periosteum
Tendons
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Actions o ibers
When a muscIe fiber contracts, it shortens.
The strength of a muscIe is determined by
the number of fibers.
The range of movement is determined by
the Iength of muscIe fibers.
The Ionger the fibers, the greater the range
of movement.
NuscIes can contain a Iarge number of short
fibers or a smaII number of Iong fibers.
Arrangement o ibers
NuscIes are made up of groups of fibers
caIIed fascicIes arranged in a variety of
different patterns. This resuIts in muscIes
with different shapes and functionaI
abiIities. The most common
arrangements of fascicIes are paraIIeI,
pennate, convergent, and circuIar.
ParaIIeI
FascicIes run paraIIeI to the muscIe s
main Iength or axis.
They are strapIike or fusiform spindIe
shaped , have an expanded beIIy, and
end in fIat tendons.
They have a Iarge range of movement
but are weaker than pennate muscIes.
The biceps and sartorius have paraIIeI
arrangements.
Pennate
FascicIes are short in reIation to the
muscIe Iength and attach obIiqueIy to a
centraI tendon that runs the Iength of
the muscIe, rather Iike a feather.
Pennate muscIes have a Iarge number
of fascicIes giving them power but a
Iimited range of movement.
Unipennate muscIes such as the
extensor digitorum Iongus insert into
onIy one side of the tendon.
Bipennate muscIes such as the rectus
femoris |oin both sides of the tendon.
Convergent
Convergent muscIes tend to be
trianguIar in shape, such as the
pectoraIis ma|or.
They contain a Iarge number of
fascicIes with a narrow insertion.
CircuIar
FascicIes are arranged in a circuIar
pattern to form an orifice, such as the
orbicuIaris ocuIi in the eyeIids and
orbicuIaris oris around the mouth.
OrbicuIaris ocuIi circuIar
OrbicuIaris oris circuIar
PectoraIis ma|or
convergent
Biceps brachii
paraIIeI
Sartorius paraIIeI
Rectus femoris
bipennate
Extensor digitorum
Iongus unipennate
S e eton nd usc e c re
MuscIes nre one oI IIe mnjor
body sysIems IInI gnIn
obvIous beneIII Irom eercIse
nnd oIIer nspecIs oI IenIII
cnre. NoI onIy skeIeInI
muscIes, buI IIe cnrdInc
muscIe oI IIe IenrI, nnd IIe
brenIIIng muscIes oI IIe
cIesI nnd dInpIrngm, beneIII
Irom reguInr ncIIvIIy severnI
IImes veekIy. PerInps Iess
obvIous Is IIe eIIecI oI n
IenIIIy IIIesIyIe on IIe
skeIeIonunIII someIIIng
snnps. ReguInr eercIse IeIps
Io keep bones sIrong nnd
responsIve Io IIe sIresses
pInced on IIem. A bnInnced
dIeI Is nIso vIInI Io mnInInIn
muscIe nnd bone condIIIon.
Body and
environment
KnowIedge of
your body and its
functions, its Iikes
and disIikes, its habits
and characteristics, can
be a great aIIy in heaIth
matters. f you are
famiIiar with the normaI
functioning of your
muscIes, you wiII be
quickIy aware of
anything that is changed
or disturbed. Changes
may incIude muscIe
tremors, twinges, or
tender spots, and aches
or stiffness in |oints.
Accidents: 1
AccidentaI
in|uries to muscIes and
bones range from a
sIight muscIe tear to a
bone shattered by
muItipIe fractures. Nost
accidents couId have
been prevented with a
IittIe care, forethought,
or organization. Some of
the ma|or safety hazards
affecting the muscIe and
skeIetaI systems are
faIIs, misused or
dangerous tooIs, and
impacts at speed, in
sports, or on the road.
Sources o heIp
Numerous varied
organizations can
be incorporated
into your personaI heaIth
pIan. Do not be ashamed
to take fuII advantage of
the services avaiIabIe
from outside resources.
These incIude expert
advice on activities
which may put muscIes
and bones at risk, such
as Iifting, stretching, and
generaI exercise
programs, incIuding
correct techniques and
precautions in sports
and games.
Accidents: 2
Around the home,
muscIes and
bones are at risk
from various everyday
activities. SIipping in the
shower or bathtub can
resuIt in wrenched |oints,
torn muscIes, or even
bone fractures. Lifting
heavy or awkward Ioads
is particuIarIy hazardous
to the muItipIe |oints
between the vertebrae in
the spinaI coIumn,
resuIting in back in|uries
that may need many
weeks of recuperation.
Nutrition
Eating a weII-
baIanced diet
benefits your
whoIe body in many
ways, incIuding muscIes
and bones. For exampIe
the caIcium that is so
important in the diets of
babies and young
chiIdren enabIes their
bones and teeth to form
properIy. Continuing
intake of caIcium heIps
to maintain a heaIthy
skeIeton, whiIe severaI
other mineraIs are
needed for muscIe
function.
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Energy and
caIories
Energy is suppIied
to the body by the
caIories in the food we
eat. Nost of these
caIories are used by
muscIes, in a wide range
of activities incIuding aII
bodiIy movements, aIso
the beating heart and the
muscIe-powered actions
of breathing. ncreased
muscIe activity burns
caIories and so heIps to
avoid unwanted
accumuIation of body fat
and weight probIems.
Body image
Some peopIe
become obsessed
with a particuIar
body image. ExampIes
incIude extreme thinness
so that the bones and
|oints are visibIe |ust
beIow the skin, and
extreme muscuIar
deveIopment with
buIging muscIes in every
part. The heaIthy body
usuaIIy Iies somewhere
between these extremes.
AdditionaI probIems
incIude substance abuse
to buiId unnaturaI
muscIe buIk.
E ercise
Exercise is a
fundamentaI
bodiIy need. t
shouId bring into action
many muscIe groups, for
exampIe, pumping the
bIood faster around the
body, and increasing the
depth and rate of
breathing. t heIps to
keep the skeIetaI
muscIes toned so that
the body feeIs and aIso
Iooks in good shape.
There are many ways of
organizing your own
exercise program to suit
your needs.
ReIa ation
ReIaxation can
be physicaI or
mentaI, and the best kind
of reIaxing activity |oins
the two eIements.
ReIaxation provides a
peacefuI oasis in a busy
and hectic Iife, and
provides a time when
body and mind can
renew themseIves. t
aIIows muscIes to
recover from fatigue and
it rests |oints against
overuse and in|ury. Body
and mind function more
efficientIy after mentaI
and physicaI refreshment.
Obesity
Reducing, or dieting,
is the removaI of
excess body weight
in the form of fat.
Excess stores of fat, in
an overweight or obese
body, provide no benefit.
n fact they increase its
risk of deveIoping
numerous diseases and
medicaI conditions,
incIuding muscIe strains
and tears, |oint aches
and sprains, and
excessive Ioad on bones
Ieading to cracks or
breaks.
SIeep
Satisfactory
sIeep is
necessary for many
reasons, incIuding repair
of minor wear and tear.
During sIeep, restoration
of triviaI in|uries occurs
in muscIes, tendons,
cartiIages, Iigaments,
and other muscuIo-
skeIetaI structures. Over-
use or excessive strain
of these parts can Iead to
increasing IeveIs of wear
which are more difficuIt
for the body to mend.
Fitness nd e ercise
FercIse Is n vIInI IngredIenI Ior keepIng IIe
Iumnn body In good IenIII. TIe skeIeInI
muscIes, Iungs, nnd IenrI nre buIII Io vork. An
InncIIve IIIesIyIe mnkes IIem IneIIecIIve nnd
ouI oI condIIIon, buI eercIse cnn IeIp Io
remedy IIese III eIIecIs nnd promoIe n sense oI
veIIbeIng. As pIysIcnI IIIness Increnses you
vIII IInd IInI your vork nnd IeIsure ncIIvIIIes
become Iess IIrIng, nnd nIso your cnpncIIy Ior
ncIIvIIy oI nII kInds Increnses. FercIse
Improves muscIe Ione, skIn Ione, nnd genernI
nppenrnnce, nnd IeIps Io deIny IIe pIysIcnI
eIIecIs oI ngIng. II nIso IeIps Io mnke InIernnI
orgnns vork more eIIIcIenIIy, reducIng IIe
rIsks oI poor IenIII nnd dIsense.
E ercise and age
FercIse oI some sorI Is possIbIe vInIever your
nge, nnd In IncI suIInbIe eercIses nre desIrnbIe
nI every nge. BnbIes sIouId receIve eercIse
IIrougI pIny nnd movemenIs IInI Incrense
IIeIr rnnge oI ncIIvIIIes nnd pIysIcnI skIIIs.
Ider cIIIdren nnd young nduIIs usunIIy geI
pIenIy oI eercIse IIrougI pIny nnd sporI. In
mIddIe nnd oId nge, n conscIous eIIorI mny be
needed Io ensure IInI eercIse Is n reguInr pnrI
oI IIIe. AIvnys cIeck vIII your docIor or n
qunIIIIed IenIII proIessIonnI beIore you
embnrk on nny eercIse progrnm or Inke up n
nev sporI, especInIIy II you nre over 35 yenrs
oI nge.
Body physiques are
determined mainIy by
skeIetaI proportions,
muscIe deveIopment, and
amounts of body fat.
They can be cIassified
into three main types.
Ectomorphs are Iean and
rangy, with no excess
body fat or weight.
Nesomorphs have a
good baIance of muscIe
and weight. Endomorphs
tend to be buIky and
rounded in shape. The
type of exercise that may
suit you best depends to
some extent on your
body type. Ectomorphs
with very IittIe excess
weight or buIk to carry
often do very weII at
exercises and sports that
Body type and e ercise
require endurance and
stamina they aIso find that
they can sprint and cycIe
rapidIy. Endomorphs tend
to find that their naturaI
range of activities is more
Iimited. Copious muscIe
buIk may equip a person
for weightIifting and power
sports such as footbaII.
Nesomorphs are
generaIIy suited to most
kinds of exercise and
sport. Whatever your
physique, try to incIude
severaI types of
exercisemobiIity,
strength, endurance,
suppIeness, etc.in your
heaIth program.
Ectomorph
Nesomorph
Endomorph
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PhysicaI bene its o e ercise
The iIIustration shows some of the parts
of the body benefited by reguIar
exercise.
1The contours of the body aIter as the
muscIes and Iigaments strengthen. Body
tissue is prevented from sagging when
the muscIes are in good condition.
2 Weight may be Iost as body fat is
burned up in strenuous exercise.
3 NuscIes themseIves deveIop improved
tone, greater stamina, and an increased
bIood suppIy to combat weakness and
fatigue.
4 The efficiency of the heart muscIe
increases a great deaI. The voIume of
bIood pumped per beat rises, so that the
heart does not have to work so hard to
pump the bIood around the body and
suppIy muscIe demand. The heart rate
decreases as a resuIt, both at rest and
during strenuous activity.
5 The new efficient circuIation causes
more capiIIaries to form in the body
tissue and therefore improves the bIood
suppIy to internaI organs.
6 The efficiency of the Iungs and
breathing muscIes aIso increases. The
improved bIood suppIy enabIes them to
exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen at a
faster rate, and their capacity is
enIarged.
The bones and |oints of the body
strengthen so that they are Iess IiabIe to
in|ury and debiIitation.
The posture improves as the overaII
condition of the muscIes and |oints is
improved as a resuIt, probIems such as
back troubIe and muscIe aches may be
avoided.
As muscIes become stronger and
movements more skiIIed and accurate,
the dangers of in|uries, such as faIIs and
|oint disIocations, recede.
1 The coordination and responses of
the nervous system improve as the body
becomes more accustomed to obeying
mentaI signaIs promptIy.
11The skin tone improves as its
increased circuIation disperses waste
products and impurities more quickIy.
12The metaboIism aIters, and fats and
sugars in the bIood are reduced.
S e et disorders
Fractures and their repair
1Hematoma ormation
BIood vesseIs in the bone and
surrounding tissues are torn.
A hematoma bIood cIot forms at the
fracture site and pIugs the gap
between the broken ends of bone,
usuaIIy within a few hours of in|ury.
BIood circuIation to the area stops and
bone ceIIs ad|acent to the fracture
begin to die from Iack of nutrition.
Tissues at the site become swoIIen.
2FibrocartiIaginous caIIus ormation
Over the next three to four weeks
capiIIaries grow into the hematoma.
Bacteria-destroying ceIIs invade the
area and begin their cIeaning |ob.
FibrobIasts ceIIs that produce speciaI
fibers cover the break, connecting the
broken bone ends.
OsteobIasts bone-forming ceIIs begin
to form spongy bone tissue. Together
the fibrobIasts and osteobIasts spIint
the broken bone. The externaI caIIus
repair tissue is formed by new tissue
protruding from the outer bone
surface the internaI caIIus is the repair
tissue connecting the bone ends.
3Bony caIIus ormation
Nore bone-forming ceIIs enter the site,
and three to four weeks after in|ury the
formation of a bony caIIus woven
bone begins.
4RemodeIing
Excess materiaI outside the bone shaft
and in the marrow cavity is removed.
Compact bone is Iaid down to
reconstruct and reshape the shaft.
1
2
3 4
Bony caIIus HeaIed fracture
Woven bone
Hematoma CapiIIaries
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AnkyIosing spondyIitis VIen joInIs
become InIInmed nnd InIer Iuse.
Arthritis TIe Ierm used Ior n vnrIeIy oI
InIInmmnIory or degenernIIve dIsenses IInI
dnmnge joInIs. FnmpIes IncIude
osIeonrIIrIIIs, rIeumnIoId nrIIrIIIs, nnd
gouIy nrIIrIIIs. AcuIe Iorms nre commonIy
cnused by bncIerInI InvnsIon.
DisIocation VIen bones nre Iorced ouI oI
IIeIr normnI posIIIons nI n joInI.
Gouty arthritis Cnused by urnIe crysInIs
(Iormed Irom urIc ncId) deposIIed In IIe soII
IIssues oI joInIs.
Osteoarthritis (egenernIIve joInI dIsense)
CnrIIInge repnIr Is nn ongoIng process, buI In
osIeonrIIrIIIs, more cnrIIInge Is broken dovn
IInn Is repnIred.
OsteomaIacia A group oI dIsorders cnused
by Inck oI vIInmIn , vIen bones soIIen
nnd venken.
Some disorders o the skeIetaI system
OsteomyeIitis InIecIIon oI bone mnrrov,
usunIIy cnused by bncIerIn.
Osteoporosis VIen IIe resorpIIon oI bone
ouIpnces IIs IormnIIon, IendIng Io IIgIIer,
more porous nnd brIIIIe bones, mnkIng IIem
more suscepIIbIe Io IrncIure.
Rheumatism Any pnInIuI sInIe In bones,
IIgnmenIs, joInIs, Iendons, or muscIes.
Rheumatoid arthritis See beIov.
Rickets sIeomnIncIn In cIIIdren, vIen
grovIng bones cnnnoI cnIcIIy due Io Inck oI
nuIrIenIs, so IIeIr ends become enInrged.
ScoIiosis AbnormnI curvnIure oI IIe spIne
Io IIe sIde.
SIipped disk (Isk proInpse) VIen IIe
puIpy cenIer oI nn InIerverIebrnI dIsk buIges
or oozes ouI nnd mny press on nn ndjncenI
nerve, cnusIng pnIn.
Tendonitis TIe InIInmmnIIon oI Iendons,
oIIen due Io overuse oI muscIes.
Stages o rheumatoid arthritis
This chronic
infIammatory
disorder causes
severeIy swoIIen
and painfuI |oints.
t tends to fIare
up, then fade for a
time. t is an
autoimmune
disease the
body s immune
system attacks its
own tissues .
1 2 3
nfIammation Erosion of cartiIage Fused |oint
Muscu r disorders
Sites o probIems
The foIIowing troubIes
show up in muscIes or
tendons but some are
rooted in disorders of the
nerves that operate them.
aTics: bIinking, nose-
wrinkIing, and head-
shaking are typicaI habit
spasms see opposite .
b BeII s paIsy is a probIem
with the faciaI nerve
affecting one eyeIid and
one side of the forehead
and mouth see opposite .
t is usuaIIy onIy
temporary.
c n crossed eyes
strabismus , the muscIes
that controI eyebaII
motions are imbaIanced.
d Stiff neck is often a miId
disorder caused by muscIe
cramp due to sudden
twisting or sIeeping
uncomfortabIy.
e Spasm of invoIuntary
muscIe in the bronchiaI
tubes narrows them and
In genernI, muscIe IIssue Is Iess prone IInn
mnny oIIer IIssues oI IIe body Io serIous
dIsense processes sucI ns InIecIIons,
mnIIgnnncIes, nnd degenernIIons. Hovever,
more IInn mosI oIIer IIssues, muscIe Is prone
Io Injuryns n resuII oI IIs prImnry roIe In
cnrryIng ouI pIysIcnI movemenIs oI IIe body.
Mnny muscIe probIems sIem Irom underused,
InIIgued, Iorn, or sIrnIned muscIe IIbers nnd
Iendons. VIen muscIes nre InIIgued nnd
venk, IIe body Is nI grenIer rIsk oI IosIng
bnInnce, grIp or sInbIIIIy, nnd so nccIdenInI
InjurIes sucI ns IvIsIed joInIs, rIpped
IIgnmenIs, or sprnIned Iendons nre more IIkeIy.
Torn muscIe IIbers nre n common mInor
probIem buI n mnjor Ienr IIrougI nn enIIre
muscIe or IIs Iendon Is rnre. TIe more muscIes
nre eercIsed, nnd IIe grenIer IIeIr bIood
suppIy, IIen IIe more rnpId vIII be IIeIr
IenIIng processes.
produces wheezing,
breathIessness, and simiIar
asthma symptoms.
Torn tendons often occur at
|oints where strong forces
act, for instance the knee
and ankIe.
g Ruptured biceps at upper
end may occur in middIe-
aged peopIe who Iift or puII
heavy weights.
hWrist gangIion is a
painIess Iump in the wrist
produced by a tendon cyst.
i Raynauds disease invoIves
spasm affecting bIood
vesseIs in the fingers.
CerebraI paIsy can produce
twitching Iimbs and partiaI
faciaI paraIysis.
k PoIiomyeIitis is a viraI
disease that may paraIyze
Iimbs.
I Lumbago is a vague term
for Iow back pain see
Fibrositis opposite .
m Spasms or Ioss of muscIe
controI sometimes affect the
sphincter muscIes which
make up the pyIorus
stomach outIet ,
gaIIbIadder, bIadder outIet,
or anus.
b c
d
l
f
a
e
g
h
i

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BeII s paIsy (See opposIIe) AIso knovn ns
IncInI pnIsy. Tempornry pnrnIysIs oI IIe IncInI
muscIes on one sIde. TIe pnrnIysIs cnn be
cnused by Injury Io, or InIecIIon oI, IIe
conIroIIIng nerve.
Bursitis InIInmmnIIon oI IIe snc (bursn)
IubrIcnIIng n joInI. II cnn be cnused by
cnIcIum deposIIs on n Iendon, buI Is
genernIIy n resuII oI conIInuous IrIcIIon,
pressure, or oIIer Injury.
Cardiomyopathy Isense oI IIe IenrI
muscIe (myocnrdIum).
ConvuIsions InvoIunInry conIrncIIons oI n
group oI muscIes cnused by nn ImbnInnce In
IIe nervous sysIem.
Cramp A pnInIuI InvoIunInry muscIe spnsm,
vIIcI mny resuII Irom Ioss oI snII ovIng Io
ecessIve svenIIng or Irom deIIcIenI bIood
suppIy Io IIe nIIecIed nren.
Fibrositis PnIn In muscIes nround joInIs.
VIen IIIs occurs In IIe Iover bnck II Is
someIImes cnIIed Iumbngo. TIe cnuse Is noI
knovn, buI IensIon nnd bnd posIure mny be
Io bInme.
Gangrene gas A Iype oI gnngrene
InvoIvIng bncIerInI InIecIIon, usunIIy oI n
vound, IendIng Io muscIe denII.
Leiomyoma A noncnncerous Iumor oI
smooII muscIe. FIbroIds nre common
IeIomyomns IInI occur In IIe uIerus.
MuscuIar dystrophy A group oI InIerIIed
dIsorders In vIIcI IIere Is n progressIve
vnsIIng oI muscIe.
Myasthenia gravis Venkness In skeIeInI
muscIes cnused by nn nbnormnIIIy IInI
prevenIs muscIes Irom conIrncIIng.
MyocIonus RnpId, InvoIunInry spnsm or
jerks oI n muscIe or muscIes durIng
Some disorders o the muscuIar system
movemenI or resI. II cnn occur ns n resuII oI
n brnIn dIsorder or epIIepIIc III, nnd mny be
IInked vIII dIsenses oI IIe nerves nnd
muscIes.
Myoma A benIgn muscIe Iumor.
Myopathy A muscIe dIsenseusunIIy
degenernIIve, buI someIImes cnused by drug
sIdeeIIecIs, cIemIcnI poIsonIng, or by
cIronIc dIsorder oI IIe Immune sysIem. TIe
muscIes genernIIy InII Io IuncIIon IuIIy.
Myositis InIInmmnIIon oI muscIe IIssue,
cnusIng venkness, Ienderness, nnd pnIn.
Myotonia TIe InnbIIIIy oI n muscIe Io reIn
nIIer IIe need Ior conIrncIIon Ins pnssed.
RhabdomyoIysis esIrucIIon oI muscIe
IIssue, nccompnnIed by IIe reIense InIo IIe
bIood oI myogIobIn (oygencnrryIng red
muscIe pIgmenI). A common cnuse Is n
crusIIng muscIe Injury.
Spasm A sudden, InvoIunInry conIrncIIon
oI IIe muscIe InsIIng n sIorI IIme.
Stitch A sInrp pnIn In IIe sIde IInI cnn
occur durIng sIrenuous eercIse. IIs encI
cnuse Is dIspuIed.
Tenosynovitis InIInmmnIIon oI IIe sIenII
nround n Iendon cnused by rIeumnIIsm or
bncIerInI InIecIIon.
Tetanus Isense cnused by bncIerInI
InIecIIon In vIIcI muscIes nre severeIy
nIIecIed. Cnuses sIIIIness, conIrncIIons, nnd
spnsms. AIso knovn ns Iockjnv.
Tic TIe InvoIunInry IvIIcIIng oI n muscIe
normnIIy under voIunInry conIroI. CenernIIy
n sIgn oI nnIeIy or InsecurIIy, n IIc begIns ns
n deIIbernIe movemenI IInI becomes
unconscIous.
rist gangIion A Iump In IIe vrIsI
produced by n cysI nIIecIIng n Iendon.
lntrcductIcn
36
TIe aIaI skeIeIon Is IIe cenIiaI coIumn oi aIs IIaI
suppoiIs IIe Ioiso, neck, and Iead In an upiIgII
posIIIon, and Io vIIcI IIe IImb gIidIes aIIacI. TIe
IoIaI oI 80 bones In IIe aIaI skeIeIon IncIudes sI eai
ossIcIesIIe IIiee IIny bones In eacI mIddIe eai
conceined vIII sound vIbiaIIons and IeaiIng iaIIei
IIan suppoiI. TIe IoIaI aIso IncIudes IIe sIIm, cuived
IyoId bone, aI IIe iooI oI IIe Iongue and jusI above
IIe Iaiyn. II piovIdes suppoiI, pioIecIIon, and
aIIacImenI Ioi muscIes.
SkuII bones: cranIun
TIe skuII Ins Ivo mnIn
componenIs: IIe crnnIum
nnd Ince. TIe crnnIum
consIsIs oI eIgII Inrge, curved
pInIes oI bone. Tvo oI IIese
nre pnIred, beIng IIe
IempornIs (In IIe IempIe
regIon jusI nbove IIe enr)
nnd pnrIeInIs (nbove IIe
IempornIIs). TIe unpnIred
bones nre IIe IronInI oI IIe
IoreIend, IIe eIImoId nnd
spIenoId beIov nnd beIInd
IIe eyes, nnd IIe occIpIInI
IormIng IIe Iover renr buIge
oI IIe Iend.
SkuII bones: face
TIe InrgesI oI IIe IncInI bones
Is IIe mnndIbIe (Iover jnv),
someIImes consIdered ns n
sepnrnIe eIemenI Irom IIe
skuII IIseII. Above IIIs nre IIe
pnIred mnIIIne (IormIng IIe
upper jnv). MosI promInenI
Io IIe sIdes nre IIe
zygomnIIcs (cIeek bones).
TIe Ivo smnII nnsnI bones
Iorm IIe brIdge oI IIe nose.
The young skuII
ln a newborn baby, some
of the sku bones are not
yet fused together.
Gaps between the bones
are caed fontanees.
They aow the babys head
to mod durng brth.
TIe promInence oI IIe nose
consIsIs oI cnrIIInge rnIIer
IInn bone.
CavItIes and chanbers
TIe IncInI bones encIose nnd
deIIne IIe mnIn cInmbers oI
IIe nnsnI nnd ornI cnvIIIes
(IIe InIerIors oI IIe nose nnd
mouII). TIe mnjor cerebrnI
cnvIIy oI IIe crnnIum Iouses
IIe brnIn. A IoIe beIov IIe
brnIn, In IIe bnse oI IIe
occIpIInI bone, permIIs IIe
spInnI cord Io eIend
dovnvnrd Irom IIe brnIn.
CnvIIIes vIIIIn encI IempornI
bone Iorm IIe ouIer enr cnnnI,
mIddIe enr spnce, nnd IIuId
IIIIed Inner enr cInmbers.
TIere nre nIso Iour pnIrs oI
pnrnnnsnI sInusesnIrIIIIed
regIons oI spongy or
Ioneycomb bone IInI
communIcnIe vIn openIngs
vIII IIe mnIn nnsnI nIrvny.
TIese nre seI vIIIIn IIe
eIImoId, mnIIInry, spIenoId,
nnd IronInI bones.
SkuII structure and functIons
AxIaI skeIeton
The axa skeeton has
80 bones and conssts
of the sku, vertebrae,
rbs, and sternum.
SECTlON 2: HEAD & SPlNE
The naIn conponents of the skuII
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SkuII bone functIons
The cranum forms a protectve
brancase whch s extremey strong
due to ts domed shape. Each sde of
the cranum, n the tempora regon,
provdes a arge area to anchor the
powerfu |aw-cosng chewng musce,
the temporas, whch nks to the
mandbe beow. Nore than 50 faca
musces attach to the faca bones and
permt nnumerabe faca movements
and expressons. The sdes and base of
the sku anchor neck musces whch nk
to the shouder bones of the scapua
and cavce, and the upper rbs.
Fronta bone
Pareta bone
Orbt (eye socket)
Nasa bone
Nandbe
Naxa
Zygomatc process
Externa ear cana
Occpta
bone
Tempora bone
Vertebrae
3S
LateraI (sIde) vIew PosterIor (rear) vIew
TIe verIebrnI coIumn, nIso cnIIed IIe spIne,
spInnI coIumn, or coIIoquInIIy, IIe bnckbone,
consIsIs oI 26 bone eIemenIsverIebrne.
TIese nre IocnIed one on Iop oI nnoIIer nnd
nre IInked by InIerverIebrnI joInIs. In encI oI
IIese joInIs Is n vnsIerIIke pnd or cnrIIInge
IIe InIerverIebrnI dIskvIIcI gIves IIe
vIoIe coIumn IIeIbIIIIy nnd sIocknbsorbIng
qunIIIIes. CnvIIIes vIIIIn IIe mnIn pnrIs, or
bodIes, oI IIe verIebrne nIIgn Io Iorm n Iong
IunneI vIIIIn IIe coIumn, vIIcI Iouses nnd
proIecIs IIe spInnI cord.
RegIons and
curvatures
The uppermost regon of
the vertebra coumn s
the topmost seven
cervca (neck) vertebrae.
Beow ths s the thoracc
(chest) regon of 12
thoracc vertebrae, each
supportng a par of rbs.
The umbar (ower back)
regon contans the fve
argest ndvdua bones,
the umbar vertebrae. The
sacrum at the base
conssts of fve fused
sacra vertebrae. ln atera
vew each regon shows a
curvature, wth the
cervca and umbar
archng forward, and
the thoracc and
sacra rearward.
NoddIng yes, shakIng no
The uppermost vertebra,
atas, contrbutes to
noddng head motons.
The second vertebra,
axs, contrbutes to head-
shakng movements.
Lumbar vertebrae (L1-5)
Sacrum (fused S1-5)
Coccyx
Cervca vertebrae (C1-7)
Thoracc vertebrae (T1-12)
tas
xs
30
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CervIcaI vertebrae: superIor (top) vIew CervIcaI vertebrae: IateraI vIew
ThoracIc vertebrae: superIor vIew ThoracIc vertebrae: IateraI vIew
Lunbar vertebrae: superIor vIew Lunbar vertebrae: IateraI vIew
Structure of the vertebrae
Each vertebra has an approxmatey
cyndrca man body or centrum. The
body s to the front, and rearward s the
vertebra or neura arch. Ths encoses
the vertebra foramen, the hoe for the
spna cord. Pro|ectng to each sde from
the arch are transverse processes, and
to the rear, the spnous or dorsa
process. These are anchor stes for back
musces. The smaer artcuar processes
have facets that |on wth those of
neghborng vertebrae.
Transverse
process
Spnous (dorsa)
process
Spnous (dorsa)
process
Spnous (dorsa)
process
rtcuar facet
Vertebra arch
Vertebra foramen
Vertebra body Vertebra body
Vertebra body
Vertebra body
Vertebra
body
Vertebra foramen
Vertebra foramen
Vertebra body
Spnous (dorsa)
process
Spnous (dorsa)
process
PeIvIc gIrdIe
40
There are sgnfcant dfferences
between a mae and femae pevs
reated to chd-bearng. The femae
pevs s wder than the maes and s set
at a more shaow ange, aowng a
baby to pass through at chdbrth.
haIe and fenaIe peIvIs
GeneraI structure
Nae pevs s heaver and thcker.
Jont surfaces are arger n the mae.
Femae pubs s more rounded.
cetabuum s smaer n the femae.
Pevc net s arger n the femae.
TIe peIvIs or IIp bone Is n
composIIe sIrucIure vIII
seven mnIn eIemenIs. In IIe
cenIer nI IIe renr Is IIe
vedgesInped sncrum, vIIcI
vIII IIe coccy beIov II,
Iorms IIe bnse oI IIe spInnI
coIumn. To eIIIer sIde,
nrcIIng nround Io IIe IronI,
Is IIe bovIsInped peIvIc
bone, mnde oI sI eIemenIs.
PeIvIc bones
n eIIIer sIde, IIe peIvIc
bone consIsIs oI IIree bony
eIemenIs. TIese nre IIe IIIum
ndjncenI Io IIe sncrum, IIe
IscIIum beIov nnd nrcIIng Io
IIe IronI, nnd IIe pubIs
nbove nnd nIso nrcIIng
Iorvnrd. TIese IIree bones
nre knovn ns IIe os con.
1oInts
TIe seven peIvIc eIemenIs nre
IInked IIrmIy by cnrIIIngInous
joInIs. AI IIe IronI IIe Ivo
pubIc bones nre joIned by IIe
Iess IIrm pubIc sympIysIs.
A sockeIsInped nceInbuIum
nI IIe juncIIon oI nII IIree
bonesIIIum, IscIIum, nnd
pubIsIorms IIe IIp joInI
vIII IIe Iend oI IIe Iemur.
haIe peIvIs: anterIor vIew
haIe peIvIs: superIor vIew
FenaIe peIvIs: superIor vIew
Sacrum
cetabuum
lschum
Pubs
lum
Sacroac |ont
Pevc net
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The hunan `taII
The tabone or coccyx
conssts of three to fve
fused coccygea vertebrae.
The coccyx s reatvey
ong n the embryo but
shrnks by the eghth week.
TIe sncrum begIns In
embryonIc deveIopmenI ns
IIve verIebrne, pnrI oI IIe
enIIre verIebrnI coIumn, vIII
IypIcnI InIerverIebrnI dIsks
nnd joInIs beIveen. urIng
deveIopmenI IIese joInIs
ossIIy nnd Iuse Io mnke IIe
sncrum n sIngIe soIId
sIrucIure. Trnnsverse IInes
IndIcnIe IIe sIIes oI IIe
Iormer joInIs (opposIIe). TIe
upper cenIer oI IIe sncrum
nrIIcuInIes vIII IIe IovesI
nnd InrgesI oI IIe IndIvIdunI
verIebrne, L5, nI IIe
IumbosncrnI joInI. Nerves
Irom IIe spInnI cord eII
IIrougI gnps In IIe sncrum.
Coccyx
TIe coccy or vesIIgInI InII
(see beIov) nrIIcuInIes vIII
IIe sncrum nbove II. TIIs Is n
modIIIed InIerverIebrnI joInI
vIII n IIbrous InIerverIebrnI
dIsk. TIe coccy Inpers Io n
sIump or npe beIov. II Ins n
vnrInbIe number oI Iused
verIebrne In dIIIerenI
IndIvIdunIs, usunIIy Iour buI
occnsIonnIIy IIree or IIve.
AnterIor vIew
PosterIor vIew
Sacrun
Sacrun and coccyx
Transverse nes
pex of sacrum
Base of sacrum
Coccyx
Superor artcuar process
Nedan
sacra crest
Sacra hatus
Cornua
Sacra foramen
Ncuth, |aws, and teeth
42
TIe mouII, or ornI cnvIIy, Is n mucosnIIned
cInmber IousIng IIe IeeII nnd Iongue
(nccessory dIgesIIve orgnns). II Is mnde up oI
IIe IIps, cIeeks, nnd pnInIe. II Is bounded by
IIe mnIIIne (upper jnvs), mnndIbIe (Iover
jnvbone), nnd IIe pnInIe or rooI, vIIcI Is
Iormed Irom IorIzonInI pInIeIIke eIensIons
oI IIe IncInI mnIIIne nnd pnInIIne bones.
LIps
Structure TIe IIps, or InbIn, nre IoIds oI
skeIeInI muscIe vIII n IIIn coverIng oI
epIIIeIIum (Inyer oI ceIIuInr IInIng IIssue).
FunctIons
HoId Iood nnd drInk In IIe mouII nnd keep
IIem In pInce Ior cIevIng nnd svnIIovIng.
ProIecI IIe nnIerIor (IronI) openIng oI IIe
mouII.
AcI ns sensory recepIors Io judge IIe
IempernIure nnd IeIure oI Ioods.
AIIer sInpe Io cInnge IIe qunIIIy oI sounds
IncIudIng speecI nnd vocnIIznIIons.
PaIate
Structure TIIs Is IIe rooI oI IIe ornI cnvIIy.
TIe IronI pnrI, IIe Inrd pnInIe, comprIses on
encI sIde IIe pnInIIne processes oI boII IIe
mnIIIn nnd pnInIIne bone.
TIe renr pnrI, IIe soII pnInIe, Is mnde up oI
skeIeInI muscIe, cnrIIInge, nnd connecIIve
IIssue.
TIe soII pnInIe ends In n projecIIon cnIIed
IIe uvuIn, vIsIbIe vIen IookIng InIo IIe
open mouII.
TIe pnInIIne IonsIIs (pnIred mnsses oI
IympIoId IIssue) nre nI IIe renr oI IIe ornI
cnvIIy.
FunctIons
ConsIrnIns Iood vIen cIevIng.
PrevenIs Iood Irom enIerIng IIe nnsnI cnvIIy
durIng svnIIovIng. TIIs Is ncIIeved by IIe
soII pnInIe nnd uvuIn rIsIng Io cover IIe
nnsopInryn (enIrnnce Io nnsnI cnvIIy) so
IInI Iood musI pnss dovnvnrd InIo IIe
pInryn or IIronI).
SIde vIew of nouth and nose AnterIor vIew of nouth
Lps
Uvua Soft paate
Hard paate
Soft paate
Uvua
Paatne tonss
43
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SIde vIew
Structure of a pernanent noIar tooth
lndIvIduaI teeth of upper |aw
lndIvIduaI teeth of Iower |aw
Upper teeth
Lower teeth
Teeth
Teeth are anchored nto the |awbone n
deep sockets, by strong perodonta
fbers and a natura gue, cementum.
The part of a tooth fxed nto the bone s
the root, the part pro|ectng above s the
crown. typca adut has 32 teeth n
tota. On each sde of the mouth, n each
|aw (upper and ower), there are: two
ncsors, one canne, two premoars, and
three moars.
Noars
(3)
Premoars (2)
lncsors (2)
Canne (1)
Dentne
Ename
Denta pup
Crown
Poot
Head muscIes
44
More IInn 60 muscIes provIde IIe Ince vIII
IIs vnsI rnnge oI movemenIs Ior IeedIng nnd
Io convey InIormnIIon, IeeIIngs, nnd
emoIIons, boII by vocnIIzed sounds nnd
unspoken epressIons. TIese muscIes nre In
IIe Ince nnd nIso IIe scnIp nnd neck.
SnIIe or frown?
The od adage s true: t takes more effort to
frown than to sme.
typca sme empoys 18-20 musces.
typca frown uses twce as many.
huscIes of the face:
IateraI vIew
huscIes of the face:
anterIor vIew
Occptofrontas
Nasas
Nentas Buccnator
Orbcuars
ocu
Orbcuars
ors
Nasas
Psorus
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huscIes used In eatIng The man
power for btng and chewng comes
from the temporas and masseter
musces on the sde of the face,
runnng from the tempe regon and
cheekbone down to the mandbe.
Neck musces
baance the head
and twst the face
to ook around.
Nost run from the
rear sku and
faca area down
to the hyod,
cavce (coar
bone), scapua
(shouder bade),
sternum
(breastbone), and
the cervca and
thoracc vertebrae.
The nuscIes of nastIcatIon
ExercIses for the face
IsomeIrIc eercIses IeIp Io keep IIe muscIes
oI IIe Ince suppIe nnd In good condIIIon.
TIey nre quIIe sIrenuous Ior IIe muscIes
concerned, so onIy do encI eercIse once n
dny nnd mnInInIn IIe posIIIon Ior n
mnImum oI onIy sI
seconds.
1 pen your mouII
nnd eyes vIde so IInI
your IncInI muscIes
nre ns IuIIy sIreIcIed
ns possIbIe; IoId IIIs
posIIIon.
2 Screv up your eyes
nnd mouII nnd
vrInkIe your nose so
IInI your IncInI
muscIes nre
conIrncIed; IoId IIIs
posIIIon.
huscIes of the neck
Nasseter
Temporas
1
2
Trapezus
Sternocedomastod
Styohyod
Sternohyod
Thyrohyod
Hyod bone
SpInaI muscIes
46
Groups of back nuscIes
Nusces that move the back or vertebra
coumn may be regarded as two man
groups. The superfca or extrnsc
group are aso assocated wth the mb
grdes (shouders and hps) and may
bend or twst the back as a secondary
effect to postonng the mbs (see
beow). The mdde and deep, or
ntrnsc, spna musces are mosty
concerned wth movng and stabzng
the vertebra coumn tsef (see opposte
and aso page 48).
PosterIor vIew showIng superfIcIaI (extrInsIc) nuscIes
BearIng the Ioad
When standng
uprght at rest,
many back
musces reax
snce gaments
take the stran
(see next page).
Trapezus
Detod
Levator scapuae
Phombodeus mnor
Phombodeus ma|or
Latssmus dors
Guteus medus (hp)
Externa abdomna obque
Guteus maxmus (hp)
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lnternedIate spInaI
nuscIes
The ntermedate or mdde
ayer of spna musces s
nvoved n mb and back
movements, and aso n
the movements of
respraton (breathng).
For exampe, the evator
scapuae fts or shrugs
the shouder and aso
extends the chest to
ncrease ts voume for
deep breathng.
Erector tracts
The erector spnae or
sacrospnas tracts of
musces e on ether sde
of the vertebra coumn.
The meda tracts are
ad|acent to the coumn
wth the meda tracts to
the sde. They are formed
over overappng sets of
musces whch eapfrog
each other, spannng from
fve to 15 or more
vertebrae. They bend and
twst the spna coumn.
PosterIor vIew showIng nIddIe Iayer
nuscIes
Erector spInae: nedIaI
tract
Erector spInae: IateraI
tract
Longest nuscIes
Some fbers of the
ongssmus thoracs
musce run amost haf
the ength of the back.
Levator scapuae
Semspnas
capts
Potatores
breves
Nutfdus
Longssmus
capts
Longssmus
thoracs
locostas
umborum lntertransversar
PeIvIc and Icwer back muscIes
4S
PeIvIc nuscIes
The wde, farng surfaces of the pevc
(hp) bone provde anchorage for three
man groups of musces. These are the
spna musces of the vertebra coumn
and the abdomna wa musces, both
from above, and the hp and eg musces
AnterIor vIew: deep nuscIes PosterIor vIew: deep nuscIes
LateraI vIew: superfIcIaI nuscIes PosterIor vIew: superfIcIaI nuscIes
beow. Deeper pevc musces support
the pevc foor or daphragm (base of
the abdomen) aganst the weght of the
vscera above, and are aso nvoved n
urnaton, defecaton, and chdbrth.
Guteus mnmus
Guteus medus
Guteus maxmus
Psoas ma|or
lopsoas
Pectus femors
Guteus maxmus
Prforms
Guteus medus
Guteus maxmus
40
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Lower spInaI nuscIes
lntrnsc vertebra or spna
musces (see prevous pages)
attached to the transverse and
spnous processes act to bend
and twst the back, and aso to
stabze t, for exampe, when
ftng heavy oads. Eastc
gaments span and encase
each ntervertebra |ont.
LateraI vIew and sectIon
hovenents of spInaI coIunn
StraIght FIxed Extended
hore spInaI nuscIes
lntrnsc spna musces
are named from the
number of vertebrae they
span or eapfrog.
Potatores bundes span
one or two vertebrae.
Nutfdus bundes span
two or three vertebrae.
Semspnas bundes
span four or fve.
Spnous process
lntervertebra dsk
Body of vertebra
The spna coumns oad
s baanced front and rear,
sde to sde.
Nusces tense aganst an
unequa oad to stffen
and hod the back rgd.
Dorsa (posteror) musces
contract to arch the back
to the rear.
Spnous
process
lntervertebra
dsk
Body of
vertebra
hassage
Mnssnge Is one oI IIe
mosI eIIecIIve vnys
oI reIIevIng IensIon
In IIred, knoIIed
muscIes. TecInIques
vnry grenIIy buI
sIrnIgIIIorvnrd meIIods used Ior
pIysIcnI reInnIIon nre mnInIy
concerned vIII mnnIpuInIIng IIe
muscIe IIssues vIII sIov, even
pressure. TIIs Increnses IIe bIood suppIy,
removes ImpurIIIes, nnd resIores suppIeness.
ReIaxIng the neck and back
50
ReInnIIon sIouId concern everyone vIo
vnnIs Io mnInInIn n IenIIIy body. ReInnIIon
ennbIes IIe body Io resI Irom IIe sIresses nnd
pressures oI everydny IIIe; IIe muscIes nre
gIven nn opporIunIIy Io reIn, nnd you cnn
use your perIod oI reInnIIon ns n IIme Io
remove vorryIng IIougIIs Irom your mInd,
sInce pIysIcnI reInnIIon cnnnoI be eIIecIIveIy
ncIIeved In IIe nbsence oI menInI reInnIIon.
TIese pnges cover some oI IIe probIems
cnused by Inck oI reInnIIon, nnd nIso Iook nI
vnys In vIIcI you cnn IeIp your body nnd
your mInd Io reIn. Try Io spend nI IensI 30
mInuIes reInIng every dny.
Areas of tensIon
1Tenson n the back of the
neck may be due to anxety
or stress, or ong hours n
certan postures, such as
computer work. Nassagng
the back of the neck wth
your fngertps may reeve
the tenson.
2Tenson n the shouders
may occur f your desk or
workbench s at the wrong
heght. Stretchng and
easng the musces often
proves effectve.
3 Pan and musce tenson
n the sma of the back
may be a resut of poor
posture, wearng hgh-
heeed shoes too
frequenty, or saggng
musces n the back and
abdomen that fa to gve
proper support.
4 Nusce tenson and aches
n the arms are usuay
caused by overworkng the
musces concerned.
Nassage and rest shoud
ease the probem.
5Tenson and stffness of
the thgh and caf musces
s usuay caused by
enthusastc exercse, such
as runnng or cycng,
especay the foowng
day. Ths can be eased by
usng the musces genty,
for nstance, wakng or
gente |oggng.
6 chng and/or tender
musces n the feet resut
from overwork, wakng,
runnng, or standng for
ong perods. Warm
footbaths are often
soothng.
51
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ReIaxatIon exercIses
SIttIng posItIons
ReInnIIon Is possIbIe In
mnny posIIIons. Lenrn by
dIscoverIng some oI IIe
posIIIons IInI ennbIe your
body Io resI IIseII vIIIouI
sIrnIn. II you nre sIIIIng In n
cInIr, mnke sure IInI II gIves
ndequnIe supporI nII IIe vny
dovn IIe spIne. SII veII bnck
on IIe senI vIII your bnck
nnd neck sIrnIgII, nnd your
Iend nnd especInIIy Iover
bnck veII supporIed.
LyIng posItIons
LyIng dovn Is one oI IIe
mosI eIIecIIve vnys Io reIn
IIe enIIre body, nnd need noI
be reserved onIy Ior sIeep.
LyIng on your rIgII sIde
ensures IInI your IenrI Is noI
consIrIcIed nnd ennbIes you
Io reIn beIIer IInn IyIng on
your IeII. Bend your IeII knee
up so IInI you do noI Inve Io
Iense muscIes Io prevenI
roIIIng over, nnd cusIIon your
Iend on n pIIIov.
Sttng correcty
Lyng correcty
a Stand uprght, as reaxed
as possbe, and shake
each arm n turn. Shake
frst from your wrst, then
from your ebow, then
from your shouder. Then
repeat wth each eg n
turn, shakng from the
anke, the knee, and then
the hp.
b Stand wth your feet
apart and your arms by
your sdes. Take a deep
breath as you sowy rase
your arms out to shouder
eve, then hod your
breath as you mantan ths
poston for a few seconds.
Breathe out steady as you
ower your arms sowy.
c Loosen your neck
musces by ttng your
head down, to the rght, to
the back, to the eft, then
down agan.
d Loosen your shouder
musces by standng wth
your arms by your sdes
and then shruggng your
shouders as hgh as you
can. Hod ths poston
brefy, then reax, repeat
severa tmes.
e Stand wth your arms at
your sdes. Wth the backs
of the hands eadng, move
your arms forward, up,
back, then down agan to
trace arge crces, ths w
hep to reeve tenson n
the shouder musces.
fTo reeve stff back
musces, knee on a fours,
then aternatey hoow and
hump your back. (Beware
of ths exercse f you suffer
from backache.)
e
f
d c
b
a
StrengthenIng the neck and back
52
Varous sports ncrease strength by
repeatedy exercsng one or more
sets of musces. Compettve
swmmng and rowng have great a-
around effects on the bodys strength,
because most of the bodys musces
are exercsed.
SIrengII eercIses nre noI jusI Ior pover
ncIIvIIIes sucI ns veIgIIIIIIIng nnd
bodybuIIdIng. TIey nre beneIIcInI eercIses
IInI vIII Improve IIe IenIII oI mosI peopIe`s
bodIes. TIey ImpnrI sInpe nnd Ione Io IIe
body muscIes, nnd ennbIe IIe body Io cope
vIII sIIunIIons IInI cnII Ior more IInn usunI
pIysIcnI eIIorI, sucI ns cnrryIng or pusIIng
Ienvy objecIs nnd InkIng pnrI In cerInIn
sIrenuous sporIs. SIrengIIenIng eercIses nIso
mnke IIe muscIes more cnpnbIe oI proIecIIng
IIe joInIs nnd IIe InIernnI orgnns; ns n resuII
IIese pnrIs oI IIe body nre Iess IInbIe Io Injury.
SIrengIIenIng eercIses usunIIy buIId up IIe
veIgII nnd pover oI IIe muscIes by repenIIng
vnrIous sIrenuous ncIIons. IsIng veIgIIs or
oIIer nIds vIIIe eercIsIng Is one vny Io
Incrense IIe eIIecIs oI sIrengIIenIng eercIses.
BeIore sInrIIng nny oI IIese progrnms, consuII
n qunIIIIed ndvIser.
StrengthenIng routInes
a LIe Ince dovn vIII your
Innds under your cIIn. LIII
IIrsI one Ieg nnd IIen IIe
oIIer, encI IIme ns IIgI ns
possIbIe. RepenI n Iev IImes nI
IIrsI. Incrense IIe number oI
IIIIs encI dny by one or Ivo.
IsconIInue II IIere nre
spnsms In IIe smnII oI IIe
bnck.
b LIe Ince dovn vIII your
Innds cInsped beIInd your
Iend. RnIse your Iend nnd
cIesI ns IIgI ns possIbIe. As
nbove, repenI n IImIIed
number oI IImes nI IIrsI, nnd
Incrense IIe number grndunIIy
dny by dny. IsconIInue II
IIere Is dIscomIorI or spnsm
In IIe neck or bnck.
c LIe on your bnck vIII your
IeeI Iooked under n pIece oI
IurnIIure or IeId dovn by n
pnrIner. LIII your Iend nnd
sIouIders oII IIe ground,
keepIng your eIbovs In
conIncI vIII IIe ground,
usIng your sIouIders, nrms,
nnd IIe IronI oI your Iover
nbdomen Io provIde IIe
IIIIIng pover.
d SII nI IIe IronI oI n cInIr,
grIppIng IIe sIdes vIII your
Innds, Iegs ouI sIrnIgII In
IronI vIII IeeIs resIIng on
IIe IIoor. LIII your IeeI nnd
bend your knees up Io IoucI
your cIesI, IIen Iover IIem
bnck ngnIn sIovIy.
Sports and actIvItIes
d
c
b
a
53
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StrengthenIng routInes
(contInued)
e BegIn ns Ior rouIIne d,
sIIIIng nI IIe IronI oI n cInIr
nnd grIppIng IIe sIdes vIII
your Innds (see opposIIe).
TIen IIII your Iegs vIIIe
keepIng IIem sIrnIgII. HoId
IIem In IIIs posIIIon ns Iong
ns you cnn, IIen Iover IIem
sIendIIy. ResI Ior n Iev
seconds nnd repenI, buI nvoId
Ioo mucI sIrnIn or InIIgue.
f LIe vIII your Iover
nbdomen nnd IIps over n
cInIr ns sIovn. RnIse your
Iend, nrms, nnd Iegs ns Inr ns
you cnn so IInI your vIoIe
body comes InIo n sIrnIgII
IIne. As nbove, IoId yourseII
In IIIs posIIIon Ior ns Iong ns
you cnn, IIen Iover your
nrms nnd Iegs sIendIIy nnd resI
Ior n Iev seconds.
g LIe Ince dovn vIII your
nrms sIreIcIed Io IIe sIdes,
IoIdIng n IoveI on IIe
ground In IronI oI your Iend.
RnIse your Iegs nnd nrms
sImuIInneousIy so IInI IIe
IoveI IIIIs nbove your Iend,
IIen Iover IIem ngnIn, InkIng
nbouI IIree seconds Ior IIe
vIoIe movemenI.
h SII on IIe IIoor vIII your
veIgII bnInnced over your
buIIocks. RnIse your Iegs nnd
Iry Io IoId your nnkIes ns
sIovn. FvenIunIIy you sIouId
be nbIe Io IoId IIIs posIIIon
Ior severnI seconds.
ExercIses for backache sufferers
Uness advsed otherwse
by a doctor, st on hard,
straghtbacked chars,
seep on a frm mattress,
and organze work
surfaces so that you do
not have to ean forward.
To get nto bed, face the
bed, pacng both hands
on t for support. Pase
one knee at a tme onto
the bed. Craw nto
poston and ro onto
your sde, usng a pow
to support your head.
Back exercIses GeneraI advIce
Uness doctors advse
otherwse, these exercses
may beneft bad backs. Do
each exercse twce day.
1 Le face down wth your
arms at your sdes,
contract your abdomen
and buttocks to brng your
shouder bades together.
2 St uprght. Wth your
hands casped behnd you,
bend forward as you ft
your head and brng your
shouder bades together.
Pu both hands down and
back, and st uprght
agan.
3 Stand erect, and hod
your head up as you
contract your abdomen
and buttocks.
h
g
f
e
arIabIe rIbs
There s no truth n the od
tae that men have a
dfferent number of rbs
than women.
Both sexes have 24 rbs.
However, about one person
n 20 naturay has one par
of rbs extra or mssng.
lntrcductIcn
54
TIe cIesI IIoia and abdomen Ioim IIe maIn paiI oI
IIe body, IIe Ioiso. TIe dIvIsIon beIveen cIesI and
abdomen Is usuaIIy IdenIIIIed as IIe dIapIiagm, IIe
dome sIaped muscIe beIov IIe Iungs, vIose
movemenIs piovIde IIe maIn povei Ioi iespIiaIIon
bieaIIIng . TIe veiIebiaI coIumn In IIe back piovIdes
IIe majoi suppoiI sIiucIuie Ioi boII dIvIsIons.
ovevei, IIe cIesI Ias numeious bones, vIIIe IIe
abdomen Ias veiy Iev.
The chest forms the centra secton of
the axa skeeton, between the cervca
(neck) regon of the vertebra coumn
above, and the umbar (ower back)
regon beow.
The chests bony
framework has a
deep notch n
ts centra
undersde at the
front, where the
rbs curve up to
the sternum.
Chest and axIaI skeIeton
Above IIe dInpIrngm, IIe cIesI Is bounded
by IIe cInvIcIes (coIInr bones) nI IIs IIgIesI
poInI, IIe IIorncIc verIebrne nI IIe bnck, IIe
rIbs nround IIe sIdes or InIernIIy, nnd IIe
sIernum (brensIbone) nI IIe IronI. TIe
nbdomen Ins reInIIveIy Iever skeIeInI
eIemenIsonIy IIe Iumbnr verIebrne nI IIe
bnck, nnd IIe bony bovI oI IIe peIvIs (IIp
bone) beIov, Io supporI nnd crndIe IIs
conIenIs. MosI oI IIe supporI Ior IIe
nbdomInnI conIenIs comes Irom Inrge
sIeeIs oI muscIe nnd connecIIve IIssue
(InscIne) IInI vrnp nround IIs sIdes nnd
IronI, nnd mnInInIn Ione.
Contents and functIons
TIe cIesI nnd nbdomen Inve dIsIIncIIy
dIIIerenI conIenIs nnd IuncIIons. TIe cIesI
conInIns IIe mnjor pnrIs oI IIe respIrnIory
nnd cIrcuInIory sysIems, beIng IIe broncII
(mnIn nIrvnys) nnd Iungs, nnd IIe IenrI nnd
grenI bIood vesseIs. In nddIIIon, IIe muscuInr
Iube oI IIe esopIngus (guIIeI) pnsses IIrougI
IIe cIesI, cnrryIng svnIIoved Iood Irom IIe
mouII dovn Io IIe sIomncI. TIe nbdomen
conInIns IIe mnjor orgnns oI dIgesIIon
(sIomncI, InIesIInes, IIver, pnncrens),
ecreIIon (kIdneys, ureIers, urInnry bIndder),
nnd reproducIIon (cIIeIIy In IIe IemnIe, beIng
IIe ovnrIes, uIerIne Iubes, nnd uIerus).
TogeIIer IIese nbdomInnI orgnns nre reIerred
Io ns IIe vIscern.
LocatIon
SECTlON : CHEST & A DONEN
55
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AnterIor vIew PosterIor vIew
Bones of the chest
The chest has 41 bony eements. There
are 12 thoracc vertebrae, wth one par
of rbs |oned to each, the sternum, and
a cavce and scapua (shouder bade)
on each upper sde. The frst seven pars
of rbs are true rbs, nkng to the
sternum by costa cartages. Pb pars
eght to 10 are fase rbs, nkng by
extended costa cartages to the true
rbs above. Pars 11 and 12 are foatng,
wth no anteror fxng, ther forward
ends are wthn the chest muscuature.
Sternum Scapua
Cavce
Scapua
Foatng rbs Foatng rbs
Fase rbs
True rbs
Chest muscIes
56
TIe cIesI Ins n compIe muscuInIure IuIIIIIIng
severnI IuncIIons. A vIInI IuncIIon Is Io drIve
IIe movemenIs oI respIrnIIon (brenIIIng),
vIereby IIe rIb cnge epnnds In voIume Io
sIreIcI IIe Iungs nnd drnv In nIr. AIso IIe
cIesI muscIes supporI IIe Iorso, nnd IncIude
muscIes IInkIng Io IIe neck nnd Iend nbove,
nnd IIe nbdomen beIov, In order Io mnInInIn
body posIure nnd bnInnce. In nddIIIon, IIe
Larger shouder musces
overe the ntercostas,
whch are ong, narrow
musces runnng between
each par of rbs. The
ntercostas are mportant
n respraton (see
opposte).
NanIng chest nuscIes
Nany chest musces are
named from the bones
they nk.
For exampe, the
subcavus runs aong
under the cavce (coar
bone).
The ntercostas run
between the rbs, whch
are aso known as the
costae.
AnterIor chest waII
cIesI regIon provIdes nncIornge Ior IIe upper
IImb gIrdIe or sIouIder muscIes IInI opernIe
IIe upper nrm. MosI oI IIese muscIes nre
IInIIened nnd sInped IIke sIrnps or eIongnIed
IrInngIes. TIe scnpuIn nnd cInvIcIe ncI ns IIIng
poInIs Ior numerous superIIcInI muscIes IInI
joIn Io IIe neck, rIbs, verIebrne, nnd Iumerus
(upper nrm bone). RespIrnIory muscIes Iend Io
be deeper.
BreathIng out: no nuscIes
Expraton occurs many
by the natura eastc
reco of the ungs, whch
returns them to ther
pre-nhaaton sze.
Subcavus
Externa
ntercosta
lnterna
ntercosta
5T
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LateraI vIew:
superfIcIaI nuscIes
AnterIor vIew:
IntercostaI nuscIes
PosterIor vIew:
anterIor chest waII
LateraI vIew:
deep nuscIes
Chest nuscIes
The externa
ntercosta musces
contract to make the
rbs swng outward
and upward n a
ttng or bucket-
hande moton.
Couped wth
daphragm
contracton (see
beow), ths
forcefuy enarges
the voume of the
thoracc cavty and
causes ar to fow
nto the ungs,
durng nspraton.
Chest InterIor
The dome-shaped
daphragm sheet of
musce at the base
of the chest
contracts and
becomes fatter,
pung down the
ung bases and
ncreasng ther sze
for nspraton. The
nterna ntercostas
contract to pu the
rbs down and
nward durng
forced expraton as
when nfatng a
baoon.
Pectoras
ma|or
Pectoras
mnor
Serratus
anteror
Serratus
anteror
Latssmus
dors
Externa
abdomna
obque
Pbs
Externa
ntercostas
lnterna
ntercostas
Pbs
Daphragm
AbdcmInaI muscIes
5S
TIe nbdomInnI muscIes consIsI cIIeIIy oI
Inrge sIeeIs oI muscIe IIssue vrnppIng
nround IIe sIdes nnd IronI oI IIe vIscern.
TIey nre nIIncIed Io IIe verIebrnI muscIe
coIumn nI IIe renr, IIe Iover rIbs nbove, nnd
IIe IInnges oI IIe peIvIs beIov. MosI oI IIese
muscIes nre nnmed Irom IIeIr IIber dIrecIIon:
Irnnsversus (IorIzonInI), recIus (verIIcnI), or
obIIque (dIngonnI).
hIte IIne
The nea aba or whte ne s
a cordke tendon runnng from
the base of the sternum, down
the front center of the abdomen,
to the upper mdde |ont
(pubc symphyss) of the pevs
or hp bone.
eeper abdonInaI nuscIes
The transversus abdomns s the ma|or
musce sheet runnng horzontay
around the abdomen. lts pared sectons
|on centray at the nea aba.
The nguna or gron regon contans a
number of musce borders and edges,
wth fbrous connectons to each other
and to gaments.
AnterIor vIew:
transversus abdonInIs
AnterIor vIew:
InguInaI regIon
Lnea aba
lnguna gament
Transverus
abdomns
50
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lnner abdonInaI waII
ln ths vew the arge
vertca musce straps on
ether sde of the mdne,
caed the rectus
abdomns, have been
removed to revea the
nner muscuature. The
externa recta sheath, or
coverng, of the eft
rectus abdomns has
been foded over to the
rght to ad the exposure.
uter abdonInaI waII
ln the process of
dssecton, ths vew
precedes that shown
beow. Here the rectus
abdomns s st n pace.
these sheets of
abdomna musces not
ony retan the vscera,
they can aso be tensed
to form a boardke
barrer that protects the
soft nner organs, n case
of a knock or bow.
Pectus abdomns
Posteror ayer
of rectus sheath
nteror ayer of
rectus sheath
Transversus abdomns
lnterna abdomna obque
Pectus abdomns
(ower cut end)
Pectus abdomns
(upper cut end)
Pectoras ma|or
lscmetrIc exercIses
60
Chest and upper
body exercIses
Here are some exercses
for the upper body,
ncudng the chest and
shouders. Snce these
are sometrc exercses
and use a potenta
musce strength, nstead
of the 20-30 percent
customary exerted, they
have sgnfcant effects
on musces. To avod
strans or other troube,
mt each exercse to sx
seconds and perform t
ony once a day.
a lnterock the fngers of
both hands behnd your
head. Push your hands
forward and head back.
Pepeat wth nterocked
fngers pressed back
aganst your forehead as
you try to force your
head forward.
b St at a tabe or fat-
topped desk and press
your hands down upon
ts surface, wth your
fngers spread wde
apart. ou can repeat ths
whe standng.
c Sttng on a char wthout
arms, grp the sdes of the
seat and try to pu t
upward.
d Stand near a wa, facng
t wth your arms straght
down and the pams of
your hands toward the
wa. Press your hands
aganst the wa as hard
as possbe.
e Stand facng a
door|amb and pace the
pams of both hands on
opposte sdes of the
|amb at wast heght.
Press your hands hard
toward each other. Peax
and repeat at chest eve,
then at eye eve.
f Stand n a doorway and
rase your arms to press
the pams of your hands
hard aganst the top of
the door frame. ou may
need to stand on a box.
IsomeIrIc eercIses nre nImed nI buIIdIng
muscIe sIrengII nnd Ione. TIey Inke up IIIIIe
IImejusI sI seconds eerIIng mnImum
muscIe Iorce Ior one eercIse or rouIIne, nnd
0 seconds Ior 15 eercIses coverIng IIe
vIoIe body. Moreover IIey requIre no specInI
equIpmenI. TIey cnn be useIuI Ior nddIng
Ione Io snggIng cIesI nnd nbdomInnI muscIes,
nnd ImprovIng bnck posIure nnd upperbody
sIrengII. BuI IIey Ienve IIe IenrIIung sysIem
uneercIsed nnd so sIouId be cnrrIed ouI
nIongsIde sIrenuous mobIIIIy rouIInes.
f
c
e d
b a
61
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ShouIder and trunk routInes
Lke the exercses shown opposte, these
routnes are sometrc. Ths means the
musces do not change n ength, even
though they exert consderabe force. ln
genera sometrcs, one group of
musces exerts pressure aganst an
mmovabe ob|ect or an opposng group
of musces. Due to the forces exerted,
the postons shoud be hed for a
maxmum of ony sx seconds, once
each day.
a St wth your egs apart and your
hands on your knees. Wth your hands,
try to push your knees together, resst
the pressure wth your egs.
b St wth your egs apart and your
hands crossed as shown. Try to push
your knees apart by hand as you resst
the pressure wth your egs.
c Pace the pams of your hands
together and push them aganst each
other wth shouder and arm musces,
aso fee your chest musces tense.
d Casp your hands behnd your head.
eep your fngers grppng, but try to
pu apart your hands usng your upper
body musces.
e St we back n a char wth your egs
rased and your hands on your shns.
Press downward wth your hands and
upward wth your egs, feeng your
abdomna musces contract.
f Stand n a doorway wth your hands
restng on the nsde of the door frame.
Push aganst the frame.
g Le on your back wth your hands
under your head, and press your
abdomen downward as hard as
possbe.
b
c d
e
f
g
a
StrengthenIng exercIses
62
StrengthenIng waIst
and trunk
a Stand facng forward
wth your arms oosey
crossed. Twst your trunk
to one sde then the
other, as far as possbe
each tme. eep your feet
fat on the foor. Over
severa days you shoud
be abe to twst farther
each tme.
b Stand wth your arms
stretched out to the front
and feet apart. Swng
your arms around as far
as possbe, to the eft
and then the rght.
c Stand uprght wth your
egs sghty apart and
your arms hangng
oosey by your sde.
Bend as far as possbe to
each sde, usng many
your wast and ower
back area, keepng your
head as eve as possbe.
d Le on your front wth
knees bent and feet n the
ar. Try to casp your
ankes and rase your
thghs. Ths may be
awkward at frst, but as
wth the other exercses,
your suppeness and
strength shoud mprove.
aIst and trunk fIexIbIIIty
Novements of the torso and wast depend
argey on the acton of ower vertebra
and abdomna musces. These exercses
shoud mprove the mobty of your wast
and trunk.
a St on the ground wth your egs apart.
Put your hands over your head as shown,
and then ean your trunk forward to try
and touch each foot n turn wth the
opposte hand.
b St wth your egs stretched out n front
of you, then ean forward and try to put
your head on your knees. Ths w be
mpossbe at frst, but you w graduay
mprove suppeness over the weeks.
c Stand wth your egs apart and your
arms over your head. Bend as far as
possbe to one sde, then the other.
a
a b
c d
b c
63
D
I
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G
R
A
M
lsotonIc exercIses for the upper
body, chest, and abdonen
ln contrast to sometrc exercses,
sotonc exercses produce movement at
the |onts, and contractng musces
shorten n ength.
a Crouch wth a dumbbe n each hand,
knuckes uppermost, keepng your back
straght. Then stand up, bendng your
arms and ftng the dumbbes to
shouder heght. Next, thrust the dumb-
bes to arms ength above the head.
Such exercses hep strengthen chest,
arm, and shouder musces.
b Wth both hands grp an expander n
front of you at arms ength and shouder
eve. eepng both arms straght, pu
them out and back unt the expander
touches your chest. Ths heps to
strengthen chest and upper abdomna
musces.
c Usng weghted boots or anke weghts,
stand on your eft foot wth your hands
on your hps and stretch your rght eg to
the sde as far as you can. Then brng the
rght eg across the body as far as you
can. Pepeat wth the other eg.
d Stand wth your feet sghty apart
under a barbe. Bend your knees and
grasp the bar wth both hands, knuckes
uppermost, your hands shoud be |ust
farther apart than your shouders.
eepng your chest and head up and
your back fat, breathe n and rse to a
standng poston, usng many your
knees, and pung the bar up to touch
your upper chest under your chn. Turn
your hands to brng the pams up, and
breathe out. Ths ftng exercse
strengthens the trunk and whoe body.
a
b
c
d
lntrcductIcn
64
acI uppei IImb consIsIs oI bones,
IncIudIng IIe scapuIa and cIavIcIe
adjacenI Io eacI sIde oI IIe uppei iIb
cage, and moie IIan 00 muscIes. TIese
muscIes IncIude IIose aI IIe sIouIdei,
vIIcI geneiaIIy move IIe uppei aim
bone oi Iumeius IIose In IIe uppei
aim, vIIcI opeiaIe IIe eIbov joInI and
IIose In IIe Ioieaim, vIIcI move IIe
viIsI and aIso IIe IIngeis.
The appendIcuIar skeIeton
The appendcuar skeeton has 12
bones and conssts of the mbs and
ther attachments.
Terms used to descrbe the acton of
musces may often become
ncorporated nto the names of arm
and eg musces.
Dorsfexor Ponts the toes upward,
fexng the foot at the
anke.
Evertor Turns the soe of the foot
outward.
Extensor lncreases the ange of a
|ont, as when
straghtenng.
Fexor Decreases the ange of a
|ont, as when bendng.
lnvertor Turns the soe of the foot
nward.
Pantar Ponts the toes
fexor downward, extendng the
foot at the anke.
Pronator Turns the pam
downward.
Potator Noves or twsts a bone
around ts ongtudna
axs, as when twstng
the eg to pont the foot
sdeways.
Supnator Turns the pam upward.
Tensor Generay makes a body
part stffer or more rgd.
LInb nuscIe nanes
SECTlON : ARNS & SHO DERS
Upper IInb bones
65
D
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M
The skeeton of the upper
mb s anaogous to that
of the ower mb. There s
one ma|or ong bone next
to the torso (upper
arm/thgh), two ong
bones n the second mb
secton (forearm/caf), a
group of sma bones
wthn a compex |ont
(wrst/anke), and the
same pattern of three
sets of extremty bones
(hand/foot). The arm s
desgned for mobty and
manpuaton, and can
twst aong ts ength and
turn vrtuay a fu crce.
The carpus or wrst
conssts of eght sma,
many box-shaped,
bones. Ther |onts are
chefy of the gdng type
and have mted
movements. The
metacarpa bones are
encased n musce and
fesh and form the pam
of the hand. The fnger
bones are termed
phaanges and numbered
1 to 5, from the
nnermost or thumb, to
the tte fnger (pnky).
PaInar vIew
SkeIeton of the hand
Thoracc
vertebrae
Humerus
Dgt 1
Phaanges
Scapua
Padus
Cavce
Una
Pb
Dgt 5
Netacarpas
Carpus
ShcuIder muscIes
66
The shouIder |oInt
The shouder s very
suppe or mobe. But ths
comes at the expense of
stabty. ln mechanca
desgn the shouder s
regarded as nherenty
unstabe. lt s mantaned
n poston by ts |ont
gaments, and by the
tendons of the musces
whch wrap around t,
especay those of the
SlTS: supraspnatus,
nfraspnatus, teres mnor,
and subscapuars. These
form ts rotator cuff.
ery nobIIe
The shouder s the most
fexbe of a body |onts.
lt has a wde range of
abducton/adducton,
when the arms are fted
out sdeways.
lt aso has a wde range
of fexon/extenson,
forward and backward.
lt permts rotaton, to
twst the ebow and hand.
PosterIor vIew: superfIcIaI and deep nuscIes
AnterIor vIew: dorsaI nuscIes
Levator scapuae
Phombodeus
ma|or
Serratus anteror
Trapezus
Teres ma|or
Trapezus
Levator scapuae
Serratus anteror
Pectoras mnor
6T
D
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A
G
R
A
M
Upper arn nuscIes
Each of these musces
has severa actons,
dependng on whch part
of t contracts most. For
exampe, the detod can
pu the arm nto the
body, or forward, or
backward, or rotate the
upper arm nward or
outward. lf most of the
shouder musces are
tensed to hod the arm
steady, the atssmus
dors acts to twst and
pu the shouder bade
down and back.
LateraI vIew:
huneraI nuscIes
AnterIor vIew:
superfIcIaI nuscIes
AnterIor vIew:
deep nuscIes
Detod
Pectoras ma|or
Latssmus dors
Pectoras mnor
Latssmus dors
Teres ma|or
Supraspnatus
Teres mnor
Pectoras ma|or
Detod
Bend and twIst
One of the bodys best-known musces s the
bceps brach n the upper arm.
ln addton to fexng (bendng) the ebow, the
bceps brach aso supnates the forearm,
causng the pam to rotate and face upward.
Arm muscIes
6S
Upper arn nuscIes
TIe upper nrm muscIes nId IIe sIouIder
muscIes In movemenIs IIere, buI prImnrIIy
IIey nre responsIbIe Ior moIIon nI IIe eIbov
joInI. TIIs IncIudes bendIng nnd
sIrnIgIIenIng, nnd nIso IvIsIIng oI IIe
Iorenrm bones.
Upper arn nuscIes
AnterIor vIew: upper
arn nuscIes
PosterIor vIew: upper
arn nuscIes
LateraI vIew: upper arn
nuscIes
Long head of
trceps brach
Detod
Detod
Trapezus
Brachas
Brachas
Bceps brach
Detod
60
D
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R
A
M
huscIe attachnents
VIere muscIes nIIncI Io
bones vIn IIeIr Iendons, IIe
bone surInce Is rougI nnd
pIIIed. nIy seIecIed nrm
muscIe nIIncImenIs nre
InbeIIed Iere.
hechanIcaI advantage
Nany musces, especay n the mbs,
show mechanca advantage. Ths s a
property of evers. The nserton of the
musce s near the pvot or fucrum the
|ont whch the musce operates. When
the musce contracts ony a sma
amount, the end of the bone near the
|ont moves a correspondngy sma
amount. But the other end of the bone,
whch s actng as a ever, s moved
much farther. ln ths way the bceps
brach can contract by the ength of a
thumb, yet move the hand through an
arc as ong as the arm tsef.
Serratus anteror
Teres ma|or
Detod
Brachas
Pronator teres
Teres ma|or
Detod
Two heads of bceps brach
anchored to scapua
lnserton of bceps brach
onto radus
rIst and hand muscIes
T0
Forearn nuscIes
Nost forearm musces
have ong tendons
through the wrst to the
fngers. Pocs refers
to the thumb.
RIght forearn: superfIcIaI
fIexors
RIght forearn: superfIcIaI
extensors
RIght forearn: deep
fIexors
RIght forearn: deep
extensors
bductor
pocs brevs
Fexor pocs
ongus
Extensor
pocs brevs
bductor
pocs ongus
Fexor tendons
n pam
Fnger bendng
musces
Fexor
retnacuum
Extensor pocs brevs
Extensor pocs ongus
bductor pocs ongus
Supnator
T1
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
and nuscIes
The thumb (poex) aone
s moved by more than a
dozen musces, short
(brevs) and ong (ongus).
Nany hand musces come
together to form broad,
fat, fbrous sheets known
as aponeuroses, whch
transmt the pus of these
varous musces nto other
drectons.
LateraI vIew: nuscIes
actIng on the thunb
SuperfIcIaI fIexors of
the paIn
FIrst dIgIt (thunb) nuscIes
bductor
pocs ongus
Extensor pocs
ongus
Extensor pocs
brevs
Fexor retnacuum
Opponens pocs
Fexor pocs brevs
Deep head
Superfca head
ExercIses and dIscrders
T2
Connon arn and
hand probIens
a Pupture of the bceps.
Ths probem can occur at
any age, but may be seen
partcuary n mdde-aged
men who tend to stran
fabby musces by ftng or
pung heavy ob|ects.
bTenns ebow. ny
repeated twstng or rotary
forearm acton combned
wth a strong handgrp
may ead to ths pan on
the outer sde of the ebow.
lt occurs not ony n tenns
but when hodng an tem
tghty n the hand. Despte
ts name, t s not a
probem of the ebow |ont
tsef. Pest, massage, and
mmobzaton of the
forearm may ease the
condton.
c Gangon of the wrst.
Ths sacke sweng
encoses fud around a
tendon. doctor may try
to burst the gangon by
pressng hard on t but,
f eft aone, the sweng
often dsappears
spontaneousy.
d Naet fnger s an n|ury
often caused by a hard
bow to the fngertp. lt s
due to hard scar and
fbrous tssue budng up
n the end of the fnger. lt
may reduce the fngertp
skns decate sense of
touch and so ead to more
accdenta bows.
e Pepeated stress n|ures
(PSls) can occur n amost
any part of the arm, wrst,
hand, or fngers, due to
repettve work such as
computer keyboardng or
screwdrver use. They may
affect the musces, |onts,
or tendon sheaths.
Preventatve measures
ncude reguar breaks and
shfts n poston and
posture.
f Carpa tunne syndrome
(see opposte).
TIe compIe InIerpIny oI joInIs, muscIes, nnd
Iendons In IIe nrm nnd Innd mnke IIem
cnpnbIe oI n vIde vnrIeIy oI movemenI. TIe
sIouIder svIveIs nnd moves In nImosI nII
dIrecIIons; IIe upper nrm nnd Iorenrm ncI ns
Iong Ievers; IIe vrIsI Ins nbouI 20 joInIs
beIveen IIs eIgII smnII cnrpnI bones; nnd IIe
mnny joInIs In IIe Innd nIIov IIe brnIn Io
conIroI very compIIcnIed mnneuvers. TIe nrm
Is nIso sIrongIIe bIceps brncIII nnd IrIceps
muscIes In IIe upper nrm nre Inrge nnd
poverIuI, nnd nddIIIonnI sIrengII Ior IIIIIng
comes Irom IIe sIouIder muscIes. SInce IIe
nrms nnd Innds nre used consInnIIy, Irom
pusIIng bnck IIe beddIng In IIe mornIng Io
svIIcIIng oII IIe IIgII nI nIgII, probIems sucI
ns Injury or IIIness cnn cnuse grenI
InconvenIence ns veII ns dIscomIorI. Here ve
Iook nI vnys oI prevenIIng or mInImIzIng
some common nrm nnd Innd probIems.
a
b
c
d
f
e
T3
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
a BnInnce your body veIgII
on your Innds nnd Ioes In
IIe pusIup posIIIon.
eepIng your bnck sIrnIgII,
Iover your body by bendIng
your eIbovs. Try Io nIIov
your cIIn Io IoucI IIe
IIoor. SIrnIgIIen your nrms
Io reIurn Io IIe orIgInnI
posIIIon, pusIIng up vIII
your IIngers ns you do so.
TIIs Is n sIrenuous rouIIne,
buI reguInr sessIons soon
sIov ImprovemenI.
b LIe on your bnck vIII
your knees benI up,
cInspIng n Ienvy objecI sucI
ns n book In encI Innd.
eepIng your nrms sIrnIgII,
sIovIy rnIse IIe objecIs Io
brIng IIem IogeIIer, IIen
sIendIIy Iover IIem ngnIn.
Fnsure you keep n IIrm grIp
on IIe objecIs IIrougIouI.
c SInnd IncIng n pnrIner
vIII your IeeI IoucIIng
encI oIIer`s. HoId Innds,
IIen boII Ienn bnck,
keepIng your bncks sIrnIgII
nnd your IIngers IIrmIy
cInsped. Try Io eIend your
nrms IuIIy, IIen bend IIem
ngnIn Io become uprIgII
once more.
d HoId Iong Ienvy objecIs
sucI ns cIubs, books, or
roIIed mngnzInes. SInnd vIII
your nrms rnIsed, Iover
IIem ouI Io IIe sIdes vIIIe
keepIng IIem sIrnIgII, unIII
your nrms nre by your sIdes.
TIen reverse IIe movemenI
Io rnIse IIe objecIs ngnIn, nII
IIe vIIIe keepIng n IIrm
grIp on IIe objecIs.
Arn and hand
exercIses
The `carpaI tunneI
The ong tendons from the forearm
musces gather together wth bood
vesses and nerves, to pass through the
carpa tunne n the wrst. Ths s a
sheath of connectve tssue that wraps
around the wrst ke a watchstrap.
Pepeated stress n ths area may cause
the sdng tendon coverngs to swe
and press on the nerves, causng
rrtaton, aches, shootng pans, and oss
of feeng or movement due to the nerve
nfammaton.
Carpa
tunne
d
c
b
a
lntrcductIcn
T4
PosterIor vIew of hIp and Ieg bones AnterIor vIew of hIp and Ieg bones
Bones of the Iower IInbs
CaIcaneus TIe InrgesI bone In IIe
IooI, IormIng IIe IeeI. TIe AcIIIIes
Iendon Is nIIncIed Io II. II IeIps
supporI IIe InIus.
CuneIforn bones TIree InrsnI
bones IInI Iorm IIe crossnrcI oI
encI IooI (see pnge 78).
TIe Iovei IImbs eIend Iiom IIe IIp bone oi
peIvIs, vIIcI IIanks IIe sacium. IIIed InIo a
sockeI In IIe peIvIs, IIe aceIabuIum, Is eacI
Iemui IIIgI bone , beIov vIIcI Is IIe IIbIa
sIIn bone and IIbuIa. TIIs Ieads Io IIe seven
bones oI IIe Iaisus oi ankIe and IooI bones
IaisaIs, meIaIaisaIs, and pIaIanges.
Ilium
Head of femur
Neck of femur
lschum
Pubc bone
Sacrum
Sacrum
Femur
Patea
Latera condye
of femur
Tba
Neda condye
of femur
Cacaneus
Fbua
Neck of femur
SECTlON : E S & EET
T5
D
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R
A
M
LateraI vIew of hIp and Ieg bones
The pateIIa
The kneecap bone, or patea, s
unusua n that t s not |oned or
nked to any other bone of the
skeeton. lt s the argest of the bodys
sesamod bones. lt s set wthn the
man tendon of the front thgh
musces, the quadrceps femors,
whch extends down to the tba and
acts to straghten the knee. The patea
has grooves on ts nner (rear-facng
surface) that sde around the
epcondyes or knuckes at the base
of the tba, as the knee |ont moves.
Fenur TIe IIIgI bone, IIe IongesI bone In
IIe body, Is sIIunIed beIveen IIe IIp nnd knee.
II nrIIcuInIes vIII IIe IIbIn nnd In n IypIcnI
nduII Iorms onequnrIer oI IIe body`s IeIgII.
IIs Iover end benrs Ivo knuckIeIIke condyIes
IInI nrIIcuInIe vIII sInIIov IoIIovs In IIe
IIbIn`s upper surInce, Io Iorm IIe knee joInI.
FIbuIa TIe InIernI (IIIIIe Ioe sIde) bone oI IIe
Iover Ieg, someIImes reIerred Io ns IIe cnII
bone. II Ins projecIIons on IIe InIernI (ouIer)
sIde oI IIe nnkIe Io vIIcI muscIes oI IIe IooI
nre nIIncIed, nnd vIIcI Iorms IIe InIernI
promInence oI IIe nnkIe IIseII. AI IIs upper
end II does noI Inke pnrI In IIe knee joInI.
hetatarsaI bones FIve bones In IIe IooI,
IormIng IIe mnIn pnrI oI IIe IooI InsIde IIe
soIe nren (see pnge 78).
PateIIa TIe kneecnp bone, on IIe IronI oI IIe
knee joInI.
PhaIanges TIe Ioe bones. TIere nre 14 In
encI IooIIvo In encI bIg Ioe, nnd IIree In
encI oI IIe oIIer Ioes (see pnge 78).
TaIus ne oI IIe nnkIe or InrsnI bones,
IormIng IIe IInk beIveen IIe IIbIn nbove nnd
IIe oIIer InrsnI bones beIov (see pnge 78).
Tarsus TIe seven InrsnI bones oI IIe nnkIe
joInI (see pnge 78).
TIbIa TIe medInI (bIg Ioe sIde) bone oI IIe
Iover Ieg, someIImes reIerred Io ns IIe sIIn
bone. II Is IIe mnIn veIgIIbenrIng bone oI
IIe Iover IImb. IIs projecIIon on IIe medInI
(Inner) sIde oI IIe nnkIe Iorms IIe
promInence oI IIe nnkIe IIseII on IInI sIde.
Femur
Patea
Pubc bone
Sacrum
lum
Fbua
Tba
Cuneform bones
Cacaneus
eg muscIes
T6
The ma|or movements at the hp and
knee are fexon and extenson,
straghtenng and bendng as when
runnng. The knee s prmary a hnge
|ont and s capabe of tte twstng or
atera moton. The hp s more mobe,
aowng adducton and abducton
(movements toward and away from
the bodys mdne) as we as the egs
man rotaton.
TIe muscIes oI IIe Ieg nre In mosI respecIs
nnnIogous Io IIose oI IIe upper IImb, ns
sIovn prevIousIy. TIe mnIn buIk oI IIe
muscIes IInI move IIe IIp joInI nre IocnIed In
IIe buIIock nren. TIe mnIn buIk oI IIe knee
bendIng muscIes nre In IIe IIIgI. TIe muscIes
IInI opernIe IIe nnkIe, IooI, nnd Ioes Inve
IIeIr mnIn buIk In IIe Iover Ieg, IIe sIIn nnd
cnII. Hovever, encI oI IIese seIs oI muscIes
cnn opernIe IIe joInI nbove, rnIIer IInn beIov
II, II oIIer muscIes oI IIe Ieg ncI Io sInbIIIze
nnd sIendy IIe oIIer joInIs.
huscIes of the Ieg
AnterIor nuscIes:
extensors of shIn
AnterIor nuscIes:
fIexors of thIgh
PosterIor nuscIes:
superfIcIaI Iayer of caIf
lotba tract
Gracs
Sartorus
Tbas anteror
Extensor
retnacuum nferor
Cacaneus
(hee bone)
Gastrocnemus
Tendocacaneus
(ches tendon)
s n the wrst, the anke has a strapke
sheath of connectve tssue, caed the
extensor retnacuum. lt s Z-shaped,
comprsng superor, ntermedate, and
nferor sectons. lt hods the ong
tendons of the extensor musces, at the
front of the ower eg, aganst the anke
regon (see aso page 78).
SECTlON : E S & EET
TT
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
StrIngs and heeIs
The hamstrng musces
at the rear of the thgh
are the BSS fexor
group: bceps femors,
semmembranosus, and
semtendnosus.
Ther thck tendons are
seen under the skn |ust
above the knee, as the
knee s fexed.
The aches tendon
above the hee s the
argest snge tendon.
The upper attachments
ncude the nsertons of
musces extendng down
from the thgh. Beow
these are the orgns of
musces extendng
down through the anke
to the foot.
huscIe attachnents
of the Iower Ieg AnterIor vIew: nuscIe
attachnents
PosterIor vIew: nuscIe
attachnents
Sartorus
Gracs
Tbas
anteror
Bceps
femors
Tbas
posteror
Soeus
Gastrocnemus
cct bcnes and muscIes
TS
The anke or tarsa bones are the taus
(uppermost), cacaneus (ower at rear,
formng the hee), cubod, navcuar,
meda cuneform, ntermedate
cuneform, and atera cuneform. The
Bones of the foot
man soe or arch of the foot contans
the fve metatarsa bones. Each of the
toes contans three phaanges, except
for dgt 1, the bg toe, wth two
phaanges (as n the thumb).
RIght foot: dorsaI vIew
RIght foot: pIantar vIew
Left foot: IateraI vIew
Cubod
Navcuar
Cacaneus
Taus
Sesamod bones
Cuneform bones Phaanges
Ndtarsa |onts
lnterphaangea |onts
Netatarsas
SECTlON : E S & EET
T0
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Foot nuscIe
nanes
s n the hand,
brevs are
shorter musces,
ongus are
onger ones.
Haucs refers
to the bg toe,
whch s known
as the haux.
lnterosse are
sma musces
spannng the
phaanges n the
nterphaangea
(toe) |onts.
The soe of the
foot s known as
the pantar
surface, and the
upper sde as the
dorsa surface.
Strong gaments,
tendons, and
further bands of
connectve tssue
n the foot gve t
ts naturay
arched shape. Ths
provdes a degree
of cushonng and
sprngness when
wakng and
runnng.
huscIes of the foot
orsaI surface PIantar surface:
superfIcIaI Iayer
PIantar surface: deep
Iayer
PIantar surface:
nIddIe Iayer
Fexor
haucs brevs
lnterosse
lnterosse
Extensor
haucs brevs
Fexor dgtorum
brevs
Fexor
haucs
ongus
Fexor
dgtorum
ongus
lnterosse
Fexor haucs
ongus
Fexor dgtorum
brevs
Fexor dgtorum
brevs
eg and eet exercIses
S0
Leg exercIses
a Stand facng a frm step
or ow char wth your
hands on your hps, then
swfty step up onto t,
step down wth the other
eg.
b Pun up and down a
starcase qucky, unt
you fee out of breath.
c Wth a partner, st on
the foor and rase your
egs so that your feet
meet as shown. Push
your egs away from you
as your partner ressts
the pressure, then repeat
wth the roes reversed.
d Start from the same
poston as for c but ths
tme move your rght and
eft eg aternatey.
e St on one step of a
starcase wth your feet on
the step beow and your
arms outstretched. Pase
your egs unt they are
horzonta, and baance n
ths poston.
f ttach ght anke weghts
to your feet (or use a
heavy book or roed
magaznes) and e back on
your ebows as shown. Lft
your feet and egs and
hod them n the rased
poston.
g Le face down wth your
arms at your sdes. Lft
both egs together as
hgh as possbe, and
hod n ths poston for
as ong as you can.
h Le on your back wth
your hands at your sdes.
eepng your egs
straght and your toes
sghty ponted, rase
your egs sowy unt
they are vertca. Hod n
that poston, then ower
them sowy.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
SECTlON : E S & EET
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Leg and hIp exercIses
(above)
a Stand on one eg,
supported by your hand on
a wa or tabe, then ft
your free eg as hgh as
possbe to the sde.
Pepeat for other eg.
Leg and hIp fIexIbIIIty
(beIow)
Use these fexbty
routnes n the same way
as the others, to mprove
your bodys mobty.
1 Stand uprght, back
aganst a wa. Pase one
eg out to the sde and
then across your body as
far as t w go, keepng t
straght at the knee.
2 Wth your arms out to
the sdes for baance,
take a sma step forward
and then kck the other
eg nto the ar as hgh as
you comfortaby can,
keepng t straght.
3 St wth your knees
apart and your feet
together. Hod your
ankes and see how near
you can press your knees
to the foor.
b Stand as n 1, and
swng your free eg
forward and back as far
as possbe.
c Le on your back wth
your buttocks touchng a
wa and your egs rased,
then open your egs as
wde as you can.
d Stand wth your arms
behnd your head as
shown, then unge
forward onto each eg n
turn, wth knee bent.
e Stand wth your feet
together. eepng your
feet fat on the ground,
bend your knees whe at
the same tme twstng
them to the eft.
Straghten up, then repeat
twstng them to the rght.
f Stand wth your feet
together, then |ump as
hgh as you can to one
sde as though |umpng a
fence, keepng your feet
together. Pepeat to the
other sde.
g Le on one sde wth
your arms postoned as
shown. Lft your upper
eg as far as possbe n
the ar, then ower t.
h Le face down wth your
arms at your sdes, then
ft each eg n turn as
hgh as possbe off the
foor.
a b
c
d
e f
g
h
eg dIscrders
S2
Connon Ieg probIens
The ustraton pots the stes of some
of the probems that commony affect
the egs.
a Scatca. Ths severe pan down the eg
s caused by pressure on the scatc
nerve (see opposte).
b Housemads knee, an nfammaton of
the knee |ont whch may be caused by
frequent kneeng.
c Punners knee. Ths condton often
affects |oggers and ong-dstance
runners, and conssts of pan and stran
caused by nsuffcent foot support
durng runnng. Soft supports paced
nsde the runnng shoes usuay ease
the probem.
d Degeneratve arthrts. Ths tends to
occur more often n the knee than n
other |onts, because of the extra wear
caused by the knees weght-bearng
functon. Obesty often precptates the
probem, especay n women.
e Shn spnts. Ths condton may be
suffered by runners, and takes the form
of pan over the shn area. lt s often
caused by runnng on hard surfaces,
such as sdewaks. dfferent condton
s caused by nadequate support from
runnng shoes.
Legs nre genernIIy sIrong nnd robusI pnrIs oI
IIe Iumnn body, buI nre neverIIeIess prone
Io mnny probIems becnuse oI IIe vnrIous
sIrnIns Imposed by IIeIr IuncIIons. TIe knee
Is IIe InrgesI joInI In IIe body, nnd Inkes IIe
sIrnIn oI nImosI nII oI our body veIgII.
ConsequenIIy IIs veIIbeIng cnn be nIIecIed by
bnd posIure, by poor vnIkIng InbIIs, nnd nIso
by IIe sInIe oI IIe IIIgI nnd cnII muscIes.
VIenever one pnrI oI IIe Ieg Is Injured or
IroubIesome, II Iends Io nIIecI IIe resI oI IIe
Ieg ndverseIy ns muscIe movemenIs nnd
pnIIerns sIIII Io proIecI IIe Injury, nnd so
IIe probIem cnn be muIIIpIIed. II mny even
cnuse IroubIe In IIe Iorso Ioo. n IIese pnges
ve Iook nI some oI IIe common Ieg probIems
nnd sIov you Iov Io nvoId IIem, nnd IIeIr
eIIecIs, ns mucI ns possIbIe.
f Cramp. The ntense pan of cramp s
often experenced n the caves, and s
caused by the musce contractng hard
or gong nto spasm. Ths may be
because of an nsuffcency of sat, or
unaccustomed exercse wthout warm-
up actvty.
g Swoen ankes. ccumuaton of fud
n the ankes causes them to swe and
fee tender and heavy. Excessve water
retenton, obesty, pregnancy, ack of
exercse, and heart faure are a
possbe contrbutng factors.
hVarcose vens see opposte.
f
g
a
b c d
e
h
SECTlON : E S & EET
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AggravatIng sItuatIons
CerInIn occupnIIons or InbIIs Iend Io Incrense IIe IIkeIIIood or IIe
severIIy oI Ieg probIems. verveIgII peopIe Incrense IIe sIrnIn on
IIeIr knee joInIs, nnd IIIs Is nIso Irue oI vomen cnrryIng eIrn veIgII
becnuse oI pregnnncy. Poor posIure nIso sIrnIns IIe knees, nnd IIgI
IeeIed sIoes pInce nn unnnIurnI sIrnIn on IIe Iegs nnd sIouId noI be
vorn Ior Iong perIods. SInndIng occupnIIons, sucI ns servIng nI n
counIer or cookIng, Incrense cIrcuInIory probIems ns IIe cnII muscIes
mny noI vork Inrd enougI Io pump IIe bIood bnck up Io IIe IenrI.
arIcose veIns
These deveop when
vaves n the ower eg
vens become fauty and
aow the bood to poo,
causng the vens to
swe and become
engorged. The bood
fow around the egs s
dsturbed and the
probem s ncreased
uness the fauty vaves
are removed or norma
fow can be estabshed
by exercse. Standng
occupatons, athough
they do not cause
varcose vens, do
ncrease any nherent
tendency to them. The
actons of the eg
musces are mportant
n squeezng the bood
n the caves and
mantanng crcuaton.
ny measures that
mprove bood fow
from the egs w hep,
such as brsk wakng
and eg exercses.
CIrcuIatory probIens
Nany crcuatory
probems n the egs are
assocated wth, or are
compcatons of,
varcose vens (see eft).
Varcose eczema s
caused by scratchng the
nfamed skn over the
vens. Varcose ucers
appear when the tssue
degenerates as the
crcuaton deterorates.
The ucers are wounds
and need dressngs unt
they are heaed.
Phebts, or cottng of
the surface vesses, can
be eased by extensve
bandagng of the eg
unt the condton
subsdes and the
underyng causes can
be treated. Greater use
and ftness of eg
musces heps ther
squeezng acton to force
bood upward toward
the heart.
ScIatIca
Scatca s the term used
to descrbe pan that s
usuay spna n orgn,
but that s fet aong the
scatc nerve n the eg.
The dagram (opposte)
shows the usua pace n
the eg where the pan
s generay fet. ln fact
ths part of the eg s not
the source of the pan. lt
resuts from pressure
exerted on the scatc
nerve when t s
squeezed or pressed by
one of the vertebrae or
by an ntervertebra
dsk, hgher up n the
vertebra coumn
(backbone). The
condton s usuay
cured by rest, foowed
by physca therapy.
Surgery may be needed
n severe cases.
vodng back stran
through good posture
and exercse may hep
to prevent scatca.
cct dIscrders
S4
Connon foot probIens
The ustratons show the stes of some
of the most common foot probems.
a Bunon. Ths may deveop as the
underyng |ont becomes swoen and
deformed, often due to poor footwear.
b Faen arch or fat foot. Ths condton
s not aways probematc, athough
arches that are n the process of fang
may cause pan and a chropodst
shoud be consuted.
c Verruca. Ths s a wart that usuay
appears on a weght-bearng area of the
foot, ncudng the toe (see opposte).
d ches tendnts. lnfammaton n ths
area s usuay caused by poor footwear
that paces stran on the hee.
e Hammer toe. Ths may be the resut of
pnchng the toes nto tght or ponted
shoes. The toe fnay becomes
permanenty bent up at the |ont.
FootprInts
TIe IooI`s sInIe oI
IenIII Is oIIen
reIIecIed In IIe sInpe
oI IIs prInI.
1 A IooI IInI Is
sIrucIurnIIy sound;
IIe prInI Is veII
Iormed nnd Incks
unnnIurnI bumps or
IoIIovs.
2 A InIIen nrcI; IIe
soIe Is IInIIened ouI.
3 A IooI vIII n
Inmmer Ioe, vIere
one oI IIe Ioes Is
drnvn up ouI oI IIe
nnIurnI IIne.
TIe IeeI nre very compIe sIrucIures, ns IIeIr
Insks requIre coordInnIed combInnIIons oI
bnInnce, movemenI, rIgIdIIy, mnneuvernbIIIIy,
sIrengII, nnd IIeIbIIIIy. FncI IooI conInIns 26
bones, 1 muscIes, nnd more IInn 100
IIgnmenIs Io IeIp II cnrry ouI IIese dIverse
IuncIIons. TIere nre nIso numerous IooI nnd
nnkIemovIng muscIes In IIe Iover Ieg.
ProbIems vIII IIe IeeI cnn nIIecI n grenI denI
oI IIe resI oI IIe body, cnusIng Ieg pnIn, bnck
pnIn, poor posIure, nnd InIIgue. Some IooI
probIems mny nIIecI IIe muscIes or bones, or
mny be vIrnI, IungnI, or bncIerInI InIecIIons;
oIIers mny sImpIy be cnused by poor IooI
IygIene or n Inck oI genernI cnre nnd eercIse.
Here ve sIov you vnys In vIIcI you cnn
IeIp Io prevenI mnny oI IIese probIems by
gIvIng your IeeI n IIIIIe eIrn nIIenIIon.
a
b c
d
e
SECTlON : E S & EET
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one pedIcure
lt s worth spendng the
tme every few weeks to
gve your feet a compete
home pedcure. Ths w
hep to prevent common
foot probems.
1 Bathe your feet n
aternate baths of hot and
cod water ths
stmuates the crcuaton,
and aso heps to reeve
tred feet.
2 Pub down any causes
or hard skn patches wth
a wet pumce stone
smeared wth soap.
3 Dry your feet
thoroughy wth a towe,
partcuary between the
toes. Ths dscourages
Shoes and socks
TIe III oI sIoes nnd socks Is
ImporInnI IIrougIouI IIIe,
sInce IIe IeeI cnn be pusIed
ouI oI sInpe by consInnI
mIsIrenImenI nI nny IIme.
Socks sIouId nIvnys be Iong
enougI Io cover IIe IooI
vIen unsIreIcIed, nnd noI
Ioo IIgII or IIey mny resIrIcI
muscIes nnd bIood IIov. SIoes
sIouId be comIorInbIe nnd III
veII In boII IengII nnd
vIdII. FnsIIon sIoes nre besI
ns occnsIonnI venr. Fverydny
sIoes Inve reInIIveIy Iov
IeeIs IInI nre brond enougI
Io sprend IIe body`s veIgII.
Corns
Corns nre ImpncIed nnd
IIIckened dend ceIIs IInI
Inve noI been sIed Irom IIe
skIn normnIIy, buI Inve been
Inrdened by IrIcIIon Irom III
IIIIIng sIoes. Corns Inve
nucIeI, oIIen mIsInkenIy
cnIIed rooIs, nnd nny cure
musI remove IIe nucIeus ns
veII ns IIe dend skIn.
CorrecIIy IIIIIng IooIvenr Is
nn ImporInnI correcIIve
mensure. ProIessIonnI
IrenImenI Irom n cIIropodIsI
vIII remove IIe corn. o noI
Iry Io remove II yourseII, ns
you mny dnmnge your IooI.
errucae
errucne, vnrIs on IIe IeeI,
nre unsIgIIIy nnd cnn cnuse
consIdernbIe pnIn. TIey nre
IrnnsmIIIed rnpIdIy In dnmp
condIIIons, so nnyone vIo
deveIops n verrucn sIouId
reIrnIn Irom usIng svImmIng
pooIs nnd communnI sIover
rooms unIII II Ins gone. LIke
ordInnry vnrIs, n verrucn mny
dIsnppenr sponInneousIy. BuI
II II Is Inrge or pnInIuI, II mny
Inve Io be removed.
TrenImenI IncIudes nnIIvIrnI
crenm, or surgery Io cuI ouI
IIe vnrI or desIroy II by
InIense IenI or coId.
fungus nfectons such as
athetes foot.
4 Dust your feet very
ghty wth tacum
powder, a tte powder
w hep prevent sweaty
feet, but too much w
aggravate the probem.
5 Cut your toenas
straght across, do not be
tempted to shape them or
cut them down at the
sdes, as ths w
encourage ngrowng.
6 Exercse your feet by
tryng to pck up a penc
wth your toes. Ths w
keep the musces we
toned and hep the
crcuaton.
4
3
2
5
6
1
lntrcductIcn
S6
oInIs oi aiIIcuIaIIons aie cIassIIIed
sIiucIuiaIIy as IIbious, caiIIIagInous see
page 8 , and synovIaI, dependIng on IIe
maIeiIaI bIndIng IIe bones IogeIIei.
TIey can aIso be cIassIIIed IuncIIonaIIy,
based on IIe bone sIapes and dIiecIIon
oI movemenI see opposIIe , oi IIe
amounI oI movemenI aIIoved, as
IoIIovs
ynaiIIioIIc joInIs ImmovabIe .
mpIIaiIIioIIc joInIs sIIgIIIy
movabIe .
IaiIIioIIc joInIs IieeIy movabIe .
FIbrous |oInts
There s no |ont cavty. Bones are hed together by fbrous tssue.
Sutures
Syndesmoss Gomphoss
Type
Suture
Syndesmoss
Gomphoss
escrIptIon
Bones are
separated by a
thn ayer of
fbrous tssue.
Bones are unted
by dense fbrous
tssue.
Bone s a cone-
shaped peg n a
socket.
hovenent
None
(synarthrotc).
Sght
(ampharthrotc).
None
(synarthrotc).
ExanpIes
Between sku
bones, formng the
wggy suture nes
across ts surface.
Ends of tba and
fbua, ower eg.
Poots of teeth
n aveoar bone of
|aw.
SynovIaI |oInts
The ends of the bones
are covered by artcuar
cartage. bagke
synova capsue encases
the |ont. lts nner nng,
the synova membrane,
makes oy synova fud
to ubrcate the |ont.
Jont cavty
Fbrous membrane
rtcuar cartage
Synova membrane
rtcuatng |onts
SECTlON : OlNTS
BaII and socket
ows movements n
three panes, ncudng
twstng (rotaton)
ST
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Inge |oInt
Ebow
|ont
Shouder
|ont
SaddIe |oInt
Thumb |ont
EIIIpsoId |oInt
Basa wrst
|ont
PIvot |oInt
Second neck |ont
(atas-axs)
PIane |oInt
Dsta wrst
|ont
ows movements n
ony one pane, ke a
door hnge
Permts movements n
two panes by sadde-
shaped surfaces
ows movements n
two panes (acks
rotaton)
Permts rotatona
moton n one pane,
ke a whee on an axe
Sdng movement of
fat surface, usuay
mted n extent
cInt t pes
SS
EA AN NEC
1oInt
tanto-axa |ont
tanto-occpta |ont
Corona suture
lntermaxary suture
Lambdoda suture
Netopc suture
Sagtta suture
Temporomandbuar |ont
C EST
1oInt
Costochondra |onts
Nanubrosterna |onts
Sternocosta |onts
Vertebrocosta |onts
phsterna |ont
BAC
1oInt
lntervertebra |onts
Zygapophysea |onts
PEL lS
1oInt
Sacroac |ont
Symphyss pubs
1oInt type
Synova
Synova
Suture
Suture
Suture
Suture
Suture
Synova
1oInt type
Synchondross
Symphyss
Synchondross,
synova
Synova
Symphyss
1oInt type
Symphyss
Synova
1oInt type
Synova
Symphyss
escrIptIon
Pvot |ont between atas and axs,
pvotng on odontod process of axs
Epsod (or condyod) |ont between
occpta bone of sku and atas
lmmovabe |ont between fronta and
pareta bones
lmmovabe |ont between maxae
lmmovabe |ont between occpta and
pareta bones
lmmovabe |ont between two haves of
fronta bone
lmmovabe |ont between pareta bones
Nodfed hnge |ont between tempora
bone and mandbe (|aw |ont)
escrIptIon
lmmovabe |onts between rbs and
ther costa cartages
Sghty movabe |ont between
manubrum and body of sternum
lmmovabe |ont between sternum and
frst rb, sghty movabe |onts
between second to seventh rbs
Pane |onts between vertebrae and rbs
Sghty movabe |ont between xphod
process and body of sternum
escrIptIon
Sghty movabe |onts between
ad|acent vertebrae
Pane |onts between artcuar processes
of ad|acent vertebra
escrIptIon
Pane |ont between sacrum and um
Sghty movabe |ont between pubc
bones
SECTlON : OlNTS
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ARh
1oInt
cromocavcuar |ont
Carpometacarpa |onts
Dsta radounar |ont
Ebow |ont
lnterphaangea |onts
Netacarpophaangeas
Ndcarpa |onts
Proxma radounar
|ont
Shouder |ont
Sternocavcuar |ont
Wrst |ont
LEG
1oInt
nke |ont
Cacaneocubod |ont
Cuneonavcuar |ont
Hp |ont
lnferor tbofbuar |ont
lnterphaangea |onts
nee |ont
Netatarsophaangea
|onts
Subtaar |ont
Superor tbofbuar
|ont
Taocacaneonavcuar
|ont
Tarsometatarsa |onts
1oInt type
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
1oInt type
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Fbrous
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
Synova
escrIptIon
Pane (gdng) |ont between acromon process
of scapua and atera end of cavce
Pane or modfed sadde |ont connectng carpas
wth metacarpas
Pvot |ont between head of una and unar notch
of radus
Hnge |ont between humerus and radus/una
Hnge |onts between phaanges
Epsod (condyod) |onts at base of fngers
Pane |onts between ad|acent carpa bones
Pvot |ont between head of radus and una
Ba and socket |ont between head of humerus
and genod cavty of scapua
Sadde |ont between cavce and sternum
Epsod |ont between ower end of radus and
carpas
escrIptIon
Hnge |ont between taus and tba/fbua
Pane |ont between cacaneus and cubod
Pane |ont between cuneform bones and
navcuar bone
Ba and socket |ont between head of femur and
acetabuum of hp bone
Sghty movabe |ont between ower ends of
tba and fbua
Hnge |onts between phaanges
Nodfed hnge |ont between condyes of femur
and condyes of tba
Epsod |onts between metatarsas and
phaanges
Pane |ont between taus and cacaneus
Pane |ont between atera condye of tba and
head of fbua
Nodfed pane |ont between taus, cacaneus,
and navcuar n anke
Pane |onts between tarsas and metatarsas
cInt mcvements
00
GIIdIng
One surface moves over another
surface, back and forth and sde
to sde.
Exampes
lntercarpa |onts (n the wrst).
lntertarsa |onts (n the anke).
Certan parts of rbs that gde
on parts of ad|acent vertebrae.
FIexIon
Fexon (bendng) usuay
brngs two bones coser
together, decreasng the
ange between them.
(See aso descrptons on
page 1 .)
Exampes
a Brngng the forearm to
the shouder fexes the
arm.
ExtensIon
Extenson (straghtenng)
s the opposte of fexon.
lt usuay ncreases the
ange between bones.
Exampes
a Straghtenng the arm
extends the arm.
b Straghtenng the eg
extends the eg.
c Novng the arm
b Bendng the trunk fexes
the spne.
c Lftng the hee to the
bottom fexes the eg.
backward (rearward)
extends the shouder.
d Swngng the eg back
extends the hp.
d Lftng the arm forward
fexes the shouder.
e Swngng the eg
forward fexes the hp.
d c b a
e d c b a
Fnger
movements
Fnger
movements
lntercarpa |onts
SECTlON : OlNTS
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CIrcunductIon
Ths s a 3 0 rotaton that
outnes a crce or cone
n space. lt s mted to
the most mobe |onts.
Exampes
The shouder.
The sadde |ont of
the thumb.
AbductIon
bducton (movng away) s the
movement of a mb away from
the mdne of the body.
Exampes
Takng the arm out to the sde.
Takng the eg out to the sde.
Spreadng the fngers and
toes apart.
AdductIon
dducton (brngng together) s
the opposte of abducton: t s
the movement of a mb toward
the mdne of the body.
Exampes
Brngng the arm down to the
sde of the body.
Brngng the eg to a standng
poston.
Cosng the fngers or toes.
bducton of arm
dducton of
arm and eg
Crcumducton of shouder Crcumducton of thumb
bducton
of eg
bducton
of fngers
dducton
of fngers
cInt mcvements 2
02
yperextensIon
Ths s when the body s extended
beyond the anatomca poston. Ths
means that the |ont ange becomes
greater than 180 .
ProtractIon and retractIon
These ony refer to the mandbe (|aw)
or scapua (shouder bade).
Protracton and retracton nvove
anteror (front) and posteror (back)
movements n the same pane.
Exampes ncude
Stckng out
the |aw
(protracton, a).
Novng the |aw
back to the
orgna poston
(retracton, b).
Pung back or
squarng the
shouders (retracton).
EIevatIon and depressIon
ln eevaton, part of the body moves
upward, n depresson, t moves
downward.
Exampes
Hunchng the shouders
(eevaton, a).
The |aw movng
downward
when eatng
(depresson, b).
RotatIon
Ths s the turnng of a bone around ts
own ong axs, ke the rotatng axe of
a whee.
Exampes
Hp and shouder |onts.
Twstng arm (a).
Shakng head from
sde to sde (b).
Exampe
Ttng the head
back to ook up.
Hyperextenson
of neck
a
b
b
a
a
b
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SupInatIon and pronatIon
These refer to movements of the radus
around the una.
Exampes
Potatng the arm so that the pam
faces down (pronaton, a).
Potatng the arm so that the pam
faces up (supnaton, b).
pposItIon
Ths refers to a specfc movement of
the fngers and thumb. The thumb,
fngers, and pam can be moved to
touch or oppose each fnger
n turn, as when pckng
up a tny tem such
as a pn.
Exampe
Touchng the tp
of the tte
fnger on one
hand wth the
thumb of the
same hand.
orsIfIexIon and pIantarfIexIon
These refer to movements of the anke
and foot ony.
Exampes
Lftng the top of
the foot upward,
decreasng the
ange between
the foot and eg
(dorsfexon, a).
Pontng the toes
and archng the
foot, ncreasng
the ange between
the foot and eg
(pantarfexon, b).
lnversIon and eversIon
These refer to speca movements of
the foot and toes ony.
Exampes
Turnng the foot nward toward the
mdne of the body (nverson, a).
Turnng the foot out away from the
body (everson, b).
a
b
a
a
b
b
cInt mcbIIIt exercIses
04
MobIIIIy eercIses IeIp Io Improve IIe
IIeIbIIIIy nnd rnnge oI movemenIs oI IIe
joInIs, nnd IIe muscIes nIIncIed Io IIem.
TIey nIso Ione IIgnmenIs nnd Iendons vIII
reguInr use. PeopIe vIo Iend sedenInry IIves
oIIen Inve IImIIed mobIIIIy In IIeIr joInIs. As
n resuII IIeIr bodIes nre IImIIed In eIIIcIency
nnd movemenI, nnd prone Io vnrIous joInI
nnd muscIe probIems. CenernI ncIes nnd
pnIns cnn oIIen be removed by n course oI
mobIIIIy eercIses, nnd IIIs kInd oI eercIse Is
used In pIysIoIIernpy Ior reInbIIIInIIng sIIII
joInIs nnd venkened muscIes. AIvnys be
cnreIuI vIen begInnIng mobIIIIy eercIses.
oInIs IInI Inve become unused Io IIeIr IuII
rnnge oI nnIurnI movemenIs cnn become
sprnIned or dIsIocnIed. BegIn nny course oI
eercIses genIIy Io nvoId ncIes nnd sIIIIness
IIe IoIIovIng dny. Never sIreIcI your joInIs Io
IIe poInI oI dIscomIorI.
hobIIIty actIvItIes
oga s very good for mprovng
mobty and fexbty, as t stretches
and oosens |onts and musces. Ta
Ch and a Nen sequences of
exercses are aso benefca for
makng |onts more suppe, as they
nvove a seres of stretchng poses
that exercse the whoe body. Jumpng
rope mproves the fexbty of the
arms and shouders, and aso heps
the hps, knees, and ankes. Sports
such as swmmng, gof, gymnastcs,
racket sports, and track and fed
events a promote mobty as they
tend to requre the use of many |onts
and musces for coordnated
movements. Exercsng wth lndan
cubs or rbbons, and gymnastc foor
exercses and movement sequences,
aso mprove fexbty and
suppeness. Back |oInts
The |onts between the vertebrae are
compex and cope wth great stresses.
ctvtes that strengthen back and
abdomna musces are mportant to
support the vertebra coumn and ward
off back dsorders.
lntervertebra dsk
SECTlON : OlNTS
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Arn and shouIder fIexIbIIIty
TIese IesIs vIII ennbIe you Io see Iov veII you nre progressIng
ns you use IIe mobIIIIy eercIses Io Incrense your IIeIbIIIIy.
Try IIe IesIs beIore you begIn your eercIse progrnm, nnd IIen
do IIem nI veekIy or IvoveekIy InIervnIs nnd noIe your
ImprovemenI.
a SInnd vIII your nrms nI your sIdes. eepIng IIem sIrnIgII
Irom IIe sIouIders, move IIem Iorvnrd nnd up, IIen dovn
nnd bnck ns Inr ns possIbIe, movIng your Innds In nn nrc.
b SInnd vIII your nrms sIrnIgII ouI Io IIe sIdes. Move IIem
IIrsI up, nnd IIen dovn nnd ncross your body, ns Inr ns IIey
vIII go vIIIouI dIscomIorI.
c SInrI ns Ior b, nnd rencI beIInd you ns Inr ns you cnn.
c b
a
For these exercses, begn
wth one or two
repettons each day and
work up sowy to a
maxmum of 30
repettons each.
a Stand uprght, wth
your arms oosey at your
sdes. Bend your trunk
frst forward and then
backward.
b Nove your head frst
forward and back, and
then from sde to sde, to
oosen your neck and
shouder |onts.
c Stand uprght wth your
arms stretched above
your head. Cross your
arms n front of your
face, and then behnd
your head.
d Stand wth your arms
at your sdes. Cross your
arms frst n front of your
body then behnd your
back.
e Stand wth your arms at
your sdes and make
gant crces frst forward
and then backward.
f Stand wth your feet
together and your arms
aganst a wa. Bend your
arms so that your chest
moves toward the wa,
and then straghten your
arms agan. Ths s a
modfed pushup, when
you are more fexbe you
may be abe to do fu
pushups.
g Stand wth your feet
apart and your ebows
rased to shouder eve.
Cench your fsts n front
of your chest. Push your
ebows back as far as
possbe, keepng your
back straght.
hobIIIty exercIses
a b
c d
e
f g
05
Pcsture prcbIems and exercIses
06
ey posture poInts
Peope wth good posture stand so you
coud draw a vertca ne through
certan key ponts of the body. Check
your posture aganst the key ponts
sted here, especay the |onts, as you
stand sdeways to a fu-ength mrror.
Pu your head up, shouders back, chest
out. eep your back straght, arms
oosey at the sdes, buttocks reaxed,
knees sghty bent, weght eveny
dstrbuted. Check the key ponts one by
one: 1 neck, 2 shouders, 3 ower back, 4
pevs, 5 hp |onts, 6 knee |onts,
anke |onts.
PosturaI probIens
The dagrams beow show how
posture affects skeeta agnments.
Person a stands correcty baanced,
spne vertca. The bones of both
shouders, both hps, and both hands
are horzontay agned. ln person b
the spne curves to one sde and
shouders, hps, and hands are tted.
eepIng IIe vnrIous pnrIs oI IIe
muscuIoskeIeInI sysIem nnd IIe joInIs In
bnInnced reInIIonsIIp vIII one nnoIIerIn
oIIer vords, cuIIIvnIIng good posIurecnn
pIny n vIInI roIe In prevenIIng or IrenIIng
bnckncIe nnd cerInIn oIIer nIImenIs.
Correct posture
MnInInInIng correcI posIure reduces IIe rIsk oI
nccIdenIs In everydny IIvIng nnd vorkIng, ns
veII ns In pIny nnd sporI. II nIso deInys or
prevenIs onseI oI osIeonrIIrIIIs due Io joInI
overuse or Injury.
Poor posture
n IIe oIIer Innd, bnd posIure produces
poor muscIe coordInnIIon nnd Inmpers bIood
cIrcuInIIon Io IIe muscIes. TIIs cnn InndIcnp
vouIdbe sporIs nnd gnmes pInyers. II nIso
Ienves nnyone vIII Iess energy nI IIe dny`s
end Ior ncIIve recrenIIon.
ContrIbutIng factors
Bnck sIrnIn rIsks Incrense II you Inve poor
posIure, II you bend or IIII IncorrecIIy, II you
venr vedge or IIgIIeeIed sIoes, or II you nre
pregnnnI or obese.
a b
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a
b c
a
b
b
c
a
SpInaI dIsorders
TIese IncIude scoIIosIs (see
pnge 33), vIere IIe spIne
curves Io one sIde, nnd
IordosIs, vIere IIe Iumbnr
verIebrne curve Invnrd. Some
sucI spInnI condIIIons nre
progressIve; oIIers nre Iess
serIous nnd respond beIIer Io
eercIses. II docIors npprove,
scoIIosIs suIIerers cnn Iry
IIese eercIses.
a neeI vIII nrms nbove
your Iend, IIen bend
Iorvnrd Irom IIe IIps nnd
IoucI IIe IIoor. VnIkIng on
your knees, pIvoI rIgII IIen
IeII nround your Innds.
b neeIIng on one knee,
propped by IIe opposIIe nrm,
IIII nnd eIend IIe oIIer nrm
nnd Ieg In IIne vIII IIe body.
RepenI vIII opposIIe IImbs.
Posture and daIIy
actIvIty
IsIng IIe body correcIIy Io
perIorm dnIIy cIores cnn IeIp
Io prevenI sIrnInIng or
InjurIng IIe bnck.
a eep your bnck ns sIrnIgII
ns you cnn Io IIII n Iond Irom
IIe IIoor. neeI or squnI; do
noI bend. pen n drnver or
puI IIems on Iov sIeIves In
IIe snme vny.
b VIen cnrryIng n Iond In
one Innd, bnInnce II vIII n
Iond In IIe oIIer, or InII
supporI II on n IIp.
c II kneeIIng, rnIse your
buIIocks so IInI IIe IIps nnd
sIouIders supporI IIe spIne.
AIso, sII vIII IIe peIvIs
IoucIIng IIe bnck oI IIe
cInIr nnd keep IIe spIne
sIIgIIIy curved.
Posture exercIses
TIese eercIses vIII IeIp Io
ncIIeve nnd mnInInIn n
correcI, IenIIIy posIure.
a SInnd vIII your bnck
ngnInsI n vnII. SIIgIIIy bend
IIe knees, IIII IIe IIps
upvnrd, Iover IIe Iend, nnd
bronden IIe sIouIders.
b SInnd nnd cInsp your
Innds beIInd your neck.
PuII IIe eIbovs bnck nnd up
nnd IoId IIe posIIIon Ior
IIve seconds.
c SInnd vIII your IeeI veII
npnrI. HoIdIng your nrms
sIrnIgII, rnIse IIem Iorvnrd
Irom your sIdes Io IIe IronI,
IIen up so IInI your
sIouIders brusI your enrs.
ConIInue movIng your nrms
bnckvnrd Io compIeIe n
cIrcIe.
Isorders and dIseases of the |oInts and skeIeton
cInt dIscrders
0S
(NoIe: See nIso descrIpIIons oI some mnjor
dIsorders oI IIe skeIeInI sysIem on pnge 33.)
ArthrItIs A genernI Ierm Ior InIInmmnIIon,
sveIIIng, redness, nnd Ienderness or pnIn In
n joInI. TIIs Ierm Is usunIIy IurIIer deIIned
Ior IIe nnmes oI specIIIc medIcnI condIIIons,
sucI ns osIeonrIIrIIIs, gouIy nrIIrIIIs, nnd
rIeumnIoId nrIIrIIIs.
IsIocatIon An Injury In vIIcI bones nre
Iorced ouI oI IIeIr normnI posIIIonssee
opposIIe.
Gouty arthrItIs A Iorm oI nrIIrIIIs cnused by
urnIe crysInIs (Iormed Irom urIc ncId)
deposIIed In IIe soII IIssues oI joInIs. IrIc
ncId Is n vnsIe producI, normnIIy eIImInnIed
vIIIouI nny probIems. Hovever II IIe
crysInIs Iorm In n joInI, oIIen In IIe bIg Ioe
(meIncnrpopInInngenI nnd InIerpInInngenI
joInIs), IIIs cnuses InIense pnIn.
yphosIs AbnormnI ouIvnrd curvnIure oI
IIe upper spIne, vIIcI cnn nIIecI IIe
InIerverIebrnI joInIs oI IIe verIebrnI coIumn,
vIII sIIIIenIng nnd pnIn.
LordosIs AbnormnI Invnrd curvnIure oI IIe
Iumbnr verIebrne In IIe Iover spIne. As In
kypIosIs, II cnn nIIecI IIe InIerverIebrnI
joInIs nnd cnuse pnIn nnd Ioss oI mobIIIIy.
Lyne dIsease Cnused by bncIerIn
IrnnsmIIIed by bIIes Irom IIcks. II cnn resuII
In Iorms oI nrIIrIIIs, nIIecIIng especInIIy IIe
knee joInI.
steoarthrItIs IIen reIerred Io ns
degenernIIve joInI dIsense. TIe specIIIc cnuse
Is unknovn. ne IIeory Is IInI enzymes nre
reIensed IInI brenk dovn IIe nrIIcuInr
cnrIIInge coverIng IIe ends oI IIe bones In
synovInI joInIs. II Is IInked Io overuse nnd
ecessIve sIress pInced on IIe joInIs, Ior
enmpIe, nIIer mnny yenrs oI InIensIve
ncIIvIIy In cerInIn sporIs.
Types of cartIIagInous |oInts
There s no |ont cavty. rtcuatng bones are hed together by cartage.
These |onts are very rarey prone to dsease or n|ury, compared to
synova |onts (see page 8 ).
Type
Symphyss
Synchondross
escrIptIon
The connectng
matera s a
broad, fat dsk of
fbrocartage
The connectng
matera s hyane
cartage
hovenent
Sght
(ampharthrotc)
None
(synarthrotc)
ExanpIes
lntervertebra
|onts between
the backbones
The epphysea
pate n a growng
ong bone
SECTlON : OlNTS
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b Dsocated |ont. The gaments that
keep the two bone surfaces n pace are
ruptured or torn. The ends of the bones
have become dspaced and separated
from each other.
a Norma synova |ont (the exampe
here s the hp). The cartage-covered
bone surfaces are kept n cose
proxmty by gaments, and separated
ony by a thn fm of synova fud.
Paget s dIsease InvoIves IIe nbnormnI
IormnIIon nnd resorpIIon oI bone. Bones
become soII, venk, IIIckened, nnd
deIormed, nnd IIIs nIIecIs IIeIr joInIs nnd
mny Iend Io Incrensed rIsk oI IrncIures nnd
dIsIocnIIons.
RheunatIsn A genernI nnme Ior nny
pnInIuI sInIe In bones, IIgnmenIs, joInIs,
Iendons, or muscIes.
RheunatoId arthrItIs A cIronIc
InIInmmnIory dIsorder nIIecIIng joInIs,
especInIIy IIose oI IIe IIngers nnd Ioes, nnd
cnusIng severe sveIIIng. (See pnge 33 Ior
dIngrnms oI IIIs dIsorder.)
SpraIn An Injury In vIIcI IIe IIgnmenIs
reInIorcIng n joInI nre sIreIcIed or Iorn (see
neI pnge Ior IrenImenI).
hIpIash In|ury oInIs, muscIes, nnd
IIgnmenIs nround IIe cervIcnI (neck)
verIebrne nre Iorn by sudden Iend
movemenI, oIIen resuIIIng Irom nn
nuIomobIIe nccIdenI (see pnge 101).
a b
IsIocated |oInts
Nany |onts n the body can be
dsocated or come out when the bone
ends are aowed to move apart. The
cause s usuay excessve stress such as
twstng or mpact at speed. Sgns are
great pan and perhaps an obvousy
msshapen |ont. Partcuary at rsk s
the shouder, snce ts ba-and-socket
desgn has a very shaow socket n the
scapua to aow for great mobty.
Treatment usuay nvoves reducton, or
repacng the bones nto ther correct
postons and agnments, foowed by
possbe surgery to repar ruptured
gaments and tendons. Pepeated
dsocatons can cause gaments and
tendons to become sack and weak,
requrng correctve surgery.
Synova capsue torn
Lgaments
cetabuum
(socket) of pevs
Head of femur
Lgaments ruptured
cInt dIscrders 2
100
TreatIng |oInt spraIns
Treat torn or brused gaments (for
nstance n a knee or an anke) by restng
the n|ured part. Wth frm support and
gente use, a spraned anke may recover
n ony a few days.
cod compress s usefu for frst ad.
Treatment ncudes deep massage to
dsperse bood and fud that has
coected around the n|ury.
ln the event of a spraned anke (a),
foow ths procedure: ay a thck ayer of
cotton over the anke, then frmy fx n
pace by eastc bandagng (b). ou may
need to add a second ayer of cotton
covered wth a second bandage (c). lf the
spran s st panfu and you suspect
fracture, seek prompt medca advce.
The troubIesone knee |oInt
The knee s the bodys argest snge
|ont, and aso has an unusua structure.
On each sde are strong gaments, the
meda (nner sde) and atera (outer
sde). There are aso gaments wthn
the |ont, known as crucate gaments
snce they form a cross ( ) shape. ln
addton to the usua artcuar cartage
coverng the bone ends, there are aso
two moon-shaped peces of foatng
cartage, mensc, between the bones.
nees must cope wth unusua stresses
n many modern sports, where payers
run fast, then suddeny stop or |erk or
swerve to the sde. Sometmes the
mensc begn to fragment and must be
surgcay removed from the |ont.
nee |oInt: anterIor vIew
a
b
c
rtcuar
cartage
Tendons
Lgaments
rtcuatng
|onts
Fbrous
membrane
Nensc
rtcuatng
|onts
SECTlON : OlNTS
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R
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M
Poor posture and ack of
genera actvty and
exercse, wth nfexbe
|onts and ack of tone,
mean that key sectons of
the body are neffectvey
supported by unbaanced
sets of musces and
gaments. The |ont
probems that foow can
aso cause other
dsorders n the body, not
a of these drecty reated
to the muscuoskeeta
system. The stes and
ensung dsorders ncude:
a Head-neck |uncton:
headaches, musce pan n
the neck and upper back,
dsk degeneraton n the
cervca (neck) vertebrae.
b ln whpash n|ury (see
Effects of |oInt probIens
page ), gaments and
musces around the ffth
cervca vertebra are torn
by sudden head
movement. Treatment
nvoves wearng a soft
cervca coar for some
weeks. Serous sde-
effects ncude numbness
and parayss n parts of
the body beow the neck,
due to nfamed or
possby ruptured nerves.
These consequences may
take some tme many
months to resove.
c Shouder grdes:
panfu shouder musces,
capsuts, pnched nerve.
d Lumbo-sacra
artcuatons: ow-back
pan, dsk degeneraton n
the ower ntervertebra
|onts, scatca.
e Hp |onts: musce stran
affectng the buttocks and
hamstrngs.
f nee |onts: straned
gaments, straned
tendons, osteoarthrts.
g Feet and ankes:
straned and panfu
musces n the foot and
eg, panfu knee, hp and
anke |onts, greater rsk
of stress fractures and
varcose vens.
a
c
e
d
b
f
g
Icssar c the human bcd
102
AdIpose tIssue C

AdrenaI gIands
S E

T

Afferent D

AIInentary canaI
G G
T

Anus T

Aorta T

AppendIx
A

l

ArterIoIe A

Artery A

AtrIoventrIcuIar vaIve A
A
T

T

AudItory R
AxIIIary R
Backbone ertebraI
coIunn
BasaI gangIIa P

BasophII A

BIceps A

BIIe ducts T

BIadder A

BIood A

E
L
BIood pressure T

Bone T

Bone narrow S

BoweI Large IntestIne
BraIn T

BraInstenA

l

Breast A

Breastbone Sternun
BronchIoIe A

Bronchus T

CapIIIary T

CardIac R
CardIovascuIar R

CartIIage G
Cecun T

CeII T

103
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
CentraI nervous systen
CNS T
CerebeIIun T
l
CerebraI cortex T

CerebraI henIsphere E

CerebrospInaI fIuId A

CerebrunT

CervIx A

CIavIcIe E
CIItorIs A

CNS CentraI nervous
systen
Coccyx F

CoIIagen A

CoIon T

ConnectIve tIssue T

CorIun ernIs
Cornea T

Coronary arterIes S
CorpuscIes A

Cortex T
CranIaI nerves T

CranIunT

Cutaneous R
CutIcIe EpIdernIs
eoxyrIbonucIeIc acId
DNA A

ernIs C T

Iaphragn A
l

IgestIon T

NA eoxyrIbonucIeIc
acId
uodenun T

E|acuIatIon T

EndocardIun T

EndotheIIun T

En ynes B

EpIdernIs C T
EpIgIottIs A

EpIphysIs PIneaI gIand
EpItheIIun T

Erythrocytes R
Esophagus G T

104
FaIIopIan tubes U
O T

Fenur T

FoIIIcIe A
O

ForebraIn T
GaIIbIadder A

Ganetes S

GastrIc O
GastroIntestInaI tract
AIInentary canaI
Genes B

DNA
GenItaIIa S
GIand A

Gonads P

GranuIocytes

Gray natter T

GuIIet Esophagus
Gut AIInentary canaI
eart T

enogIobIn T

epatIc R
epatIc portaI veIn
PortaI veIn
IndbraIn B

ornones C

ypophysIs PItuItary
gIand
ypothaIanus A

lIeun T
lnnune systen T

l
lnvoIuntary nuscIe M

Snooth
nuscIe
1e|ununT
1oInt T
aryotype T

Idney A

LactatIon M
Large IntestIne B
T

Larynx T
Leukocytes
T

LIganent F
LIver T

Lungs T

Lynph A

Lynph gIand Lynph
node
Lynph node L
O

105
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
LynphatIc systen A

hannary gIands T

heduIIa obIongata T

heIosIs A

henInges T

henopause

henstruatIon M

hetaboIIsn T

hItosIs O

hucous nenbranes T

NasaI R
NasaI cavIty T

Nerve A

Nervous systenT

l

Neuron N A

Neurone Neuron
NeurotransnItter A

NucIeIc acIds M

NucIeus T

Ifactory R
ptIc R
rgan A

rganeIIes T

varIes F

vIducts FaIIopIan
tubes
vuIatIon T

vunA
PaIate T
Pancreas A

ParasynpathetIc nervous
systen T

ParathyroId gIands F

T

PeIvIs A

PerIcardIun T

PerIstaIsIs

106
Rectun T

RefIex actIon T

RenaI R
RespIratIon B
T
D

RespIratory systen l

RIbonucIeIc acId RNA A

RIbs T

SaIIvary gIands T
SerunB

SInus A

SkeIeton T

SkIn T

SnaII IntestIne T

M
Snooth nuscIe
U
l M

SphIncter A

SpInaI cord T

SpIne ertebraI
coIunn
Sternun T
Subcutaneous tIssue T

SuprarenaI gIands
AdrenaI gIands
Suture A

Taste buds T

Phagocytes T

Pharynx T
PIneaI gIand E
A
PItuItary gIand
H A

l

ADH
l
PIasna T
PIeura T

PIexus A

PortaI veIn H
D

Prostate gIand A

l

Pudendun uIva
PuInonary R
Receptor A

10T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Teeth B
D

Tendons B
TestIs T O

ThaIanus A
l

Thynus A
l
ThyroId A

TIssue A

Trachea T

TubuIe A
TunIca A
B

UnstrIated nuscIe
Snooth nuscIe
Ureter T

Urethra T

UrInary systenT

UrIne L
UterIne tubes FaIIopIan
tubes
Uterus A

l

UvuIa A
l

agIna T

ascuIar R

eIn A

enous R
entrIcIe A

enuIe A
ernIforn appendIx
AppendIx
ertebra A
ertebraI coIunn
B S T

l

estIbuIe A

ocaI cords T

uIva P T
hIte natter T

IndpIpe Trachea
onb Uterus
eb sItes tc vIsIt
10S
Anatony of the unan Body:
Gray s Anatony
Onne verson of the cassc
, contanng
over 13,000 entres and 1,200 mages.
htt bartleby co
BIoIogy nIIne
source for boogca nformaton,
sutabe for homework, research pro|ects,
and genera nterest, wth hundreds of
boogy Web ste nks.
htt biology-online org
Bl hE
gude to seected, quaty-checked
nternet resources n the heath and fe
scences.
htt bio e ac u
eaIth ScIences unan ServIces LIbrary
Provdes nks to seected Web stes that
may be usefu to both students and
researchers.
htt hshsl u aryland edu
resources lifesciences ht l
unan Anatony nIIne
lnteractve resource, wth vsua keys to
text on the human body.
htt innerbodyco
North arrIs CoIIege BIoIogy epartnent
Tutoras and graphcs on boogy, human
anatomy, human physoogy, mcroboogy,
and nutrton.
htt science nh ccd edu biol
pen Irectory Pro|ect: Anatony
Comprehensve st of nternet resources.
htt d o org ealth edicine
asic ciences nato y
pen Irectory Pro|ect: PhysIoIogy
htt d o org cience iology
Physiology
The BIoIogy Pro|ect
Structured tutoras on fe scences.
Partcuary strong on ce boogy, human
boogy, and moecuar boogy.
htt biology ari ona edu
UnIversIty of Texas: BIoTech LIfe ScIences
Resources and Reference TooIs
Enrchng knowedge of boogy and
chemstry, for everyone from hgh schoo
students to professona researchers. The
Dctonary and Scence Pesources are
partcuary usefu.
htt biotech ic b ute as edu
There s a ot of usefu nformaton on the nternet. There are aso many stes that are
fun to use. Pemember that you may be abe to get nformaton on a partcuar topc by
usng a search engne such as Googe (htt google co ). Some of the stes that
are found n ths way may be very usefu, others not. Beow s a seecton of Web stes
reated to the matera covered by ths book. Nost are ustrated, and they are many of
the type that provdes usefu facts.
Facts On Fe, lnc.
100
lndex
abdomen 54- 3
abductor musces 1
acetabuum 10, 40, 8
acetychone 23
ches tendon 2 , 74, 7 ,
77, 84
adductor musces 17, 1 ,
22
agonstc and antagonstc
musces 2
appendcuar skeeton 8,
4
arms 4
bones 8, 12
dsorders 72-73
exercses 72-73, 5
|onts 88, 0, 1, 2, 3
musces 7, 8, , 70
arthrts 33, 82, 8,
atas bone 38, 87, 88
axa skeeton 8, 3 -53
axs bone 38, 87, 88
bceps brach musce , 1 ,
21, 27, 8
contracton 24
exercse 72
tendons 2
brth 18, 40
bone marrow 7, 10
bones , 7,
deveopment 13
exercse benefts 28
fractures 32
musce attachments 2
structure 14
types 12
bran 7, 3 , 37
breathng 1 , 47
bursae 22, 35
C
cacaneus (hee) bone 10,
74, 75, 7 , 78, 8
cardac (heart) musce 1 ,
1
carpa (wrst) bones 8, 10,
12, 72-73, 8
carpus (wrst) 10, 4, 5,
87, 0
cartage 10, 13, 14, 15
dsorders 33
ntervertebra dsk 38
knee |ont 100
nose 3
rbs 55
ces 32
bone 10, 14, 32
musce 1
cervca vertebrae 8, 38, 3 ,
54
chest (thorax) 54- 3
|onts 88
musces 55, 5 , 57
chewng (mastcaton) 42,
45
cavces (coar bones) 7, 8,
54, 55, 5
|onts 8
mb skeeton 4, 5
coccyx 8, 10, 38, 40, 41
coagen fbers 15, 2
compact (hard) bone 12,
13, 14, 15
fracture repar 32
condyes , 75
connectve tssue 10, 1 ,
17, 1
cranum 8, 10, 3 , 37
D
deep musces 22, 48, 57,
58
detod musce , 20, 21, 25,
4 , 7, 8,
dentne 43
daphragm 1 , 54, 57
dgestve tract , 54
dsocaton 33, 8,
dsorders
arm 72-73
feet 84-85
hand 72-73
|onts 8-101
egs 82-83
skeeton 8-
ear bones (ossces) 10,
3
ebow |ont 4, 8, 87,
8
embryo skeeton 13
ename 43
endosteum 14
epphyss , 12, 14
ethmod bone 3
exercses 28, 2 , 30, 31, 34
arm and hand 72-73
chest and abdomna
musces 0- 3
face musces 45
|onts 4- 5
eg and foot 80-81, 85
posture - 7
reaxaton 51
strengthenng 52-53
extensor musces 1 , 20
fngers 70, 71
foot 7
mbs 4, 7
eye musces 18
faca bones 8, 3 , 37
faca musces 37, 44
lndex
110
fase rbs 8, 55
femur (thgh bone) 7, 8, ,
74, 75, 8
fbrobasts 32
fbua 7, 8, 74, 75, 8
fnger bones (phaanges) 8,
10, 12, 4
|onts 8 , 0, 1, 3
musces 70, 71
fat bone 12, 15
fexor carp radas musce
fexor musces 1 , 21
fngers 70, 71
foot 7
mbs 4, 7
foatng rbs 8, 55
foot (metatarsa) bones 8,
10, 78
dsorders 84-85
exercses 80-81
|onts 3, 101
musces 7
fronta bone 10, 3 , 37, 88
gangon 34, 35, 72
gastrocnemus musce ,
20, 21, 2 , 7
guteus maxmus musce
1 , 20, 25, 4 , 48
hamstrng musces 77
hand bones (metacarpas)
8, 10, 5, 8
dsorders and exercses
72-73
musces 71
Haversan systems 10, 14
head and neck |onts 88,
2, 101
heart , 7, 54
cardac musce 1 , 1
dsease 35
exercse 28, 30, 31
hp grde 8
hp |ont 10, 7 , 8 , 0, 2
probems 101
hormones 7
humerus 7, 8, , 4, 5,
8
hyane cartage 15, 8
hyod bone 3 , 45
um 10, 40, 74, 88
ncus 10
n|ures 28, 2
bone fracture 32
egs 82-83
musces 34
nserton 1 , 2
ntercosta musces 5 ,
57
ntervertebra dsk 10, 33,
38, 4
ntestnes ,1 , 54
rreguar bones 12
schum 10, 40, 74
|onts 7, , 8 -101
dsorders 33, 8-101
ebow 4, 8
exercse 31, 4
head and neck 88
hp 7
|aw 88, 2
knee 75, 7
musces , 2
shouder - 7
types 10, 87, 88-8
vertebra coumn 38
knee |ont 74, 7 , 8
dsorders 82, 83, 100,
101
L
egs 74-85
bones 8, 12
dsorders 82-83
exercses 80-81
|onts 88, 0, 1
musces 7 -77
evers
gaments 10, 7 , , 100
ps 42
ong bones 12, 5
umbago 34, 35
umbar vertebrae 8, 38, 3 ,
54
ungs 7, 54, 5 , 57
magnesum 7
maeus 10
mandbe (ower |aw bone)
8, 3 , 37, 42
|ont 88, 2
marrow 7, 13
massage 50
masseter musces 45
maxae (upper |aw bones)
10, 3 , 37, 42, 88
meatus
meduary cavty 14
mesomorphs 30
metabosm 31
metacarpa (hand) bones 8,
10, 5, 8
metatarsa (foot) bones 7,
8, 10, 74, 75, 78, 8
mneras 7
motor unts 23
111
mouth (ora cavty) 42
movement
bones 7
|onts 0- 3
musces , 1
musce fbers 23, 25, 27
musces , 17, 18
abdomen 54, 58-5
arm 7, 8, , 70
attachments 2
back 4 -47, 4
chest 55, 5 , 57
contractons 18, 23,
24
deep 22
dsorders 34, 35
exercse 28
face 37, 44
hand 71
eg 7 -77
massage 50
mouth 42
neck 45
pevs 48
shouder - 7
superfca 20, 21
muscuar dystrophy 35
muscuar system ,
1 -35
n|ures and dsorders
34-35
myocardum 1
myopathy 35
N
nasa bones 3 , 37
neck 45, 2
neck and head |onts 88,
2, 101
nerve ce (neuron) 23
nerve dsorders 34, 35
nerve mpuse 1 , 18, 23
occpta bones 10, 3 , 37,
88
orbt (eye socket) 37
orgn of a musce 1 , 2
ossfcaton 13
osteoarthrts 33, 8
osteobasts 14, 32
osteocytes 10
osteopoross 33
P
Pagets dsease
paate 42
pareta bones 10, 3 , 37
patea (kneecap) 10, 12,
74, 75
pectoras ma|or musces
21, 27
pevc musces 48
pevs (hp) bones 7, 8, 10,
40, 54
bood ce producton 7
fat bones 12
|onts 88
eg bones 74
perosteum 13, 14, 2
perstass 1
phaanges (fnger and toe
bones) 8, 10, 5, 74, 75,
78, 8
phosphate 7
posture
exercses 31, - 7
|ont probems 101
musces , 24
potassum 7
pubc bone 74, 88
pubs 10, 40
radus 8, 8
rectus femors musce ,
1 , 25, 27
red bone marrow 7
reaxaton 2 , 50-51
reproductve system , 54
respraton (breathng) 54,
5 , 57
rheumatsm 33,
rheumatod arthrts 33, 8,
rbs 7, 8, 54, 55, 57
ntercosta musces 25
|onts 88, 0
sacrum 8, 10, 38, 40, 41,
74
|onts 88
scapua (shouder bade) 8,
55, 4, 5
|onts 8 , 2
scatca 82, 83, 101
scooss 33, 7
sesamod bones 12, 75
short bones 12, 15
shouder grde 8, 5
shouder |ont 87, 8 , 1
dsocaton
exercses 5
musces - 7
probems 101
snuses 3
skeeta (strped, vountary)
musce 1 , 17, 18
skeeta system -7
bones 8-15
dsorders 33, 8-101
skeeton 11
embryonc 13
sku 7, 8, , 10, 12, 3 -37
seep 2
spped dsk 33
lndex
112
smooth (nvountary,
vscera) musce 1 , 17,
18
spasm 34, 35
speech 42
sphenod bone , 3
sphncter musce 1
spna cord 7, 38, 3
spna dsorders 7
spna musces 4 -47, 4
spongy (canceous) bone
12, 13, 14, 15, 32
spraned gaments , 100
sternum (breastbone) 7, 8,
54, 55, 88, 8
sttch 35
stomach 1 , 54
superfca musces 1 ,
20-21
back 4
chest 57
pevs 48
suture |onts 10, 8 , 88
swoen ankes 82
symphyss 10, 40, 88, 8
synova |onts 10, 8 , 88,
8 ,
tarsa (anke) bones 8, 10,
12, 74, 75, 78
|ont 8 , 0, 101
teeth 42, 43, 8
tempora bone , 10, 3 ,
37, 88
temporas musce , 22, 45
tendons 10, 1 , 1 , 2
arm , 70
dsorders 33, 34
foot 7
knee |ont 100
eg 75
tenson, muscuar 50
tensor musce 1
thoracc vertebrae 8, 38,
3 , 54, 55
tba (shn bone) 7, 8, 74,
75, 8
toe bones (phaanges) 8,
10, 12, 75, 1, 3
tongue 42
torso, chest 5
transversus abdomns
musce , 1 , 25, 58
trapezus musce 20, 21, 45,
4 ,
trceps brach musce 1 ,
20, 72
una 8, 10, 5, 8
urnary system , 18, 54
uterus 18, 54
uvua 42
varcose vens 82-83, 101
vertebrae 7, 8, 10, 38, 3
features
rreguar bones 12
|onts 88, 0
vertebra coumn
(backbone, spne) 7, 10,
38, 0
dsorders 8
|ont exercses 4
musces 4 -47, 4
vtamn D 33
whpash n|ury , 101
yeow bone marrow 7, 14
zygomatc bone
(cheekbone) 10, 3 , 37
THEFACTS ON FlLE
THE HUMANBODY
RAlNAND
NERVO S S STEN
THE DlAGRAM GROUP
The Facts n FIIe lIIustrated GuIde to the unan Body:
BraIn and Nervous Systen
Copyrght 2005 The Dagram Group
Edtora: Lone Bender, Davd Hardng, Tom Jackson
Dens ennedy, Gordon Lee, Jame Stokes
Scentfc consutant: Stephen Pudd
Desgn: nthony therton, Pchard Hummerstone,
Lee Lawrence, m Pchardson, Ben Whte
lustraton: Pave osta, atheen NcDouga
Pcture research: Ne Nc enna
lndexer: Jane Parker
rghts reserved. No part of ths book may be reproduced or
utzed n any form or by any means, eectronc or mechanca,
ncudng photocopyng, recordng, or by any nformaton storage or
retreva systems, wthout permsson n wrtng from the pubsher.
For nformaton contact:
Facts On Fe, lnc.
New ork N 10001
LIbrary of Congress CataIogIng In PubIIcatIon ata
The Facts On Fe ustrated gude to the human body. Bran and
nervous system / the Dagram Group.
p. cm.
lncudes ndex.
lSBN 0-81 0-5 8 -1 (hc : ak. paper)
1. Nervous system Juvene terature. 2. Bran Juvene
terature. l. Tte: lustrated gude to the human body. Bran and
nervous system. ll. Tte: Bran and nervous system. lll. Dagram
Group.
P3 1.5.F33 2005
12.8 dc22
2004022 25
Set lSBN: 0-81 0-5 7 -
Facts On Fe books are avaabe at speca dscounts when
purchased n buk quanttes for busnesses, assocatons, nsttutons,
or saes promotons. Pease ca our Speca Saes Department n New
ork at 212/ 7-8800 or 800/322-8755.
ou can fnd Facts On Fe on the Word Wde Web at
http://www.factsonfe.com
Prnted n the Unted States of merca
EB Dagram 10 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
Ths book s prnted on acd-free paper.
Note to the reader
Crana nerves 2
Shouder, chest, and arm nerves 4
Hp and eg nerves
Skn nerves 8
Nerve pex 70
Protectng the nervous system 72
Nerve damage and dsorders 74
SECTlON
A TONONlC NERVO S S STEN
lntroducton 7
Sympathetc contro 78
Parasympathetc contro 80
SECTlON
HORNONA S STEN
lntroducton 82
Endocrne gands and hormones 84
How hormones work 8
Thyrod and parathyrod gands 88
Thymus and pnea gands 0
drena gands 2
Pancreas as a hormona gand 4
Negatve feedback and hormones
Sex gands and hormones 8
Endocrne dsorders and stress 100
Gossary of the human body 102
Web stes to vst 108
lndex 10
lntroductIon: bout ths book 4
SECTlON
NERVO S S STEN
lntroducton
Nervous system organzaton 8
Nerves and bran key words 10
Nerve ces neurons 12
Types of nerve ce 14
Nerve mpuses 1
Nerve synapses 18
Sensory nerves and sense
percepton 20
Notor nerves and musce contro 22
Pefexes 24
Endocrne system 2
Ptutary gand and hypothaamus 28
Na|or nervous system dsorders 30
SECTlON2
RAlN
lntroducton 32
Bran deveopment 34
Bran: externa features 3
Bran: nterna structures 38
Branstem and mdbran 40
Bran functons 42
Nemory 44
Seep 4
Stress and menta ness 48
Exercses to reeve stress 50
Drugs and the bran 52
Bran dsorders 54
SECTlON
SPlNA CORD
lntroducton 5
Spna cord 58
Spna nerves 0
Ccntents
lntrcductIcn
4
TIIs book Is n concIse, IIIusIrnIed guIde Io IIe
nnnIomy, pIysIoIogy, veIIbeIng, nnd
dIsorders oI IIe Iumnn brnIn nnd nervous
sysIem. II Ins been vrIIIen nnd IIIusIrnIed
specInIIy Ior sIudenIs nnd InypeopIe InIeresIed
In medIcIne, IenIII, IIIness, nnd IIrsI nId. TIe
subjecI Is denII vIII In cIenr sIeps, so IInI IIe
render cnn sIendIIy ncquIre n good overnII
undersInndIng. FpInnnIory IeIs, dIngrnms,
IIIusIrnIIons, cnpIIons, nnd IncI boes nre
combIned Io IeIp renders grnsp ImporInnI
InIormnIIon nI n gInnce. A gIossnry oI
scIenIIIIc nnd jnrgon vords deIInes medIcnI
Ierms In everydny Inngunge. A IIsI oI Veb sIIes
provIdes IInks Io oIIer reIevnnI sources oI
InIormnIIon, nnd IIe Inde ennbIes quIck
nccess Io nrIIcIes.
TIere nre IIve secIIons vIIIIn IIe book. TIe
IIrsI secIIon Iooks In deInII nI IIe orgnnIznIIon
nnd componenIs oI IIe nervous sysIem. TIe
IoIIovIng IIree secIIons survey encI mnjor
regIon oI IIe sysIem. TIe InsI secIIon Iooks nI
IIe IormonnI sysIem, vIIcI vorks In
conjuncIIon vIII IIe nervous sysIem Io
conIroI nII IIe body`s ncIIons nnd rencIIons.
VIIIIn encI secIIon, dIscussIon nnd
IIIusIrnIIon oI IIe sIrucIure nnd IuncIIon oI
nnnIomIcnI pnrIs nre IoIIoved by IIe genernI
prIncIpIes oI IenIIIcnre, IIIness, nnd eercIse,
nnd n survey oI IIe mnIn dIsorders nnd
dIsenses nIIecIIng IIe regIon. InIormnIIon Is
presenIed ns doubIepnge IopIcs nrrnnged In
subsecIIons.
unan body systens
Ths book s one of eght
ttes n THE FCTS ON
FlLE lLLUSTPTED
GUlDE TO THE HUNN
BOD seres, whch ooks
systems n turn. Some of
the ttes n the seres
ncude more than one
system. The skeeta and
muscuar systems, and
the bood and ymphatc
systems, for exampe,
work n con|uncton and
There s a separate tte
for human ces and
genetcs, whch are the
budng bocks and
underyng chemstry of
a body systems.
SkeIetaI and
huscuIar Systens
BraIn and
Nervous Systen
eart and
CIrcuIatory Systen
A O T THlS OO
5
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
SectIon 1: NER US S STEh denIs vIII
IndIvIdunI nerve ceIIs nnd Iov IIey crenIe
nnd send nerve ImpuIses, or messnges, round
IIe body. II nIso Iooks nI IIe orgnnIznIIon oI
IIe IormonnI sysIem.
SectIon 2: BRAlN surveys IIe eIernnI nnd
InIernnI IenIures nnd componenIs oI IIe
brnIn. TIIs IncIudes dIscussIon oI menInI
ncIIvIIy, sIress, nnd IIe eIIecIs oI drugs nnd
nIcoIoI on IIe brnIn.
SectIon 3: SPlNAL C R descrIbes Iov
nerve ImpuIses IrnveI bnck nnd IorII beIveen
IIe brnIn, muscIes, nnd IIe resI oI IIe body.
SectIon 4: AUT N hlC NER US
S STEh IenIures IInI pnrI oI IIe nervous
sysIem IInI conIroIs nII ncIIons nnd rencIIons
ouIsIde conscIous conIroI.
SectIon 5: Rh NAL S STEh Iooks nI
IIe endocrIne gInnds nnd IIe eIIecIs oI IIe
Iormones IIey produce.
TIIs book Ins been vrIIIen by nnnIomy,
pIysIoIogy, nnd IenIII eperIs Ior non
specInIIsIs. II cnn be used:
ns n genernI guIde Io IIe vny IIe Iumnn
body IuncIIons
ns n reIerence resource oI Imnges nnd IeI Ior
use In scIooIs, IIbrnrIes, or In IIe Iome
ns n bnsIs Ior enmInnIIon prepnrnIIon Ior
sIudenIs oI Iumnn bIoIogy, medIcIne,
nursIng, pIysIoIIernpy, nnd genernI
IenIIIcnre.
CeIIs and
GenetIcs
IgestIve
Systen
The Senses RespIratory
Systen
ReproductIve
Systen
lntrcductIcn
6
TIe neivous sysIem conIioIs and coiieIaIes basIc bodIIy
IuncIIons and beIavIoi. TIeie aie Ivo maIn paiIs IIe
cenIiaI neivous sysIem, vIIcI consIsIs oI IIe biaIn and
spInaI coid, and IIe peiIpIeiaI neivous sysIem, vIIcI
Is made up oI cianIaI neives, spInaI neives, and IIe
neives oI IIe auIonomIc InvoIunIaiy neivous sysIem.
TIe body monIIois IIseII and IIs suiioundIngs IIiougI
iecepIois. TIese aie neive endIngs specIaII ed In
iegIsIeiIng specIIIc sIImuII. Ianges InsIde IIe body aie
deIecIed by InIeinaI piopiIocepIois and InIeiocepIois.
IImuII Iiom ouIsIde IIe body aie deIecIed by iecepIois
caIIed eIeiocepIois, vIIcI aie concenIiaIed In IIe
skIn, eyes, nose, Iongue, and eais. TIey deIecI cIanges
In conIacI IoucI , piessuie, paIn, IeaI, coId, IIgII,
scenI, IasIe, and sound. TogeIIei IIese iecepIois
peiIoim IuncIIons knovn as IIe senses.
Neurons Neurons nre nerve
ceIIs. TIey nre mnde up oI n
cenIrnI ceII body, nn non,
nnd brnncIed dendrIIes. TIe
nervous sysIem Is n neIvork
oI neurons IInI cnrrIes sIgnnIs
In IIe Iorm oI eIecIrIc puIses.
TIe puIses nre genernIed
eIecIrocIemIcnIIy by IIe
movemenI oI Ions (cInrged
pnrIIcIes) ncross membrnnes.
PuIses begIn nI IIe synnpses
(juncIIons) beIveen IIe non
oI one ceII nnd IIe dendrIIes
oI nnoIIer. TIe conIIgurnIIon
oI dendrIIes dIvIdes neurons
InIo IIree Iypes: unIpoInr,
bIpoInr, nnd muIIIpoInr.
BundIes, or IIbers, oI sensory
(nIso cnIIed nIIerenI) neurons
cnrry sIgnnIs Irom unIpoInr or
bIpoInr recepIor neurons Io
IIe cenIrnI nervous sysIem.
From IIere, moIor (nIso
knovn ns eIIerenI) neurons
conducI ImpuIses Io muscIes.
BraIn An ouIgrovII oI IIe
spInnI cord, IIe brnIn Is
proIecIed by IIe crnnIum,
or skuII. II Ins IIree mnIn
regIons: IIe IIndbrnIn,
mIdbrnIn, nnd IorebrnIn.
TIe IIndbrnIn IenIures IIe
meduIIn obIongnIn, pons, nnd
cerebeIIum. TIe IIndbrnIn
conIroIs brenIIIng nnd muscIe
coordInnIIon, nnd reguInIes
oIIer vIInI IIIe processes. TIe
mIdbrnIn ncIs InrgeIy ns n
reIny sInIIon. TIe IorebrnIn,
comprIsIng IIe dIencepInIon
(beIveen brnIn) nnd
IeIencepInIon (endbrnIn), Is
IIe pnrI oI IIe brnIn IInI
InndIes IIgIer menInI
IuncIIons, sucI ns IIInkIng,
Inngunge, nnd conscIousness.
SpInaI cord From IIe brnIn,
IIe spInnI cord eIends dovn
InsIde IIe spIne, buIgIng nI
InIervnIs vIere pnIrs oI spInnI
nerves brnncI ouI Io oIIer
pnrIs oI IIe body. IIs mnIn
roIe Is Io provIde n IIgIvny
Ior nerve ImpuIses pnssIng Io
nnd Irom IIe brnIn, buI II nIso
processes bnsIc sensory
InIormnIIon nnd InIIInIes
npproprInIe moIor responses
vIIIouI recourse Io IIe brnIn.
TIese movemenIs nre knovn
ns reIIees.
CranIaI nerves TIese 12 pnIrs
oI perIpIernI nerves emerge
dIrecIIy Irom IIe brnIn. (AII
oIIer nerves connecI Io IIe
Nervous systen
The bran and spna
cord are connected to
the rest of the body by
a network of nerves.
SECTlON : NERVO S S STEN
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brnIn vIn IIe spInnI cord.) Some
crnnInI nerves serve IncInI, IIronI,
nnd cIesI muscIes; oIIers conIroI
IIe sense orgnns, sucI ns IIe eyes,
enrs, nnd Iongue. TIe vngus nerve
Is n dIrecI IInk Io IIe IenrI.
SpInaI nerves TIese 61 nerves
sprouI Irom IIe spInnI cord. In
descendIng order IIey nre grouped
ns: cervIcnI, IIorncIc, Iumbnr,
sncrnI, nnd coccygenI nerves.
AutononIc nervous systen TIIs
Is n sysIem oI neurons IInI
conIroIs InvoIunInry processes In
IIe body sucI ns dIgesIIon nnd
IocomoIIon. TIe sympnIIeIIc
subsysIem enInnces muscIe
ncIIvIIy, vIIIe IIe
pnrnsympnIIeIIc sysIem serves Io
cnIm IIe body dovn ngnIn.
T E SENSES
SkIn TIe body coverIng Ins n IIIn ouIer Inyer
(epIdermIs) nnd n IIIcker, deeper Inyer (dermIs or
corIum) overIyIng subcuInneous InI. As veII ns
IormIng n proIecIIve bnrrIer Io InIecIIon, skIn nIso
conInIns mecInnorecepIors sensIIIve Io IoucI nnd
pressure, nnd IIermorecepIors sensIIIve Io IempernIure.
NnIIs, InIrs, svenI gInnds, nnd sebnceous gInnds nre
nppendnges oI IIe skIn.
Eyes FncI eyebnII Is posIIIoned In nn orbII (eye sockeI)
nI IIe IronI oI IIe skuII. LIgII rnys enIer IIe eye
IIrougI IIe cornen (n IrnnspnrenI nren nI IIe IronI oI
IIe scIern), vIIcI ncIs ns IIe eye`s mnIn Iens. TIe rnys
IIen pnss IIrougI IIe nnIerIor cInmber nnd IIe pupII
(cenIrnI openIng In IIe IrIs) beIore beIng IurIIer Iocused
by IIe Iens (someIImes cnIIed IIe crysInIIIne Iens).
Focused rnys produce nn InverIed Imnge on IIe reIInn
nI IIe bnck oI IIe eye, vIere IIey nre converIed InIo
eIecIrIcnI ImpuIses by pIoIorecepIor ceIIs (knovn ns
rod nnd cone ceIIs Ior IIeIr sInpe). TIe ImpuIses nre
IIen IrnnsmIIIed vIn IIe opIIc nerve Io IIe opIIcnI
corIe nI IIe renr oI IIe brnIn`s cerebrnI IemIspIeres
Io be processed InIo n menInI Imnge.
Nose CIemorecepIors In Ivo oIIncIory membrnnes
one In encI nnsnI cnvIIyregIsIer nIrborne scenI
moIecuIes, IrIggerIng nerve sIgnnIs Io oIIncIory buIbs
IInI nre IInked vIII IIe brnIn`s IImbIc sysIem.
Tongue TnsIe cIemorecepIors on pnpIIIne (proIrudIng
InsIe buds) on IIe Iongue nnd nIso IInIng IIe mouII,
IIronI, nnd nosIrIIs regIsIer combInnIIons oI InsIes.
Nerves IrnnsmII sIgnnIs Io IIe brnIn.
Ears Sound vnves rencIIng nn enr pnss Irom IIs IIesIy
nurIcIe IIrougI IIe eIernnI nudIIory cnnnI Io IIe
mIddIe enr, vIbrnIIng In sequence IIe IympnnIc
membrnne (enrdrum) nnd ossIcIes (IIny bones cnIIed IIe
mnIIeus, Incus, nnd sInpes). TIese bones ngIInIe IIuId In
IIe Inner enr vIIcI In Iurn vIbrnIes n IInIng oI InIrIIke
ceIIs. From IIere, nerve ImpuIses go Io IIe brnIn`s
IempornI Iobes. TIe Inner enr`s vesIIbuInr sysIem
regIsIers IIe Iend`s posIIIon nnd so IeIps Io
conIroI body bnInnce nnd gIve n percepIIon oI
orIenInIIon nnd dIrecIIon oI movemenI.
EndocrIne systen
Gands produce chemca
messengers caed hormones
that reguate some body
functons and deveopment.
Nervcus s stem crganI atIcn
S
Systen subdIvIsIons
The nervous system
s organzed nto
subdvsons. The bran
and spna cord make
up the centra nervous
system (CNS). Ths s the
contro center where a
nformaton from the
externa senses and
nterna organs s
processed and
nterpreted. The response
to every stmuus aso
comes from the CNS.
The CNS s connected to
the rest of the body by
the perphera nervous
system. Ths s a network
of nerves spreadng out
from ponts on the spna
cord and the bran.
The perphera nervous
system s tsef dvded
nto two subdvsons: the
somatc and autonomc
nervous systems. The
somatc nervous system
carres sgnas to skeeta
musces. These musces
contro vountary
movements.
FunctIons
The functons of the nervous
system are:
to sense changes (caed
stmu) both outsde
and wthn the body
(sensory nput),
to transmt nformaton to
the bran (ntegraton),
to make changes to the
functonng of musces and
gands (motor output).
The autonomc nervous
system carres sgnas to
gands, organs, and the
musces n the heart and
dgestve system that are
not under vountary
contro.
1 2 3
Bran
Spna cord
1 Centra nervous
system
2 Somatc nervous
system
3 utonomc
nervous system
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The nervous systen
The nervous system has two man parts that act as a snge unt: the centra
nervous system (CNS) and the perphera nervous system (PNS).
CentraI nervous systen (CNS)
The CNS comprses the bran and spna
cord. lt s the bodys contro center,
recevng and transmttng nformaton
va the perphera nervous system.
PerIpheraI nervous systen (PNS)
The PNS comprses a of the nerves
and nerve processes that connect the
CNS wth receptor ces, musces,
and gands.
Efferent systen
Ths comprses nerve ces (caed
efferent or motor neurons) that
convey nformaton from the CNS
to musces and gands.
Afferent systen
Ths comprses nerve ces (caed
sensory neurons) that convey
nformaton from receptors n
the body to the CNS.
SonatIc nervous systen (SNS)
Efferent neurons conduct mpuses
from the CNS to skeeta musces.
Ths system s under vountary
(conscous) contro.
AutononIc nervous systen (ANS)
Efferent neurons convey mpuses away
from the CNS to smooth musce tssue,
the heart, and gands. lt s under
nvountary (unconscous) contro.
SynpathetIc nervous systen
Ths comprses the nerves that
ad|ust body actvty nvountary,
opposng the parasympathetc system.
The sympathetc system s domnant
durng tmes of stress.
ParasynpathetIc nervous systen
Ths comprses the nerves that ad|ust
body actvty nvountary, opposng
the sympathetc system. Broady, the
parasympathetc system takes over
durng perods of reaxaton.
Nerves and braIn ke wcrds
10
NER ES AN BRAlN: E R S
Afferent Nerves IInI nre dIrecIed Iovnrd
n cenIrnI orgnn or obvIous regIon oI IIe
body. TIe nIIerenI (or sensory) nerves oI
IIe perIpIernI nervous sysIem send ImpuIses
Io IIe cenIrnI nervous sysIem.
ArachnoId TIe mIddIe oI IIe IIree
menInges, vIII n vebIIke nppenrnnce.
AutononIc nervous systen PnrI oI
IIe perIpIernI nervous sysIem IInI Is noI
under conscIous conIroI. II opernIes smooII
muscIe (In IIe guI), cnrdInc muscIe, nnd
gInnds. II Is dIvIded InIo IIe sympnIIeIIc
nnd pnrnsympnIIeIIc nervous sysIems,
vIIcI normnIIy bnInnce encI oIIer.
BrachIaI pIexus A neIvork oI spInnI nerves,
nrIsIng In IIe neck nnd upper bnck,
occupyIng IIe nIIIn (nrmpII), nnd
suppIyIng mnny nrm muscIes.
BraIn TIe body`s cIIeI conIroI cenIer,
conInInIng bIIIIons oI InIerconnecIed
nerve ceIIs. II receIves, coIIecIs, processes,
nnd sIores InIormnIIon, nnd conIroIs IIe
body`s responses.
BraInsten A sInIkIIke pnrI oI IIe brnIn,
beIveen IIe cerebrum nnd spInnI cord.
II conInIns IIe mIdbrnIn, pons, nnd
meduIIn obIongnIn.
Cauda e uIna A bundIe oI nerve rooIs Irom
IIe Iumbnr, sncrnI, nnd coccygenI spInnI
nerves IInI Inngs beIov IIe end oI IIe
spInnI cord.
CentraI nervous systen (CNS) TIe brnIn
nnd spInnI cord.
CerebeIIun TIe InrgesI pnrI oI IIe
IIndbrnIn. LIIernIIy IIe IIIIIe brnIn,
IIe cerebeIIum IeIps produce smooIIIy
conIroIIed nnd coordInnIed muscuInr
movemenIs.
Cerebrun TIe upper, mnjor pnrI oI IIe
brnIn, comprIsIng cerebrnI IemIspIeres nnd
dIencepInIon. II InndIes conscIousness nnd
IIe mInd, IenrnIng, memory, emoIIons,
sensnIIons, nnd voIunInry movemenIs.
Cortex TIe ouIer Inyer oI IIe brnIn.
CranIaI nerves TveIve pnIrs oI nerves
IInkIng IIe undersIde oI IIe brnIn vIII
pnrIs oI IIe Iend, neck, nnd IIorn. Some
Ieed sensnIIons Irom IIe eyes, nose, nnd
enrs Io IIe brnIn.
ernatone TIe nren oI skIn suppIIed
by nn IndIvIdunI spInnI nerve.
IencephaIon TIe beIveen brnIn nren oI
IIe IorebrnIn beIveen IIe mIdbrnIn nnd
cerebrnI IemIspIeres. II IncIudes IIe
IInInmus nnd IIe IypoIInInmus.
Efferent IrecIed nvny Irom n cenIrnI orgnn
or pnrI oI IIe body. FIIerenI nerve IIbers nre
IIose IInI cnrry sIgnnIs nvny Irom IIe
cenIrnI nervous sysIem.
Gray natter TIe dnrker IIssue oI IIe brnIn
nnd spInnI cord, mnInIy consIsIIng oI
neurons` ceII bodIes nnd dendrIIes.
IndbraIn SIrucIures beIov IIe mIdbrnIn,
comprIsIng IIe brnInsIem nnd cerebeIIum.
ypothaIanus A sIrucIure In IIe
dIencepInIon, nbove IIe mIdbrnIn. IIs
cenIers conIroI emoIIon, Iunger, nnd IIIrsI,
nnd II reIenses Iormones IInI IrIgger IIe
producIIon oI oIIer Iormones by IIe
pIIuIInry gInnd.
Lunbar pIexus A neIvork oI spInnI nerves
nrIsIng In IIe Iover bnck IInI connecIs Io
pnrIs oI IIe nbdomen, genIInI nren, nnd Iegs.
heduIIa obIongata TIe IovesI pnrI oI IIe
brnInsIem, conInInIng IIe vIInI cenIers IInI
conIroI IenrIbenI nnd respIrnIIon.
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NER E AN BRAlN: E R S (C NTlNUE )
henInges TIree proIecIIve membrnnes
surroundIng IIe brnIn nnd spInnI cord: IIe
pIn mnIer, nrncInoId, nnd durn mnIer.
hIdbraIn TIe Iop oI IIe brnInsIem,
beIveen IIe dIencepInIon nnd pons. II Is
n reIny sInIIon Ior sensory ImpuIses.
hInd TIe menInI enIIIy IInI encompnsses
n person`s IdenIIIy. TIe mInd Is dIsIIncI
Irom IIe brnIn.
hotor neurons (or efferent neurons)
Nerve ceIIs IInI IrnnsmII InIormnIIon Irom
IIe cenIrnI nervous sysIem Io nn eIIecIor
orgnn sucI ns n muscIe.
Nerve A bundIe oI nerve IIbers (nons)
IInI IrnnsmII ImpuIses Io (In IIe cnse oI
sensory nerves) or Irom (In IIe cnse oI
moIor nerves) IIe cenIrnI nervous sysIem.
MIed nerves conInIn boII sensory nnd
moIor IIbers.
Nervous systen TIe coordInnIed neIvorks
oI neurons IInI conIroI IIe body. II Is
dIvIded InIo IIe cenIrnI nervous sysIem
(brnIn nnd spInnI cord), nnd IIe perIpIernI
nervous sysIem (IIe somnIIc nnd nuIonomIc
nervous sysIems).
Neuron A nerve ceII: IIe bnsIc unII oI IIe
nervous sysIem responsIbIe Ior conveyIng
eIecIrocIemIcnI nerve ImpuIses nround
IIe body.
ParasynpathetIc nervous systen TIe pnrI
oI IIe nuIonomIc nervous sysIem IInI
predomInnIes vIen IIe body Is nI resI.
PerIpheraI nervous systen A neIvork
oI nerves IInkIng IIe brnIn nnd spInnI cord
Io oIIer pnrIs oI IIe body. II Is dIvIded InIo
IIe nuIonomIc nervous sysIem, vIIcI Is noI
under conscIous conIroI, nnd IIe somnIIc
nervous sysIem, vIIcI Is.
PIexus A neIvork oI nerves (or bIood or
IympI vesseIs).
Ranus A brnncI, especInIIy oI n nerve or
bIood vesseI.
RefIex actIon TIe body`s nuIomnIIc
InvoIunInry response Io n sIImuIus.
SacraI pIexus A neIvork oI spInnI nerves
nrIsIng In IIe sncrnI nnd Iumbnr regIon,
suppIyIng pnrIs oI IIe Ieg, buIIocks, nnd
genIInI nren.
Sensory neurons (or afferent neurons)
Nerve ceIIs IInI send sIgnnIs Io IIe cenIrnI
nervous sysIem.
SonatIc nervous systen TIe pnrI oI IIe
perIpIernI nervous sysIem IInI sends moIor
ImpuIses Io skeIeInI muscIes.
SpInaI cord TIe cnbIe oI nerve IIssue
runnIng dovn InsIde IIe verIebrnI coIumn
nnd IInkIng IIe brnIn vIII nerves suppIyIng
mosI oI IIe body.
SpInaI nerves TIIrIy pnIrs oI nerves nnd
one sIngIe nerve (vIIcI soon dIvIdes) IInI
brnncI dIrecIIy Irom IIe spInnI cord.
SynpathetIc nervous systen TIe
pnrI oI IIe nuIonomIc nervous sysIem IInI
prepnres IIe body Io cope vIII ImpendIng
IIrenIs by IIgIIIng or IIeeIng. For enmpIe,
bIood Is dIrecIed Io IIe muscIes nnd nvny
Irom IIe skIn nnd dIgesIIve sysIem nnd
IenrI rnIe Is Incrensed. TIIs response Is
IInked Io IIe Iormone epInepIrIne.
ThaIanus A brnIn sIrucIure nbove IIe
IypoIInInmus. II sends sensory ImpuIses Io
IIe cerebrnI corIe, IInks sensnIIons vIII
emoIIons, nnd nIIecIs conscIousness.
hIte natter TIe pnIer IIssue oI IIe brnIn
nnd spInnI cord, mnInIy comprIsIng nerve
IIbers sIenIIed vIII myeIIn InI.
11
Nerve ceIIs neurcns
12
NeurogIIa
The nervous system aso contans
neuroga ces. These do not conduct
nerve mpuses. lnstead, they support
and protect neurons. They are capabe of
mtoss (so f damaged can be repaced).
There are four types of neuroga wthn
the centra nervous system.
a Star-shaped astrocytes cng to
neurons and hep protect them.
b Smaer mcroga are spder-shaped
and hep get rd of dead bran ces
and bactera.
c Ependyma ces ne the ventrces
of the spna cord and bran, and ther
ca (harke fronds) hep crcuate
cerebrospna fud.
d Long-extensoned ogodendrocytes
wrap around and protect nerve fbers.
huItIpoIar neuron
Schwann ceIIs
Schwann ces and satete ces found n the
perphera nervous system are sometmes
consdered to be neuroga.
a strocytes b Ncroga
c Ependyma ces d Ogodendrocytes
Schwann ce
Nuremma
Nyen sheath
Node of Panver
Notor end
pate
Cytopasm
Nuceus
Nss bodes
Dendrtes
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NEUR NS: E R S
AxodendrItIc synapse TIe synnpIIc
juncIIon beIveen IIe non oI one neuron
nnd IIe dendrIIes oI nnoIIer.
Axon A sIngIe process eIendIng Irom IIe
ceII body oI n neuron, InkIng ImpuIses nvny
Irom IIe ceII body.
AxosonatIc synapse TIe juncIIon beIveen
IIe non oI one neuron nnd IIe body oI
nnoIIer.
BIpoIar neuron A nerve ceII vIII Ivo
processes: n dendrIIe IendIng InIo IIe ceII
body, nnd nn non IenvIng II.
CeII body TIe mnIn pnrI oI n neuron
conInInIng IIe nucIeus.
endrItes SIorI IIbers brnncIIng ouI Irom
IIe ceII body oI n neuron IInI receIve
ImpuIses Irom oIIer neurons.
lnteroceptor A sensory nerve endIng Iound
In InIernnI orgnns IInI responds Io cInnges
InsIde IIe body.
hotor end pIate TIe IermInnI Iormed
nI IIe end oI n moIor neuron non IInI
connecIs IIe nerve Io n muscIe IIber.
huItIpoIar neuron A nerve ceII vIII more
IInn Ivo processes (usunIIy one non nnd
muIIIpIe dendrIIes, buI someIImes onIy
dendrIIes) eIendIng Irom IIs ceII body.
hyeIIn TIe InIIy vIIIe subsInnce IormIng
nn InsuInIIng sIenII nround some nons.
VIIIe mnIIer In IIe brnIn nnd spInnI cord
conInIns myeIInnIed nerve IIbers, vIIIe
grny mnIIer conInIns unmyeIInnIed IIbers.
Nerve fIber TIe non oI n neuron.
NeurIIenna TIe IIIn membrnne coverIng
IIe myeIIn sIenII oI Iong nerve IIbers or IIe
nons oI oIIer unmyeIInnIed nerve IIbers.
NeurogIIa CeIIs In nerve IIssue IInI supporI
IIe ceIIs IInI convey nerve ImpuIses.
NeurotransnItter A cIemIcnI reIensed nI
nerve endIngs Io cnrry nerve ImpuIses ncross
synnpses. FnmpIes IncIude nceIyIcIoIIne,
norndrennIIne, nnd dopnmIne.
NIssI bodIes CoIIecIIons oI grnnuInr
mnIerInI In IIe cyIopInsm oI neurons.
Nodes of RanvIer Nnrrov gnps In IIe
myeIIn sIenII, beIveen ndjncenI ScIvnnn
ceIIs, IIrougI vIIcI non brnncIes Ienve.
PerIkaryon TIe pnrI oI n neuron conInInIng
IIe nucIeus.
PostsynaptIc SIIunIed dIsInIIy Io n synnpse
(IurIIer nvny Irom IIe cenIrnI nervous
sysIem; CNS), or nIIer n synnpse Is crossed.
PresynaptIc SIIunIed proImnIIy Io n
synnpse (nenrer Io IIe CNS), or beIore n
synnpse Is crossed.
Receptor A sIrucIure, sucI ns n sensory
nerve endIng, specInIIzed Io deIecI
envIronmenInI sIImuII.
Schwann ceII A sepnrnIe ceII compIeIeIy
encIosed by IIe neurIIemmn IInI produces
n nerve IIber`s myeIIn sIenII.
Synapse TIe juncIIon beIveen Ivo neurons
(or beIveen n neuron nnd nn eIIecIor
orgnn), consIsIIng oI n IIny gnp knovn ns
IIe synnpIIc cIeII, ncross vIIcI nerve
ImpuIses nre IrnnsmIIIed by n cIemIcnI
neuroIrnnsmIIIer.
SynaptIc ReInIIng Io n synnpse.
SynaptIc knob TIe IIIckened nren nI IIe
end oI n presynnpIIc non. (AIso knovn ns
BouIons IermInnI; pIurnI: BouIons
IermInnu).
UnIpoIar neuron A neuron IInI Ins jusI n
sIngIe process (non) eIendIng Irom IIs ceII
body. InIpoInr neurons nre genernIIy
nssocInIed vIII recepIors.
T pes c nerve ceII
14
Neurons by structure
a BIpoIar neurons
These have one process (dendrte)
eadng nto the ce body and another
process (axon) eavng t. Ths type of
neuron s mosty found n the retna
of the eye.
b UnIpoIar neurons
Unpoar neurons (sometmes caed
pseudounpoar) orgnate as bpoar
neurons, but durng deveopment ther
two processes fuse to form a snge
process. They are found n a chan of
ganga (custers of nerve ces, argey
n the perphera nervous system) that
runs parae to the spna cord.
c huItIpoIar neurons
These are the most common type of
neuron. They have mutpe (three or
more) processes (axons and dendrtes)
pro|ectng from the ce body and
are found everywhere n the centra
nervous system. though most have
one axon and many dendrtes, there
are some that have ony dendrtes.
d lnterneurons
lnterneuron, or assocaton neurons,
are the nk between sensory neurons
and motor neurons. lnterneurons are
found n the centra nervous system.
They are mutpoar and tend to have
short processes.
a
b
c
d Ce body
Notor
end pate
Synaptc
knob
Synaptc
knob
Ce body
xon Ce body Dendrte
Dendrte
lnterneuron
Dendrte
Notor neuron
Nusce fber
(effector)
xon
xon
Synapse Sensory
neuron
Synaptc
knob
Synaptc
knob
15
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Neuron
Afferent
(sensory neuron)
Efferent
(motor neuron)
lnterneuron
Neurons by functIon
Neurons (nerve ceIIs) nre IInked IogeIIer
Io Iorm n neIvork. TIe sImpIesI oI IIese
neIvorks conIroI reIIe ncIIons (see pnges
2425), vIIcI nre IoInIIy nuIomnIIc nnd
InvoIunInry. More compIe neIvorks nre
used Io conIroI voIunInry movemenIs.
NeuraI cIrcuIts
TIe pnIIvnys nre oIIen cnIIed neurnI cIrcuIIs,
sInce IIey cnrry nn eIecIrIcnI ImpuIse. TIe
ImpuIse genernIIy begIns In n unIpoInr
nIIerenI neuron IInI Is connecIed Io n
recepIor oI some sorI In IIe perIpIernI
nervous sysIem.
TIe ImpuIse IrnveIs nIong IIe ceII`s non
nnd pnsses InIo IIe cenIrnI nervous sysIem
(CNS). TIe ImpuIse mny mnke IIe journey Io
IIe CNS nIong n sIngIe non, or II vIII more
probnbIy be pnssed beIveen severnI nIIerenI
neurons en rouIe. AIIerenI ImpuIses genernIIy
enIer IIe CNS nI IIe spInnI cord vIn one oI
IIe spInnI nerves.
ConnectIons
nce II nrrIves In IIe CNS, IIe ImpuIse pnsses
Io nnoIIer neuron. InsIend oI nn eIecIrIcnI
puIse pnssIng beIveen ceIIs, sIgnnIs nre
IrnnsIerred by cIemIcnI menns ncross n IIny
gnp cnIIed n synnpse (see pnges 181 ).
In IIe sImpIesI reIIe pnIIvnys, IIe nIIerenI
neuron pnsses Io nn InIerneuron. TIen IIe
ImpuIse Is pnssed on Io nn eIIerenI neuron,
vIIcI cnrrIes IIe sIgnnI ouI oI IIe CNS Io nn
eIIecIor, sucI ns n muscIe.
More compIe pnIIvnys InvoIve ImpuIses
beIng pnssed on Io severnI pnrIs oI IIe CNS. In
IIese cnses, IIe ImpuIse Is IIrsI pnssed Io n
muIIIpoInr neuron. (MosI oI IIe neurons In
IIe CNS nre muIIIpoInr.) From IIere IIe sIgnnI
mny be pnssed on Io severnI more muIIIpoInr
neurons ns II Is redIrecIed nround IIe brnIn.
ne oI IIese muIIIpoInr neurons vIII be
connecIed Io one or severnI eIIerenI neurons,
vIIcI cnrry n response sIgnnI ncross IIe
perIpIernI sysIem Io IIe reIevnnI eIIecIor.
Structure
Ce body ocated n PNS
Short axon (trunk) extendng
nto CNS
Long dendrtes (branched
pro|ectons) ocated n the PNS
Ce body ocated n CNS
Long axon extendng nto PNS
Short dendrtes ocated n CNS
Short or ong axon ocated
n the CNS
Short dendrtes n the CNS
FunctIon
Brngs sgnas to the
CNS from esewhere n
the body
Sends out sgnas from
the CNS to the body
Transmts mpuses
between afferent and
efferent neurons
Nerve ImpuIses
16
Neurons
In compIe nnImnIs, nerve ceIIs Iorm IIe orgnns oI IIe
cenIrnI nervous sysIem (CNS)IIe brnIn nnd spInnI
cordnnd perIpIernI nervous sysIem (PNS), vIIcI
comprIses nerves nnd nerve processes (eIensIons) IInI
connecI IIe CNS Io muscIes, gInnds, nnd recepIors.
Structure
Nerve ceIIs do noI reproduce IIemseIves by mIIosIs
(ceII dIvIsIon). Neurons nre snId Io be nmIIoIIc: II
desIroyed, IIey cnnnoI be repInced. CnngIIn nre dense
cIusIers oI nerveceII bodIes ouIsIde oI IIe CNS.
AII neurons conInIn IIe snme eIemenIs, IIsIed beIov.
CeII body TIIs IncIudes n nucIeus nnd cyIopInsm.
Axon TIIs Is n Iong, sIIm Irunk IInI IrnnsmIIs
InIormnIIon Irom IIe ceII body Io oIIer ceIIs vIn
juncIIons knovn ns synnpses. Some nons nre onIy n
IrncIIon oI nn IncI Iong; oIIers nre over n ynrd ( 0 cm)
Iong. MosI nons nre sIenIIed In n InIIy subsInnce
cnIIed myeIIn, vIIcI IeIps speed up IIe conducIIon oI
eIecIrIcnI ImpuIses. ConsIrIcIIons nI reguInr InIervnIs
nIong IIe non nre cnIIed IIe nodes oI RnnvIer.
endrItes TIese nre neIvorks oI sIorI IIbers IInI
brnncI ouI Irom IIe non or ceII body nnd IInk IIe
ends oI nons Irom oIIer neurons. endrIIes nre IIe
ceII`s receIvers oI InIormnIIon, brIngIng sIgnnIs Io
IIeIr neuron`s ovn ceII body. FncI neuron mIgII
Inve Iundreds oI dendrIIes.
hyeIIn sheath
Schwann ces spra around one
or more axons (a) formng a
myen sheath.
Ths conssts of mutpe ayers
(perhaps 50 to 100) of pasma
membranes (b), between whch qud
cytoso s excuded from a except
the outermost ayer (c).
The myen sheath around a ong
axon s dvded nto segments, each
produced by a snge Schwann ce.
Consecutve segments are separated
by gaps, caed the nodes of Panver
(d), where the axon s unsheathed.
FunctIon
Neurons communcate
eectrochemcay wth each
other to transmt mpuses
throughout the body.
Structure of a neuron
Dendrtes
xon
Ce body
Node of Panver
b
a
d
c
1T
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1 2 3 4
Nerve InpuIses
ln compex anmas, messages are sent around the body and to and from the bran
by eectrca mpuses transmtted va nerves. Nerves emt mpuses when stmuated
by a physca, chemca, or eectrca event that aters the ce membrane.
1 RestIng neuron
restng neuron s negatvey charged
nsde the ce membrane (a) and
postvey charged outsde the ce
membrane (b). Ths s caed the
restng membrane potenta.
lt s mantaned by two factors:
The dfferenta permeabty of the ce
membrane to sodum and potassum
ons, both of whch have an equa
postve charge. Sodum dffuses nto
the ce more sowy than potassum
dffuses out of the ce.
The sodum-potassum pump, whch
drves more postve ons out of the
ce than t drves n. s a resut, more
postve ons coect on the outsde of
the ce membrane than on the nsde.
2 StInuIated neuron
When a neuron s stmuated, the
permeabty of a patch (c) on the ce
membrane aters. Postvey charged
sodum ons (d) begn to enter the ce
more qucky than durng the restng
state, makng the oca area nsde
postve. Ths s caed depoarzaton.
3 The nerve InpuIse
Depoarzaton spreads aong the ce
membrane (e). Eventuay, the charge
on ether sde of the ce membrane
s temporary reversed. Ths s caed
reverse poarzaton. lt s, n fact, the
nerve mpuse traveng aong the nerve
ces membrane.
4 RepoIarI atIon
The ce membrane aters ts
permeabty agan. Postvey charged
sodum ons (Na ) begn to pass out of
the ce (f). Fnay, the outsde of the
ce s agan postvey charged, and the
nsde negatvey charged. Ths process
s caed repoarzaton.
a
b
c
e
d
e
f
Nerve s napses
1S
TIe juncIIon beIveen Ivo neIgIborIng
neurons (nerve ceIIs) Is cnIIed n synnpse.
Synnpses nre IenIures IInI connecI one
neuron (IIe presynnpIIc neuron) Io nnoIIer
(IIe posIsynnpIIc neuron). Synnpses nre
ncIunIIy IIny gnps. TIere Is no pIysIcnI
connecIIon beIveen ceIIs. TIny buIges cnIIed
synnpIIc knobs nI IIe end oI encI presynnpIIc
non npproncI IIe dendrIIes, nons, or ceII
body oI IIe posIsynnpIIc ceII. II Is IIrougI
IIe synnpIIc knobs IInI neuroIrnnsmIIIers
nre emIIIed.
NeurotransnItters
NeuroIrnnsmIIIers nre moIecuIes IInI ncI ns
cIemIcnI messengers, IrnnsIerrIng nn eIecIrIcnI
ImpuIse Irom one ceII Io IIe neI. TIey cross
IIe synnpses beIveen IIe synnpIIc buIIons oI
one neuron nnd IIe dendrIIe oI nnoIIer.
CIemIcnIs IInI nIIov nn ImpuIse Io conIInue
IIovIng IIrougI n neuron nre cnIIed
ecIInIory neuroIrnnsmIIIers. InIIbIIory
neuroIrnnsmIIIers bIock eIecIrIcnI ImpuIses.
n axon termnates n a
synaptc knob. Ths does not
touch the neghborng
neuron, but eaves a tny
gap, or synapse, between
the pre- and postsynaptc
membranes. Ntochondra n
the axon produce the energy
needed for neurotransmtters
to be reeased. These are
contaned n vesces before
beng reeased through the
presynaptc attce to cross
the gap and pass through
the postsynaptc membrane.
Anatony of a synapse
1unctIon between two neurons
Presynaptc
attce
Ce body
Dendrte
Synaptc knob
xon
Presynaptc axon
Ntochondron
Vesces
Synaptc
gap
Postsynaptc
membrane
Synaptc
knob
10
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
ow synapses work
1 nerve mpuse
arrves at the synaptc
knob of a synapse.
2 Neurotransmtters
are reeased nto
the synapse.
3The neurotransmtters
qucky dffuse across
the gap and the
moecues ft nto
receptors on the
membrane of the
postsynaptc neuron.
4Ths changes the oca
permeabty of the
postsynaptc membrane
to sodum ons, and
these postve ons pass
nto the postsynaptc
neuron causng the area
cose to the synapse to
undergo depoarzaton.
s a resut, a nerve
mpuse s trggered n
ths second neuron.
1
2
4
3
Postve sodum ons
Nerve mpuse
Synaptc gap Postsynaptc neuron
Nerve mpuse Synaptc knob
Synapse
Neurotransmtter
Senscr nerves and sense perceptIcn
20
Nerve pathways
Dfferent nerves transmt nformaton
va specfc routes (nerve pathways).
The pathways taken by nerves reayng
nformaton about pan and
temperature, for exampe, are dfferent
from each other and from those taken
by nerves reayng nformaton
receved from the senses. The speed at
whch the mpuse traves depends on
the wdth of the axon. Large axons
carry sgnas more qucky than smaer
ones. Ths expans why some
sensatons, such as heat, are fet
before others, such as pan. The heat
receptors have a faster pathway than
the pan sensors.
Sensory neurons
Sensory neurons (or receptor
ces) are unpoar nerve ces that
convey nformaton from
receptors n the body to the
centra nervous system. Dendrtes
(short, branched pro|ectons) n
the receptor n the skn, eye,
nose, and other sensory organs,
pck up sgnas caused by certan
stmu. These are then
transmtted as nerve mpuses to
the ce body. The axon, or ce
trunk, conveys the mpuses
through synapses to other
neurons n the bran or spna
cord. The sod arrows show the
drecton of the mpuses.
Nerve endngs
xon
Ce body
Dendrtes
Peceptor
21
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
1 sensory receptor (nerve
endng senstve to stmu) n
the skn carres messages to
the spna cord.
2 lnformaton s sent from
the spna cord to the bran,
and the touch sensaton s
nterpreted usng the dfferent
processng centers.
3 ln order to move a musce (or
nnervate another effector), a
command s sent from the
bran back through the spna
cord. The fna motor sgna s a
mx of severa comng from
dfferent parts of the bran.
ernatones
Dermatomes (represented by
dotted nes) are areas of the
skn dentfed by the nerves
that suppy them. Pan n a
dermatome may resut from a
probem wth an nterna
organ that s supped by the
same nerve. The pan caused
by a heart attack, for exampe,
can often be fet n the eft
arm snce both the heart and
eft arm are served by thoracc
nerves. Sod nes represent
the boundares between
groups of dermatomes
supped by dfferent nerves.
The dagram shows the front
and rear dermatomes of
an adut.
Pathway of a sensory receptor
Front vew Pear vew
Bran
Spna cord
Peceptor Nusce
Cervca nerves
Sacra nerves
Lumbar nerves
Sacra nerves
Thoracc nerves
Cervca nerves
Thoracc nerves
Lumbar nerves
Sacra nerves
Lumbar nerves
Sacra nerves
Nctcr nerves and muscIe ccntrcI
22
hotor neurons
Notor neurons are nerve ces
that convey nformaton from
the centra nervous system to
musces and gands. Eectrca
mpuses n a motor neuron
trave n the opposte drecton
from those n a sensory
neuron. The arrows show the
drecton of the mpuses.
Dendrtes coect sgnas from
nerve fbers n the centra
nervous system. These are
transmtted to the ce body and
va an axon to motor end
pates, whch nnervate an
effector organ. For exampe,
they may stmuate a gand to
secrete a hormone, or the
sgnas may cause a musce to
contract or reax.
AII or nothIng
The eectrca mpuse of a nerve
fber s converted nto a musce
contracton by the neurotransmtter
acetychone, whch passes from
the nerve fber to the musce fber.
Nusces contan many musce
fbers. Each fber has an a-or-
nothng response. Ether t
contracts fuy or t does not.
The power of a musce depends on
the number of fbers n t that have
been stmuated by nerves.
Dendrtes
Notor end
pate
xon
Ce body
23
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Structure
Each motor unt s served by one motor
nerve housng many motor neurons. The
axon termnas of motor neurons attach to
musce fbers n the musce at ponts
caed motor end pates.
hotor unIts
Nusce fbers have to contract qucky
when stmuated n order to brng about
a gven acton. To do ths they are fed by
nerves from the centra nervous system
the bran and spna cord. snge
neuron (nerve ce) and a the musce
fbers that t stmuates are known as the
motor unt. Dfferent musces have a
dfferent number of motor unts. The
number of musce fbers wthn a motor
unt vares from as few as four to many
hundreds. Nusces that requre very
precse acton have sma motor unts.
Nusces that are requred to be powerfu
but need ess precse movements have
many arge motor unts.
Structure of a notor unIt
xon
termna
Notor neuron
xon termnas
Notor nerve
Nusce
Notor end pate
Nusce fber
Nusce fbers
Re Iexes
24
ReIIe nrcs nre nerve pnIIvnys IInI nIIov
IIe onevny IIov oI messnges. TIey nre
preprogrnmmed InvoIunInry responses Io
specIIIc sIImuII. TIey cnn, Iovever, be
overIdden by IIe brnIn.
Structure
ReIIe nrcs Inve IIve mnIn pnrIs: recepIor,
sensory neuron, InIegrnIIon cenIer, moIor
neuron, nnd eIIecIor.
Receptors TIese nre IocnIed nI IIe sIIe oI IIe
sIImuIus. TIey respond Io n cInnge In
IIe envIronmenI.
Sensory neurons TIese IrnnsmII nerve
ImpuIses Irom IIe recepIor Io IIe cenIrnI
nervous sysIem (CNS).
lntegratIon centers TIese converI IncomIng
sIgnnIs InIo ouIgoIng ones.
hotor neurons TIese IrnnsmII ImpuIses Irom
IIe InIegrnIIon cenIer In IIe CNS Io
IIe eIIecIor orgnn (Ior enmpIe, n muscIe or
gInnd) vIIcI Is ouIsIde IIe CNS.
Effectors TIese respond Io ImpuIses
Irom IIe moIor neurons nnd produce IIe
npproprInIe ncIIonsucI ns conIrncIIon
oI n muscIe or secreIIon Irom n gInnd.
Types of refIex arc
a smpe refex arc occurs when the
knee s tapped wth a knee hammer.
The tendon beneath the knee s
stretched and a sensory neuron reays
ths nformaton to the spna cord. Ths
s reayed to a motor neuron, whch
contracts the eg musce, and the eg
swngs upward.
Sensory
neuron
Spna
cord
Notor
neuron
hechanIsn of a sInpIe
stretch refIex
Spna cord
Stretch receptor
Synapse nsde
spna cord
Stmuaton of
receptor
Notor neuron
Notor end pate n musce
Sensory neuron
25
D
I
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G
R
A
M
Sensory neuron
lnterneuron
Notor neuron
Sensory
neuron
Spna
cord
Notor
nerve
Bran
b lf you step on a tack wth bare feet, a
sensory neuron n your foot regsters
pan and nks to the spna cord va a
coecton of nterneurons. These
nterneurons send messages to motor
neurons that cause musces to contract
and reax, enabng you to wthdraw
your foot and keep your baance.
Nessages sent to the spna cord aso
produce movements n the head and
arms, and the nvountary ouch
c sghty more compex refex arc
occurs when a hot cup s pcked up.
Heat s regstered by a sensory nerve n
the skn and ths nformaton s reayed
to a motor nerve n the arm va
nterneurons n the spna cord.
The motor nerve causes musces to
contract, whch draws the hand away.
Pan messages are sent to the bran,
but the refex occurs before the bran
has regstered the sensaton of pan.
hechanIsn of a poIysynaptIc
avoIdance refIex
Notor end pate
of musce
Stmuaton
of receptor
Synapse nsde
spna cord
lnterneuron
lnterneuron
Notor neuron
lnterneuron
Sensory
neuron
Pan receptor
EndccrIne s stem
26
TIe endocrIne sysIem empIoys n serIes oI
gInnds IIrougIouI IIe body. TIe gInnds
produce cIemIcnI messengers cnIIed Iormones
IInI conIroI body IuncIIons. TIese subsInnces
nre reIensed InIo IIe bIood suppIy nnd mny
Inve nn eIIecI on severnI dIIIerenI pnrIs oI IIe
body. FnmIIInr gInnds IncIude IIe IIyroId
gInnd In IIe neck, IIe pIIuIInry gInnd In IIe
brnIn, nnd IIe pnncrensrenIIy n coIIecIIon oI
gInndsIocnIed beIInd IIe sIomncI nnd IIver.
Common Iormones IncIude InsuIIn,
IesIosIerone, nnd esIrogen.
Nerve connectIons and bIood
suppIy of the pItuItary gIand
The ptutary gand s one
of the man endocrne
gands n the body. lt s
ocated n a bony hoow
under the hypothaamus,
connected to ths part of
the bran by a thn stak.
The ptutary produces
many growth and sex
hormones. lt s drecty
controed by the
hypothaamus wth
neurons passng through
the stak.
Ptutary
gand
Hormone
reease
system
Bood capares
Ptutary stak
Posteror obe
Bood vesse
to body
nteror obe
Ces secretng
sex hormones
Hypothaamus
2T
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ypothaIanus
LocatIon and structure
The hypothaamus s a sma regon
of the bran above the ptutary gand.
lt s connected to the nervous system.
FunctIons
The hypothaamus s mportant n
the nervous system as we as n the
endocrne system, and t nks the two
by convertng nervous sgnas nto
hormona sgnas. lt s drecty ted to
the functon of the ptutary by:
secretng, reeasng, and nhbtng
hormones that fow to the anteror obe
of the ptutary, stmuatng t to reease
ts hormones,
producng hormones (oxytocn and
antduretc hormone) that are sent
to, and stored n, the posteror obe
of the ptutary.
hedIan sectIon through the braIn
to show posItIon of gIands
Tvo endocrIne gInndsIIe
pIIuIInry nnd pInenInre
cIoseIy nssocInIed vIII IIe
brnIn. BoII produce
Iormones nssocInIed vIII
grovII nnd deveIopmenI.
TIe IypoIInInmus, nbove IIe
mIdbrnIn, nIso produces
Iormones. TIese InrgeIy
conIroI oIIer gInnds. TIe
pIIuIInry Is oIIen compnred Io
IIe conducIor In nn
orcIesIrnII oversees nnd
dIrecIs IIe ncIIons oI oIIer
pInyers In IIe endocrIne
sysIem (see pnge 28).
Ptutary gand
Hypothaamus
Ptutary gand
Branstem
Hypothaamus
Hypothaamus
nteror obe
Posteror obe
Ptutary stak
Pnea gand
Cerebeum
a
b
c
PItuItar gIand and h pcthaIamus
2S
FunctIons
The anterIor IobeThs secretes severa
hormones that are vta to deveopment.
AdrenocortIcotropIc hornone (ACT )
Ths acts on the adrena gands, whch
are above the kdneys, to produce
hormones that prepare the body to
cope wth physca threats.
FoIIIcIe stInuIatIng hornone (FS ) and
IuteInI Ing hornone (L )These act on
mae and femae sex gands (testes
and ovares), whch themseves then
produce sex hormones vta for sexua
deveopment and menstruaton.
ThyroId stInuIatIng hornone (TS ) Ths
stmuates the thyrod gand, whch n
turn secretes hormones affectng the
speed at whch the body uses energy.
Growth hornone (G ) Ths contros
the rate at whch a chd grows.
d
Uterus
dneys
drena
gands
Testes, ovares
Thyrod
Bones and
musces
Nothers
breasts
rgans
controIIed by
the pItuItary
The ptutary gand (a) s a sma, round
gand attached to the hypothaamus (b)
n the bran. lt s stmuated by the
hypothaamus. The ptutary has two
man obes, caed the posteror (c) and
the anteror (d). These are connected by
a narrow ntermedate obe (e), whch
produces meanocyte-stmuatng
hormone (NSH). Ths stmuates the
skn to darken durng tannng.
The pItuItary gIand IocatIon and structure
ProIactIn (PRL) Ths stmuates a new
mothers breasts to produce mk.
The posterIor IobeThs reeases two
hormones that are produced by the
hypothaamus:
xytocInThs causes the uterus to
contract durng chdbrth.
AntIdIuretIc hornone (A ) or
vasopressInThs s produced when
the bodys water eve s ow. DH
acts on the kdneys, makng them
reabsorb water that woud otherwse
be fushed out n urne.
e
20
D
I
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R
A
M
hedIan sectIon
through seIIa turcIca
The ptutary gand s
protected nsde a hoow
n the sphenod bone, a
part of the sku. The
hoow s caed the sea
turcca. thn stak
connects the ptutary
gand to the regon of the
bran known as the
hypothaamus.
Neanocyte-
stmuatng
hormone (NSH)
ypothaIanus
Peeasng and
nhbtng
hormone
Skn
nteror obe of
ptutary gand
Stmuates the
synthess of
meann pgments
n the skn
lnhbts or
stmuates the
secreton of
ptutary gand
hormones
Ptutary
Hypothaamus
GIands and theIr hornones
GIand Target tIssue Effects
PItuItary
(InternedIary Iobe)
Ptutary stak
Hypothaamus
Ptutary gand
Sphenod bone
Sea turcca
Na|cr nervcus s stem dIscrders
30
AI heIner s dIsease TIe
progressIve degenernIIon oI IIe
brnIn resuIIIng In demenIIn
(menInI deIerIornIIon). ery Iev
peopIe begIn Io suIIer Irom
AIzIeImer`s beIore IIey rencI IIe
nge oI 60. ne In IIve peopIe over
85, Iovever, sIov sympIoms.
SympIoms IncIude Ioss oI memory
nnd compreIensIon. SuIIerers
become venkened by IIe dIsense
nnd genernIIy dIe Irom InIecIIons
vIIIIn Ien yenrs.
EncephaIItIs An InIInmmnIIon oI
IIe brnIn cnused by nn InIecIIon
by bncIerIn, n vIrus, or prIon
(pnIIogenIc proIeIn), or poIIuIIng
cIemIcnIs. TIe InIInmmnIIon mny
cnuse n IendncIe Ior n Iev dnys,
buI convuIsIons, comn, or even
denII mny resuII. FncepInIIIIs Is
IInked Io menIngIIIs. TIIs Is nn
InIInmmnIIon oI IIe menInges, IIe
membrnnes nround IIe brnIn nnd
spInnI cord. VIen boII IIe brnIn
nnd IIs membrnnes nre InIInmed,
IIe condIIIon Is cnIIed
menIngoencepInIIIIs.
eadache Any pnIn In IIe Iend.
Mnny IncIors IInI nIIecI IIe
nervous sysIem cnn produce n
IendncIe, IncIudIng dnmnge Io
IIe brnIn nnd IIs bIood vesseIs;
InIecIIon oI IIe enrs, eyes, nnd
nose; nnd IensIon In muscIes IInI
resuIIs In n pnInIuI consIrIcIIon oI
nerves. BuI, In IncI, II cnn oIIen be
nonspecIIIc.
The substanta
ngra s affected by
Parknsons dsease
lnsonnIa IIIIcuIIy In InIIIng or
sInyIng nsIeep. II cnn be cnused by
sIress, drInkIng Ioo mucI coIIee,
or InkIng Ioo IIIIIe eercIse, or II
mny be n sympIom oI n pIysIcnI
or menInI dIsorder.
hIgraIne A severe IendncIe oIIen
nccompnnIed by bIurred vIsIon
nnd nnusen. II cnn be cnused by
sIress or cerInIn Ioods, or IIe
Iendency mny Inve been
InIerIIed.
hotor neuron dIsease TIe nerves
In IIe brnIn nnd spInnI cord IInI
conIroI muscuInr ncIIvIIy
degenernIe. MuscIes become venk
nnd mny vnsIe nvny. AIso knovn
ns Lou CeIrIg`s dIsense.
ParkInson s dIsease TIe
progressIve degenernIIon oI pnrI
oI IIe brnIn IInI resuIIs In muscIe
rIgIdIIy nnd Iremors. TIe dIsense Is
nssocInIed vIII neurons dyIng In
IIe subsInnIIn nIgrn, pnrI oI IIe
mIdbrnIn, resuIIIng In n Inck oI IIe
neuroIrnnsmIIIer dopnmIne.
SpIna bIfIda An IncompIeIe
IormnIIon oI IIe spIne, someIImes
resuIIIng In dnmnge Io nerves nnd
Ioss oI Iover IImb IuncIIon.
SpInaI shock TIe Iempornry Ioss
oI nbIIIIy IInI resuIIs Irom Injury
Io IIe spInnI cord.
Stroke A condIIIon In vIIcI brnIn
IIssue dIes, usunIIy ns n resuII oI n
dIsrupIIon Io IIe bIood suppIy.
AIso reIerred Io ns n
cerebrovnscuInr nccIdenI.
Isorders of the braIn and nerves
Substanta
ngra
31
D
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M
Stroke: three naIn causes
1 CerebraI henorrhage
weakened spot n a bood
vesse wa ruptures (a), ettng
bood food nto the bran
tssue. The bood cots, causng
pressure on the bran.
2 CerebraI thronbosIs
bood cot (thrombus) forms
n a cerebra bood vesse (b)
and bocks the suppy of bood
to part of the bran. The
resutng shortage of bood,
and thus of oxygen and
gucose, ks some bran tssue.
3 CerebraI enboIIsn
bnorma matera (an
embous, such as a cot from
esewhere n the body) bocks
an artery eadng to the bran
(c), deprvng nerve ces of
nutrents and kng them.
a
b
c
lntrcductIcn
32
TIe biaIn Is a vaInuI sIaped oigan, Ioused vIIIIn IIe
skuII, made up oI many neive ceIIs. TIe bodIes oI neive
ceIIs aie oIIen ieIeiied Io as giay maIIei, and IIeIi
IIbeis aie ieIeiied Io as vIIIe maIIei. eep viInkIes In
IIe biaIn gIve II a suiIace aiea oI s uaie IncIes
,0 0 cm . ens biaIns aie usuaIIy IeavIei IIan
vomens an aduII maIe biaIn veIgIs abouI pounds
. kg an aduII IemaIe biaIn veIgIs abouI .8
pounds . kg . ovevei, IIeie Is no evIdence IIaI
biaIn sI e and InIeIIIgence aie ieIaIed dIiecIIy.
TIe brnIn Is IIe mnIn pnrI
oI IIe cenIrnI nervous
sysIem, vIIcI nIso
IncIudes IIe spInnI cord.
II conIroIs nII oI IIe body`s
processes. MosI oI IIe
sIgnnIs Irom IIe brnIn
rencI IIe body vIn IIe
spInnI cord.
The braIn
SIde vIew
The bran s postoned
above the spna cord.
BraIn facts
The bran aone uses a
ffth of the oxygen
requred by the body.
human bran grows to
fu sze n sx years.
The bran s the source of
moods and emotons, and
s the seat of the mnd.
Spna cord
Bran
Cerebra
hemsphere
Hndbran
Sku or brancase
SECTlON 2: RAlN
33
D
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The bran s dvded nto three man
regons:
1The forebran, where memory, the
mnd, and ntegence are based. Ths
s aso nvoved n body-part
movements, recevng sensatons,
speech, hearng, and sght.
1 ForebraIn
rsng from the
branstem (a sm stak at
the top of the spna
cord), the bran spreads
out to f the space nsde
the sku. The forebran,
or cerebrum, conssts of
two cerebra hemspheres
(a). Wthn the cerebrum
e the corpus caosum
(b) (nkng the two bran
hemspheres), the
thaamus (c), and the
hypothaamus (d).
The thaamus and
hypothaamus are
aso part of the regon
wthn the cerebrum
caed the dencephaon.
2 hIdbraIn
The mdbran (e) s the
shortest and hghest
secton of the branstem
(whch otherwse conssts
of parts of the hndbran).
The mdbran s a reay
staton between the
retcuar system ower
down the branstem and
the forebran above. The
mdbran s aso nvoved
n controng the
movement of the eyes and
the sze of ther pups.
3 IndbraIn
Ths nvoves a the man
structures beneath the
mdbran and ncudes the
pons (f), medua
obongata (g), and
cerebeum (h). Pons and
medua obongata form
most of the branstem,
whch s fused wth the
spna cord. The medua
obongata s nvoved n
controng breathng,
heartbeat, and other vta
processes. The pons s the
connecton between the
cerebeum and the rest
of the bran. The
cerebeum coordnates
body movements.
3 2 1
BraIn structure
2The mdbran, whch works many as
a reay staton for messages to and
from the bran. Eye movements are
controed here.
3 The hndbran, whch coordnates
compex body movements, especay of
the arms and egs.
e d c
f
g
h
a b
raIn deveIcpment
34
Enbryo: 3 weeks
The centra nervous
system begns to form
from a neura tube (a).
ln the thrd week of
deveopment, the tube
coses, and the bran
begns to form from
three sacs.
Enbryo: 4 weeks
By ths tme the forebran
or cerebrum (b) has
become dfferentated
from the rest of the
centra nervous system.
The spna cord (c) grows
aong the neura tube.
Enbryo: 5 weeks
fter fve weeks, the
pared crana nerves (d)
are growng from what
w be the hndbran (e).
Spna nerves are aso
deveopng ower down
the body.
Enbryo: weeks
By ths pont, the
forebran s dvded nto
the dencephaon (f),
whch contans the
thaamus, and the
teencephaon (g).
Enbryo: 11 weeks
The cerebeum (h)
becomes apparent by
ths tme as t grows
from a swoen area on
the hndbran.
Fetus: 4 nonths
s the cerebeum (h)
deveops, the movements
of the fetus ncrease and
t begns to respond to
sound.
BraIn deveIopnent
a c
b d e
f
g
h
h
SECTlON 2: RAlN
35
D
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R
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M
Newborn baby
t brth, a human baby has more or ess
a the bran ces t w need for the rest of
ts fe. However, the bran weghs ess
than 1 pound (0.5 kg). The bran reaches
fu sze n sx years. The ncrease
n weght s caused by nerve ces growng
and the deveopment of neuroga. s the
chd grows and earns, neurons n the
bran begn to connect nto crcuts.
Fetus: nonths
The cerebrum s becomng ncreasngy
foded as the number of neurons
ncreases. Soon the fetus w be abe to
open ts eyes when awake, and aso
detect ght. The movements that are
coordnated by the cerebeum ( ) are
now much stronger.
Fetus: 6 nonths
The cerebrum (i) begns to fod n on
tsef. Ths makes the brans surface area
arger, makng more room for neurons.
Pesponses controed by
the autonomc nervous system, such
as hccupng and coughng, are
now possbe.
i
raIn: externaI eatures
36
LateraI surface of Ieft henIsphere of braIn
The surface of the cerebrum s covered by a foded
ayer of neurons caed the cortex. Dfferent areas of
the cortex contro dfferent body functons.
Cerebra
hemsphere
Tempora obe (sme)
Fronta obe
(thought
and speech)
Occpta obe (vson)
Cerebear hemspheres
Pareta obe (posture)
Somatosensory cortex (sensaton)
Notor cortex
(movement)
Base of braIn
Lke the cerebrum, the cerebeum s dvded nto two
hemspheres. These are connected to the rest of the bran
by the pons. t the base of the cerebrum,
the two optc nerves cross at
the optc chasma. The
ofactory cortex s
aso ocated here.
Centra fssure
Optc chasma
Ofactory cortex
Pons
Cerebrum
Namary bodes
Cerebear hemsphere
SECTlON 2: RAlN
3T
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CerebraI henIspheres fron above
The cerebrum s dvded nto a eft and
rght cerebra hemsphere. These are
dvded by a centra fssure
and nked near the
center of the bran by
the corpus caosum
(see pages 38-3 ).
PosterIor vIew of braIn
The spna cord connects to
the medua obongata
beneath the posteror
haf of the cerebrum. The
medua and the rest of the
branstem connects to the
cerebrum at a more centra
pont. ln front of ths
poston are the mamary
bodes, so-caed because
they resembe nppes. They
form part of the mbc
system, whch contros
emotons.
Spna cord
Cerebeum
Nedua obongata
Cerebrum
Foded cortex
Pght hemsphere
Centra fssure
Left hemsphere
raIn: InternaI structures
3S
Cross sectIon through braIn
The cerebra hemspheres
are connected by the
corpus caosum. Ths
regon s part of the
dencephaon whch
aso ncudes the
hypothaamus and
thaamus, whch contro
vta body processes,
and the fornx and
hppocampus whch
are nked to emotons.
Each foded secton, or
gyrus, of the cerebrum
s dvded from ts
neghbors by a fssure, or
sucus. The cortex on the
surface of a gyrus s
made up of gray matter
(ce bodes). The nteror
s made up of whte
matter (nerve fbers).
FrontaI sectIon through braIn
Whte matter
Corpus caosum
Gyrus
Pnea gand
Cerebeum
Thaamus
Hypothaamus
Gray matter (cortex)
Sucus
Ptutary gand
Hppocampus Substanta ngra (mdbran)
Thaamus Cerebra cortex
Fornx Corpus caosum
Hypothaamus
SECTlON 2: RAlN
30
D
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ThaIanI
The two thaam are
reay statons between
the cerebra cortex and
the cerebeum.
BasaI gangIIa
These bodes nk the
mdbran to the cerebra
hemspheres, controng
vountary movements.
LInbIc systen
Ths s nvoved n
controng moods and
emotons and aso has
a memory functon.
Whe the surface of a cerebra obe s
made up of the cortex, the nteror area
of whte matter s caed the opercuum.
The centra fssure that dvdes the
orI ontaI sectIon of braIn
cerebra hemspheres extends both
forward and back from the centra
regon. round the center, the putamen
s nvoved n pannng movements.
Centra fssure
Corpus caosum
Thaamus
Putamen
Fronta opercuum
Cortex
Tempora opercuum
Fornx
Hppocampus mygdaa Hppocampus
Namary
body
Caudate
nuceus
Fornx
Namary body
Thaamus
CerebrospInaI fIuId
n nfecton of the
cerebrospna fud (CSF) by
a vrus or by bactera causes
menngts.
CSF s argey water.
The CSF n the spna cord
occupes the centra cana.
BIood braIn barrIer
The bran needs to be protected
from chemcas n the bood.
Capares n the bran do not
eak moecues n the same
way as they do esewhere.
Enzymes contro what passes
between the bran and the bood.
raInstem and mIdbraIn
40
Nennges
Latera ventrces
Thrd ventrce
Chorod pexus
Cerebra aqueduct
Fourth ventrce
Chorod pexus
Spaces InsIde the braIn
The bran and spna cord are bathed
n cerebrospna fud (CSF). Ths s
contaned between membranes caed
mennges (see page 55). However, at the
center of the bran, the CSF fs spaces,
or ventrces. There are two arge atera
ventrces n the cerebra hemspheres.
These are nked to other ventrces and
ducts. The CSF s produced by a nng n
the ventrces caed the chorod pexus
and s reabsorbed by the mennges.
(Fud aso drans out of the bran
through the ofactory tract nked to the
nose.) The CSFs functon s to cushon
the bran. lt fows to the hndbran
through the cerebra aqueduct.
SECTlON 2: RAlN
41
D
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R
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SIde vIew of hIndbraIn
From the top down, the
branstem s made up of
the mdbran, pons, and
medua obongata. These
ast two make up the
hndbran aong wth the
cerebeum. Deep nsde
the branstem s the
retcuar system. Ths
formaton reguates the
brans eve of awareness
and aertness.
The branstem forms the nk between
the cerebrum and the cerebeum. The
cerebeum has two hemspheres
PosterIor vIew of braInsten
connected to the pons. The cerebear
hemspheres contan foa, whch are
eafke bundes of neurons.
Cerebra
pedunces
(mdbran)
Pons
Nedua obongata
Fourth ventrce
Spna cord
Spna cord
Nedua obongata
Pons
Fourth ventrce
Cerebra pedunces (mdbran)
Foa
Cerebeum
Cerebra aqueduct
rbor vtae (whte matter)
raIn unctIcns
42
hovenent
Controng movement requres a number of dfferent parts of the bran to work
together. There are varous subsystems wthn the centra nervous system that
contro partcuar movements.
aThe pons (n the
branstem) and the
cerebeum hep to
mantan baance. Ths s
aded by the mdbran,
whch reays sgnas
from the eyes and ears.
bThe motor cortex reays
commands va the
branstem to the musces
that contro posture.
c Other pathways nk the
cerebrum, basa ganga,
branstem, cerebeum,
and thaamus. These
enabe smooth mb
movements and can
aso hat movements.
TIe IeII IemIspIere oI IIe
cerebrnI corIe Is dIvIded
InIo severnI nrens nnd Iobes.
TIese nre: IIe moIor nren,
premoIor nren, IronInI Iobe,
moIor speecI nren, nudIIory
nren, IempornI Iobe, pnrIeInI
Iobe, sensory nren, vIsunI nren,
nnd occIpIInI Iobe.
Surface of Ieft henIsphere
udtory area
Occpta obe
Vsua area
Pareta obe
Sensory area
Tempora obe
Notor
speech area
Fronta obe
Notor area
Ndbran
Cerebeum
Cerebeum
Branstem
a
Pons
c
Basa
ganga
Cerebrum Notor cortex
Thaamus
b
Premotor area
SECTlON 2: RAlN
43
D
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Structure
BraInsten
Nedua obongata
Pons
Ndbran
Petcuar formaton
IencephaIon
Thaamus
Hypothaamus
Cerebrun
Cerebra
hemspheres
Basa ganga
CerebeIIun
FunctIon
cts as a two-way path conductng nformaton between the
spna cord and hgher bran centers.
The cardac center reguates the heartbeat and the force of
the hearts contractons.
The meduary rhythmcty area ad|usts the rate of breathng.
The vasomotor center reguates the dameter of bood vesses.
cts as a two-way path conductng nformaton between the
body and certan areas of the bran.
The pons aso affects respraton (breathng).
Works as a reay staton for messages to and from the bran.
Pesponsbe for mantanng conscousness.
Peays nformaton from the senses to the cerebrum.
Sends nstructons from the cerebrum to the bodys musces.
cts as a coordnator of the centra nervous system.
Contros basc fe processes such as body temperature,
seep, and appette.
Contros ntegence, memory, percepton, thnkng, decson-
makng, and the movement of body parts. Peceves
sensatons and s nvoved n speech, hearng, and sght.
Dfferent obes have dfferent functons.
Contans an area caed the mbc system whch pays an
mportant part n emotons.
lnvoved n pannng and programng vountary (under
conscous contro) musce movement.
Coordnates compex body movements, especay of the
arms and egs.
Heps to mantan posture.
BraIn functIon and personaIIty
1
2
3 4
5 6
Nemcr
44
RegIstratIon
1 Our senses perceve
outsde stmu.
2 These are converted
nto eectrca nerve
mpuses that are
regstered by the bran.
Storage
3The bran stores the
sgnas n ts short-term
memory. Uness these
memores are frequenty
recaed, they are soon
forgotten.
4 Nemores that are
more mportant are sent
to the ong-term memory.
RecaII
5 lnformaton s recaed
to the conscous mnd.
The ease wth whch ths
s done depends on the
strength of the
eaboratve processes
ntay used
to memorze.
6 Nemores nfrequenty
recaed or very od
become harder to reca.
Eventuay, they may be
permanenty forgotten.
ow nenory works
lt s not fuy understood exacty how we
remember thngs. Nost nformaton does,
however, have to go through eaboratve
processes that categorze and ntensfy t by
nkng t to aready-known matera. The
dagram shows how some scentsts thnk
memory works.
Long-term memory
Pecaed
Forgotten
Forgotten
Stmu
to ears
Stmu
to ears
Stmu to eyes and nose
Sgnas
(mpuses)
Short-term memory
SECTlON 2: RAlN
45
D
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Synapses are the |unctons between
neurons. Nost transmt the nerves
eectrc mpuses to the next ce by
chemca means. Nuch ess common are
eectrca synapses, n whch mpuses
are transmtted drecty by the fow of
ons (charged partces) from one ce to
another.
These synapses create contnuty
Structure and functIon
The termna regon of the
presynaptc ce (a) s
connected to the postsynaptc
ce (b) va numerous gap
|unctons (c).
When an acton potenta
arrves at the presynaptc ce
termnus, ons fow through
the channes formed by the
gap |unctons.
Ths trggers an acton
potenta n the postsynaptc
ce vrtuay nstantaneousy.
Synapses the basIs of IearnIng and nenory
between ces, whch become a snge
eectrca crcut.
Ths means vrtuay nstantaneous
transmsson of mpuses, wthout the
sght deay of chemca synapses.
Eectrca synapses occur between the
ces of cardac musce and between
certan neurons of the centra nervous
system of vertebrates.
Neurons
Nerve ces are caed neurons.
neurons contan the same
eements. The ce body ncudes
a nuceus and severa
extensons. The axon s the
argest extenson. lt transmts
nformaton from the ce body
to other ces va synapses.
Dendrtes are short fbers that
receve sgnas from
neghborng ces.
a
c
b
Node of Panver
Dendrte
Ce body
xon
SIeep
46
To be nsIeep Is Io be In n sInIe oI Iovered
conscIousness combIned vIII reduced
meInboIIsm. VInI cnuses peopIe Io sIeep Is
noI IuIIy undersIood. II mny be IInked Io IIe
IeveIs oI cerInIn cIemIcnIs secreIed by brnIn
ceIIs. TIere nre Ivo Iypes oI sIeep: nonrnpId
eyemovemenI (NRFM) nnd rnpIdeye
movemenI (RFM) sIeep.
NonrapId eye novenent (NREh)
urIng NRFM sIeep, brnIn eIecIrIcnI ncIIvIIy
nnd vIInI sIgns decIIne.
RapId eye novenent (REh)
RFM sIeep Is nIso cnIIed pnrndoIcnI sIeep
becnuse IIe brnIn becomes more eIecIrIcnIIy
SIeep re uIrenents
The need for seep depends on many
factors, ncudng age. Newborn babes
(a) w seep for as much as 1 hours a
day. Haf of ths w be PEN seep. One-
year-ods seep for around 14 hours a
day, by the age of fve ths has dropped
to 12 hours. On average, aduts (b) need
to seep for 7-8 hours per day. Of ths,
ony about one-ffth w be PEN seep.
ncIIve, nImosI ns II IIe person vere nvnke.
urIng RFM sIeep, IIe body IempernIure,
IenrI rnIe, brenIIIng rnIe, nnd bIood pressure
nII rIse. TIere Is n decrense In dIgesIIve ncIIvIIy,
nnd IIe eyes move rnpIdIy under IIeIr IIds.
renms occur durIng RFM sIeep.
FunctIons
SIeep Is vIInI. II Is noI undersIood, Iovever,
encIIy vIy IIIs Is so. II mny be necessnry
Ior IIe brnIn Io resI In order Io conIInue
IuncIIonIng eIIIcIenIIy. AcIIvIIy durIng RFM
sIeep (drenmIng, Ior enmpIe) mny be IIe
brnIn sorIIng InIormnIIon IInI II Ins
coIIecIed durIng IIe dny.
a
b
SIeep chart
n average nghts seep s shown on
the seres of charts beow. There are two
type of seep: orthodox, or NPEN, seep
and paradoxca, or PEN, seep. bout
three-quarters of seep s orthodox, but
bran actvty reguary ncreases to
produce paradoxca seep, whch may
ncude dreamng. Despte hgh bran
actvty durng paradoxca seep, t s
essenta for a good nghts rest.
BraIn patterns
0 3 12 15 18 21 24
0 3 12 15 18 21 24
PEN seep NPEN seep
1 hours
0 mnutes
8 hours
wake Seepng deepy Dreamng Seepng ghty Drowsy
SECTlON 2: RAlN
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The sIeep cycIe
The two types of seep (NPEN and PEN)
aternate n cyces of roughy 0 mnutes
throughout the seep perod. The ength
of PEN seep perods ncreases as
the cyce progresses. Nost peope
experence four or fve cyces per nght.
EEGs Eectroencephaograms (EEGs)
are recordngs of the brans eectrca
actvty bran waves. EEGs are used
to montor the brans actvty durng
seep. Dfferent bran waves are
assocated wth the stages of seep.
a Awake When a person s awake, EEGs
typcay record beta waves, whch are
assocated wth arousa, aertness, and
menta actvty.
b NREh sIeep: stage 1 The eyes
are cosed and reaxaton begns, body
temperature, respraton, puse, and
bood pressure are norma. The EEG
shows apha waves.
c NREh sIeep: stage 2 The eyes
ro from sde to sde, the EEG pattern
becomes rreguar.
d NREh sIeep: stage 3 Seep deepens,
and the EEG shows theta
and deta waves. Body temperature,
respraton, puse, and bood
pressure decne, skeeta musces
become very reaxed.
e NREh sIeep: stage 4The EEG shows
deta waves. Body temperature,
respraton, puse, and bood pressure
are at ther owest eves, skeeta
musces are very reaxed. Bedwettng or
seepwakng may occur n stage 4.
f REh sIeepThe cyce then reverses
through stages 4, 3, and 2, but nstead
of wakng nto stage 1, the seeper
enters PEN seep. The EEG shows
smar patterns as for the awake
state. lt s n PEN seep that most
dreams occur.
f
e
d
c
b
a
Stress and mentaI IIIness
4S
TIe orIgIn oI sIress IIes In survIvnI. AII nnImnIs
nre nI rIsk oI nIInck by n prednIor or beIng
conIronIed vIII sudden dnnger. TIey need Io
be nbIe Io deIend IIemseIves eIIIer by
IIgIIIng IIe IIrenI or IIeeIng Irom II. TIe body
prepnres IIseII Ior IIese responses by reIensIng
Iormones InIo IIe bIood. TIe modern ern Ins
produced IIs ovn sIresses nIInckIng mnInIy IIe
mInd, IIe senses, nnd IIe emoIIons, nnd IIe
body undergoes sImIInr pIysIoIogIcnI
processes even IIougI IIe source oI IIe sIress
The dagram shows the
parts of the body affected
when under stress. The
bodys nstnctve reacton
s ether to fght or take
fght.
1The cerebra cortex
receves and anayzes
the ncomng source of
stress va the senses.
2The bran then nstructs
the aarm center n the
ower bran to prepare
the parts of the body that
need to take acton.
3The ptutary gand
reeases a hormone
(CTH) whch w be
carred n the bood.
4The hormone s carred
to the adrena gands,
whch st |ust above the
kdneys. The gands
reease two hormones,
epnephrne and
norepnephrne, and
cortsones. These
Is psycIoIogIcnI. An IndIvIdunI s nbIIIIy Io
cope vIII sIress vIII pIny n Inrge pnrI In
deIermInIng IIs or Ier sInIe oI menInI IenIII.
Ve Iook beIov nI some oI IIe cnuses nnd
eIIecIs oI sIress.
The need for stress TIe Iumnn body nnd
mInd nre buIII Io IIrIve on n cerInIn nmounI
oI sIress. Mnny peopIe IInd IIgI IeveIs oI
sIress pIensurnbIe vIen IIey provIde
cInIIenges IInI Inve Io be overcome. SucI
peopIe IncIude IIose InkIng pnrI In IIgIIy
substances ad|ust body
functons to prepare for
sudden actvty.
5The heart speeds up and
pumps bood more qucky.
6 Breathng rate ncreases
and ar passages n the
ungs date to coect
more oxygen for devery
to the musces.
PhysIcaI effects of stress
Bood vesses constrct
makng the skn pae.
Bood vesses constrct
n the stomach area.
Nore bood s dverted
to musces and bran as a
resut of actons 7 and 8.
1 The speen contracts,
reeasng more red ces
nto the bood to carry
more oxygen.
11The ver reeases
suppes of sugar whe
choestero s reeased
nto the bood from
deposts n the body.
Both these substances
provde energy.
12 The skn begns
sweatng, ready to shed
excess heat.
13 The bood-cottng
system s enhanced.
Whte bood ces count
goes up.
14 Stress hormones
reduce sex drve.
SECTlON 2: RAlN
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Stress contrbutes to the
foowng physca
dsorders:
1 Headaches
2 Exhauston
3 Excessve sweatng
4 Faca fushng
5 Nasa catarrh
6 sthma attacks
Hgh bood pressure
Heart dsease
Skn dseases
1 lndgeston and
stomach ucers
11 Back pan
12 Dabetes
13 Darrhea
14 Pheumatsm and
arthrts
Excessve stress
may aso resut n
psychoogca dsorders:
De ression. mnorty of
peope may suffer from
manc depresson, whch
s cyces of euphora
aternatng wth severe
depresson.
Post artu de ression s
caused by hormone
changes, chdcare
probems, separaton
from the baby, or ack of
sef-confdence.
compeIIIIve or dnngerous sporIs, nnd IIose
vIo IIrIve on cnreers IInI puI IIem under
consInnI pressure.
hentaI probIens AbouI 15 percenI oI IIe I.S.
popuInIIon suIIers n psycIInIrIc or
psycIoIogIcnI dIsorder nI some IIme In IIeIr
IIves. More peopIe nre beIng IrenIed boII In
nnd ouI oI IospIInIs IInn In IIe pnsI,
nIIIougI IIe sInys In IospIInIs Iend Io be
sIorIer. Ve ouIIIne some oI IIe Iypes oI
IrenImenI nvnIInbIe (see pnges 5051). RnIIer
IInn poInIIng Io nn Incrense In menInI IIIness,
Iovever, IIe pnIIern mny suggesI IInI more
peopIe nre vIIIIng Io seek IrenImenI, nnd Io
ndmII Io IIemseIves IInI IIey mIgII Inve n
probIem. TIe sIIgmn once nIIncIed Io menInI
IIIness Is grndunIIy dImInIsIIng. BuI IIe onseI
oI menInI dIsIurbnnce cnn be so grndunI IInI
suIIerers mny be unnvnre IInI nnyIIIng Is
vrong; Iere ve descrIbe vInI cnn go vrong,
vInI Io Iook Ior, nnd Iov Io IeIp beIore
proIessIonnI IrenImenI Is requIred.
chi o hrenia s often
brought on by stress
wthn the famy.
Symptoms may ncude
deteroraton of
personaty, ogca
thought, seeng vsons,
hearng magnary voces,
and deusons of
persecuton (paranoa).
nore ia ner osa s sef-
starvaton usuay
affectng nsecure
or over-pressurzed
adoescents.
ggressi e beha ior may
be caused by stress.
erde endence on
drugs frequenty resuts
from stress.
Neuroses such
as panc attacks and
paptatons, phobas,
hypochondra, hystera,
amnesa, and obsessons
may deveop n a person
anxous to escape from
stress.
ConpIIcatIons of stress
ExercIses tc reIIeve stress
50
ReInnIIon IecInIques nIm Io combnI sIress by
brIngIng IIe IIgII or IIIgII response oI IIe
body under conIroI. FnsIern meIIods,
nIIIougI IIey nre noI vIdeIy recognIzed by
IIe VesIern medIcnI proIessIon, nre oIIen
beneIIcInI ns IIey nre noI mereIy pIysIcnI
eercIses buI nIm Io InIegrnIe IIe mInd nnd
body. HnIIn yogn, IIe pIysIcnI sIde oI yogn,
Is n serIes oI posIures or poses; some nre
IIIusIrnIed Iere. CorrecI brenIIIng nnd
sIov, grnceIuI progress Iovnrd IIe more
ndvnnced poses nre essenIInI. TIe CIInese
eercIses, orIgInnIIy bnsed upon IIe
movemenIs oI nnImnIs, puI IIe empInsIs on
conIInuous movemenI sequences desIgned
Io nIIov IIe body`s pIysIoIogy Io vork IreeIy,
InsIend oI beIng IIndered by IoIdIng IIe
brenII or mnInInInIng n seI posIIIon.
StandIng poses
1Ths poston s caed
the trange. Start wth
your arms stretched out
to the sdes, then bend
from the hps wth one
hand movng down your
eg as shown. The other
arm can be moved as
far as possbe over your
head unt t s parae
to the ground.
2The reverse trange
nvoves brngng the
ower arm over to the
opposte eg so that
your trunk s twsted
as shown.
3The sde bend s
performed wth the egs
together and your arms
above your head, keep
your arms parae and
stretch them as far
over as you can.
4To do the tree pose,
stand on one eg wth the
foot of the other restng
as hgh as possbe on
the thgh. Stretch your
arms as hgh as possbe
above your head.
5 Startng wth the basc
standng pose, casp your
arms behnd you, then
bend forward so that the
trunk s perpendcuar to
your egs.
6 Lunge forward on one
eg so that your front eg
s bent and your back eg
straght. Two aternate
postons for the arms
are shown.
Form an equatera
trange by stretchng
your arms forward and
your egs back as shown.
oga safety
oga nvoves many
standng, sttng, and
yng poses, and severa
nverted handstands.
When practced wth
proper supervson, yoga
can be both physcay
and mentay rewardng.
SECTlON 2: RAlN
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BreathIng exercIses
The type of breathng
that s most hepfu n
yoga nvoves exhang
deepy to empty the
ungs and then
expandng the chest as
you nhae deepy. our
stomach musces shoud
be pued n and your
nostrs shoud be
reaxed, you shoud be
aware of your chest and
stomach movements.
1To practce deep
breathng, knee wth
your knees together and
SIttIng poses
1 St wth your egs
stretched out to the front,
and ean forward to grasp
your toes. Wth practce
you w be abe to pu
your head down onto
your knees.
2 Ths s the cassc otus
poston. Pace your rght
foot on your eft thgh
and then your eft foot
on your rght thgh.
3 St between or on your
feet, then rase your arms
above your head. Breathng
out, ower your arms,
pace your hands on the
soes of your feet, and
bend your trunk forward.
St up, breathng n.
your feet apart, keep your
back straght and hod
your hands pams upward.
2To practce fu-ung
breathng st cross-egged.
Breathe n sowy to f the
ungs from the bottom up.
Swaow, press the tongue
aganst the roof of your
mouth, and hod your
breath. Exhae steady.
3 For aternate nostr
breathng, pace the frst
and second fngers of
your rght hand on your
forehead wth the thumb
besde your rght nostr
and your thrd fngers
besde the eft. Usng
your fngers to cose each
nostr n turn, breathe n
sowy through one
nostr and bow out
through the other. Pepeat
usng the other hand.
4 Baancng on your
bottom, rase your egs
and hod them up wth
your hands as shown.
5 Ths poston requres a
good dea of suppeness,
st wth your egs wde
apart and stretch your
arms to grasp your feet,
hookng your fngers
around the bg toes.
6 St wth your knees fat
and the soes of your feet
touchng, casp your feet
wth your hands.
St wth one eg straght
across your body whe
the other eg s brought
up to the body and hed
by the hands.
Drugs and the braIn
52
Effects of snokIng
Ths dagram ustrates
some of the parts of the
body affected when a
cgarette, cgar, or ppe
s smoked. These effects
wear off graduay when
the smokng stops, but f
smokng s frequent or
contnuous the affected
parts of the body have
no tme to revert to
ther norma states.
1 Ncotne s absorbed
through the nng of the
mouth (as we as
through the ungs) and
enters the boodstream.
2The ncotne reeases
a sma quantty of
catechoamnes, whch
subdue the transmsson
of nerve sgnas and so
reduce feengs of fatgue
and hunger.
3The toxns carbon
monoxde and cyande
n the smoke may cause
a headache. Carbon
monoxde s ony
absorbed through the
ungs, and ts presence
n the boodstream
ndcates that the smoker
s nhang the smoke nto
the ungs.
4 Ncotne acts on the
nerves, and parayzes
the ca of the arways.
Ca are the tny harke
Everyday drugs
Drugs are contaned
n many preparatons
that are not aways
assocated wth drug-
takng. coho and
ncotne are drugs,
and so s the caffene
n coffee, tea, and
coa. Peope aso use
pankers, axatves,
darrhea medcatons,
antacds, cough
medcnes, and cod
remedes, a of
whch are drugs.
Even homeopathc
medcatons are
drugs, the dfference
s that they are used
n nfntesmay
sma amounts.
pro|ectons responsbe for
removng the mucus that
traps harmfu partces.
When they are put out of
acton, the mucus and the
partces reman n the
arways. Ncotne aso
nhbts the aveoar
phagocytes, whch are
normay responsbe for
engufng and destroyng
the bactera and vruses n
nhaed ar, one cgarette
puts them out of acton
for 15 mnutes.
5 Hunger s abated
because of the acton
of the ncotne on the
autonomc nervous
system. Ths s the part of
the nervous system that
governs the actons of the
nvountary smooth
musces, ncudng
those that work n the
esophagus, stomach, and
ntestnes. Sght nausea
may be experenced f the
stomach s empty,
but ths soon passes.
SECTlON 2: RAlN
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Effects of aIcohoI
The dagram ustrates
some of the parts of the
body affected when a
person drnks acoho.
These effects wear off
graduay, but there coud
be astng compcatons
wth contnuous, heavy
use of acoho.
1 s acoho passes
through the mouth,
throat, and guet, t
rrtates the membranes
nng these passages and
ncreases the secreton of
sava. coho can be
smeed on the breath.
2 coho aso rrtates
the nng of the stomach.
Heavy drnkng causes
the stomach nng to
become thckened and
overactve. Ths often
eads to gastrts, wth ts
symptoms of ndgeston,
retchng, and oss of
appette.
3 coho s absorbed
from the stomach and
ntestnes nto the
AIcoIoI Is nn InIoIcnIIng drug knovn sInce
nncIenI IImes. II Ins nnesIIeIIc properIIes nnd
ncIs ns n IrnnquIIIzer nnd n depressnnI. II
Induces mood cInnges noI by ncIIng ns n
sIImuInnI, ns mnny peopIe IIInk, buI by
depressIng IIe pnrI oI IIe brnIn IInI conIroIs
ImpuIsIve beInvIor, judgmenI, nnd memory.
AIcoIoI In smnII qunnIIIIes cnn be used
eIIecIIveIy Io ense IensIons nnd overcome
sIyness, buI Ienvy drInkIng cnn Iend Io
nIcoIoIIsm, InInI dIsenses, nnd serIous socInI
probIems sucI ns IrnIIIc oIIenses, mnrIInI
sIrnIn, nnd vIoIence. Here ve Iook nI IIe
nnIure nnd eIIecIs oI nIcoIoI use nnd
suggesI vnys oI prevenIIng nbuse nnd IIs
serIous consequences.
NonprescrIptIon
drugs
Nonprescrpton drugs
are generay taken for
the condtons sted
beow. Dependency on
these drugs begns
when the user takes
drug as a preventve
aganst ness or takes
the drug for ts sde-
effects rather than ts
ntended use.
eadacheThe most
common use of
pankers, such
as asprn or
acetamnophen.
FatIgue Overtredness
may be combated wth
stmuants, usuay n
the form of caffene,
or arge doses of
vtamns.
lnsonnIa Over-the-
counter remedes
usuay contan
anthstamnes
or anagescs.
boodstream, whch carres
t to the bran and other
organs. ln the ver, acoho
s broken down by the
enzyme acoho
dehydrogenase (DH).
4 coho has ts greatest
effect on the bran.
Percepton, reacton tme,
agty, memory, and
probem-sovng are a
mpeded. Drnkers may
aso become emotona.
raIn dIscrders
54
AnnesIa TIe InnbIIIIy Io
memorIze nnd/or Io recnII
prevIousIy memorIzed
InIormnIIon. TIIs cnn be
cnused by dnmnge Io IIe
brnIn resuIIIng Irom
pIysIcnI Injury or dIsense.
AnencephaIy A condIIIon In
vIIcI n cIIId Is born vIII
nn IncompIeIe brnIn. TIe
cIIId Ins no menInI
IIIe ns ve undersInnd II.
IsunIIy, denII occurs
soon nIIer bIrII.
CerebraI edena SveIIIng
oI IIe brnIn oIIen resuIIIng
Irom Iend Injury.
CerebraI henorrhage
BIeedIng InsIde IIe brnIn
cnused by n rupIured bIood
vesseI. TIe escnped bIood
dnmnges IIe surroundIng
nerve ceIIs. VIen IIe bIood
cIoIs, II nppIIes pressure Io
IIe brnIn IIssue. HIgI bIood
pressure Is one mnjor cnuse
oI cerebrnI IemorrInges.
Dpega Hempega uadrpega
Isorders of the braIn and nerves
CerebraI paIsy TIe poor
conIroI over, or pnrnIysIs oI,
voIunInry muscIes resuIIIng
Irom dnmnge Io IIe
deveIopIng brnIn. CnIegorIes
oI dIsnbIIIIy cnused by
cerebrnI pnIsy IncIude:
dIpIegIn, In vIIcI nII Iour
IImbs nre nIIecIed buI IIe
Iegs more severeIy IInn IIe
nrms (see beIov); IemIpIegIn
In vIIcI IIe IImbs on onIy
one sIde oI IIe body nre
nIIecIed; nnd qundrIpIegIn, In
vIIcI boII nrms nnd boII
Iegs nre severeIy nIIecIed.
ConcussIon A sIIgII Injury
Io IIe brnIn IInI InevIInbIy
cnuses n Iempornry Ioss oI
conscIousness.
ysIexIa A dIsorder In vIIcI
IIe brnIn Ins dIIIIcuIIy vIII
rendIng, vrIIIng, nnd
counIIng. InIeIIIgence Is noI
nIIecIed, buI IeIIers In vords
mny nppenr Irnnsposed or
reversed, Ior enmpIe.
EpIIepsy RecurrenI nnd
nbnormnI seIzures cnused
by nbnormnI nnd IrreguInr
dIscInrges oI eIecIrIcIIy Irom
IIe mIIIIons oI neurons
(nerve ceIIs) In IIe brnIn.
henIngItIs InIInmmnIIon
oI IIe IInIngs oI IIe brnIn
(menInges) usunIIy cnused
by nn InIecIIon.
ParapIegIa TIe pnrnIysIs oI
IIe Iover IImbs resuIIIng
Irom dnmnge Io IIe spInnI
cord beIveen IIe IIrsI
IIorncIc verIebrn nnd IIe
IIrsI Iumbnr verIebrn.
Reye s syndrone A brnIn
dysIuncIIon someIImes
IoIIovIng cIIckenpo or
InIIuenzn (IIu).
Tay Sachs dIsease
egenernIIon oI IIe cenIrnI
nervous sysIem cnused by
ecessIve nmounIs oI n
cIemIcnI cnIIed gnngIIosIde
In IIe brnIn.
Forns of cerebraI paIsy
SECTlON 2: RAlN
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henIngItIs
The bran and spna cord
are surrounded by three
membranes known as the
mennges. From the
outsde n, the mennges
are the dura mater, the
arachnod, and the pa
mater. Cerebrospna fud
s hed between the
arachnod and pa mater
mennges. Nenngts s
an nfecton of the fud
and membranes, caused
many by bactera or
vruses. The dsease can
cause bran damage and
occasonay death.
cerebra hemorrhage s
beedng nsde the bran.
Ths s caused by a break
n a bood vesse. Ths
may be caused by hgh
bood pressure, hardened
arteres, or a weakness n
the vesse wa. Cerebra
hemorrhages are one
cause of a stroke because
they dsrupt the bood
suppy. Beedng nto the
cerebrospna fud that
surrounds the bran and
spna cord between two
membranes s caed
a subarachnod
hemorrhage.
CerebraI henorrhage henInges and subarachnoId space
Cross sectIon through the braIn
Bran
Fourth ventrce
Thrd
ventrce
Cerebrospna fud (n
subarachnod space) Nennges
Skn of scap
Sku
Dura mater
Pa mater
Cerebrum
Subarachnod
space
Har
Bood vesse
rachnod
Latera
ventrce
The spIne
lntrcductIcn
56
TIe spInaI coid Is IIe maIn connecIIon
beIveen IIe body and IIe biaIn. II Is
cIassed as paiI oI IIe cenIiaI neivous
sysIem. TIe spInaI coid eIends Iiom IIe
biaInsIem aI IIe base oI IIe biaIn abouI
Ivo IIIids dovn IIe back. II Is IeId
InsIde iIngs oI bone caIIed veiIebiae.
coIumn oI IIese bones Ioim IIe spIne.
TIe spInaI coid Is connecIed Io IIe iesI oI
IIe body by spInaI neives. TIese aie
connecIed Io boII iecepIois and eIIecIois.
ImpIe ieIIe acIIons, sucI as IIe knee
jeik iesponse and bIInkIng oI IIe eyes,
aie conIioIIed enIIieIy by IIe spInaI coid.
The spna cord s protected nsde the
spne, or vertebra coumn. The spne s
dvded nto fve sectons, n
descendng order: cervca, thoracc,
umbar, sacra, and coccygea.
Three In one
ong wth the bran, the spna cord
forms the centra nervous system (1).
Nost of the nerves n the perphera
nervous system the somatc (2) and
autonomc (3) extend from the cord.
Coccygeal ertebrae
Lu bar ertebrae
horacic ertebrae
Cer ical ertebrae
acral ertebrae
SECTlON : SPlNA CORD
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Housed by protectve vertebrae, the spna cord runs
from the bran and ends at the frst umbar vertebra,
where umbar nerves carry nformaton to and from
the ower regons of the body.
SpInaI nerves
There are 30 pars of spna
nerves, pus a snge nerve,
eavng the spna cord and
traveng to the rest of the
body. These are dvded nto
the foowng groups:
eght pars of cervca
nerves suppyng the
throat, chest, arms, and
hands,
12 pars of thoracc nerves
suppyng the part of the
body from the top of the
breastbone to the bottom
of the rbs and the
abdomen,
fve pars of umbar nerves
suppyng the front of the
egs and feet,
fve pars of sacra nerves,
the coccygea nerve
suppyng the soes of the
feet and backs of the egs.
Cer ical ner es
horacic ner es
Lu bar ner es
acral ner es
Coccygeal ner e
Bran
Spna cord
Vertebrae
End of
spna cord
SpInaI ccrd
5S
Cervca
enargement
Thoracc eve
Lumbar
enargement
Sacra eve
SectIon through spInaI cord
The cord s housed nsde vertebrae. The
spna nerves that serve the ower body
form bundes caed cauda equna.
Transverse sectIons
through spInaI cord
The proportons of whte and gray
matter vary at ponts aong the cord.
The spInaI cord
The spna cord s not |ust a unform
cabe of nerves extendng from the
branstem. lt changes n shape and sze
at dfferent ponts aong the spne. The
spna cord termnates n the ower back
regon, but the fum termnae extends
to the very tp of the spne. The spna
cord s encosed n mennges. The
subarachnod space between these
membranes contans fud.
Whte matter
Cervca enargement
Subarachnod space
Vertebra
Lumbar enargement
Fum termnae
Cauda equna
Gray matter
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FunctIon of the spInaI cord
TIe spInnI cord Is n Ivovny pnIIvny oI
nerves conducIIng InIormnIIon Io nnd
Irom IIe brnIn.
VIIIe mnIIer conducIs sIgnnIs up nnd dovn
IIe spInnI cord.
BuIIerIIysInped grny mnIIer IrnnsmIIs
sIgnnIs InIo nnd ouI oI IIe cord.
Nerves nrIsIng Irom IIe pnrI oI IIe grny
mnIIer IncIng IIe IronI oI IIe body cnrry
ouIgoIng sIgnnIs nnd conIroI muscIes.
Nerves cnrryIng sensory sIgnnIs Irom IIe
body`s surInce, nnd Irom deeper sIrucIures
sucI ns muscIes, enIer IIe spInnI cord Irom
IIe opposIIe sIde.
SpInaI cord structure
s part of the centra
nervous system, the
spna cord s surrounded
by three membranes
caed mennges. From
the outsde n, these
are the dura mater, the
arachnod, and the pa
mater. The subarachnod
space between the
second and thrd
mennges contans
cerebrospna fud.
Spna nerves pass
through the membranes
as they connect to the
whte matter of the spna
cord. The whte matter s
made up of myenated
nerve fbers used for
carryng mpuses at hgh
speeds. The gray matter
s unmyenated ces.
Transverse sectIon through spInaI cord
and Its nenbranes
Whte matter
Gray matter
Gray matter
Whte matter Spna cord
Notor nerves
(outgong sgnas)
Nerves
(sensory
sgnas)
Dura mater
rachnod Subarachnod space
Pa mater Spna
nerves
BC
FPONT
SpInaI nerves
60
IvIsIons of the
spInaI nerves
The spna nerves
are cassfed
accordng to the
regon they connect
to the spna cord.
Course of a typIcaI thoracIc spInaI nerve
Ths thoracc spna nerve s servng a regon of the
rbcage and upper back. Soon after t emerges from
the spna cord, the nerve dvdes. The dorsa ramus
passes through back musces to the tssue beneath the
skn of the back. The ventra ramus runs through rb
musces. Two branches serve the rest of the
dermatomes (see opposte page).
SpInaI nerves
Nost spna nerves are
pared. One nerve serves
one haf of the body.
Ony the snge coccygea
(ta) nerve s not pared,
athough t soon dvdes.
Spna nerves form a
gangon before they
enter the spna cord.
Cervca
Thoracc
Lumbar
Sacra
Latera cutaneous branch
Latera branch Back musce
Spna cord Vertebra
Ventra
ramus
Pb musces
Skn
nteror cutaneous branch
Sternum
Dorsa ramus
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ernatones
The receptors n the skn, such as those
senstve to touch, heat, and cod, are
connected to the bran va spna nerves.
Each spna nerve carres sgnas from
certan areas of the body surface caed
dermatomes. Cervca nerves serve the
head, neck, and arms. The torso s
served by thoracc nerves, whe umbar
and sacra nerves serve the egs, feet,
and buttocks.
Cervca
Lumbar
Thoracc
Sacra
CranIaI nerves
62
There are 12 pars of crana nerves.
They are many concerned wth the
head and neck areas.
1 Ifactory nerveThs carres sme
sgnas from the nng of the nostr.
2 ptIc nerveThs sends the bran
sgnas that code mages formed on the
retna at the back of the eye.
3 cuIonotor nerveThs works four of
the sx musces that contro the eyeba
and the musce that contros the pup.
4 TrochIear nerveThs works the eyebas
superor obque musce and coordnates
wth the ocuomotor and abducens
nerves.
5 TrIgenInaI nerveThs transmts
sensatons from the face. lt aso
actvates the |aw musces that chew.
6 Abducens nerveThs contros the outer
musce of the eye.
Base of braIn showIng cranIaI nerves
The cranIaI nerves
FacIaI nerveThs works the musces
that contro faca expresson. lt aso
brngs sensatons to the bran from taste
buds on the front of the tongue.
AcoustIc nerveThs carres nerve
mpuses that code sounds detected by
the ear. lt aso sends sgnas from the
organs of baance n the ear.
GIossopharyngeaI nerveThs carres
taste sensatons and sgnas from the
throat to stmuate swaowng.
1 agus nerveThs carres mpuses
from and to the pharynx and the man
organs. lt heps to reguate breathng,
heartbeat, and dgeston.
11 Accessory nerveThs contros the
turnng of the head and shouders.
12 ypogIossaI nerveThs carres sgnas
from the bran to the tongue and effects
the movement of the tongue.
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Nerves
Ifactory nerve
ptIc nerve
cuIonotor nerve
TrochIear nerve
TrIgenInaI nerve
Abducens nerve
FacIaI nerve
AcoustIc nerve
GIossopharyngeaI nerve
agus nerve
Accessory nerve
ypogIossaI nerve
haIn functIon
Sense of sme.
Sense of sght.
Notor suppy to musces that move eyes, eyeds, and ens
and pup sze.
Notor suppy to superor obque musce (that moves eye).
Sensory nput from eye, face, nng of the nose, teeth,
gums, and front of the tongue.
Notor suppy to chewng musces.
Notor suppy to atera rectus musce (that moves eye).
Notor suppy to musces of faca expresson, savary
gands, tear gand, mucous gands of nose and mouth.
Taste nput from the tongue, and sensatons from outer ear.
Sense of baance, head poston, and hearng.
Notor suppy to styopharyngeus musce and parotd
savary gand.
Sense of taste from posteror thrd of tongue, sensory
nput from bood pressure receptors n carotd artery.
Notor suppy to pharynx, arynx, trachea, bronch, ungs,
heart, esophagus, stomach, ntestnes, ver, pancreas, and
kdneys.
Sensory nput from pharynx, arynx, and thoracc and
abdomna organs.
Notor suppy to sternocedomastod and trapezus
musces (whch contro head movements), aso musces of
soft paate, pharynx, and arynx.
Notor suppy to musces controng tongue (except
paatogossus musce).
CranIaI nerves
ShcuIder, chest, and arm nerves
64
Latera cutaneous
nerve of forearm
Upper atera cutaneous nerve
Branches of the thoracc nerves
Left arn: anterIor vIew
Deep nerves contro the musces that
bend the arm at the ebow and fex the
wrst and fngers. The many receptors n
the pam of the hand and the fngertps
are aso served by
cutaneous nerves.
Left arn: dorsaI vIew
mong other thngs, these nerves
contro the musces that straghten the
ebow, wrst, and fngers. The nerves
are named after ther poston n the
arm, the pace from where they have
orgnated, or the functon they serve.
Latera supracavcuar nerve
Pamar branch of
medan nerve
Dgta branches
Lower atera
cutaneous nerve
Neda
cutaneous nerve
lntercostobracha
nerve
Branches of
rada nerve
Unar nerve
Dgta branches of
medan nerve
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CervIcobrachIaI pIexus
The nerves that serve the arm orgnate
at the cervcobracha pexus n the
cervca eve of the spna cord.
CervIcaI regIon of spInaI cord
CervIcaI regIon
Eght pars
of cervca
spna nerves
Hypogossa nerve
Lesser occpta
nerve
Greater
aurce
nerve
Transverse
cervca
nerve
Nedan nerve
Pada nerve
Unar nerve
Phrenc nerve
Neda pectora
nerve
Cavce
Sternum
Vertebra
Long
thoracc
nerve
Other nerves connected to the spna
cord n ths regon serve the neck, chest,
and back.
HIp and Ieg nerves
66
Cutaneous nerves of Ieft Ieg
(posterIor vIew)
The nerves near the surface of the eg
are concerned wth carryng sensory
nformaton from cutaneous receptors.
eep nerves of rIght Ieg
(anterIor vIew)
Nost of these deep nerves contro the
arge musces that move the eg. They
are nked to the umbar spna cord.
Latera cutaneous
femora nerve
Femora nerve
Posteror femora
cutaneous nerve
Great scatc nerve
Sura communcatng branch
Sura nerve
Tba nerve
Saphenous nerve
Posteror femora
cutaneous nerve
Obturator nerve
Saphenous nerve
Cacanea branches
of tba nerve
Sura nerve
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LunbosacraI pIexus
The nerves of the eg,
buttocks, gron, and
ntestnes emanate
from the umbar and
sacra regons of the
spna cord, formng the
umbosacra pexus.
Snce the spna cord
termnates n the umbar
regon, many of these
nerves form bundes
caed cauda equna
(teray horse tas)
that hang beow the
spna cord. Nost of the
nerves pass through the
pevc grde.
Lunbar and
sacraI regIon
SpInaI cord showIng Iunbar and
sacraI regIons
Great scatc nerve
Common peronea nerve
Fve pars of
umbar spna
nerves
Fve pars of
sacra spna
nerves
Subcosta nerve
lohypogastrc
nerve
Gentofemora
nerve
longuna
nerve
Vertebra
Lumbosacra trunk
nococcygea
nerves
Obturator nerve
Posteror femora
cutaneous nerve
Femora nerve
Pudenda nerve
Tba nerve
SkIn nerves
6S
Sensory InnervatIon
Each par of spna and crana nerves
s responsbe for carryng sensory
nformaton from a specfc regon of the
bodys surface to the bran. The same
nerves aso contan efferent neurons
that carry the motor response.
Sensory InnervatIon (anterIor vIew) Sensory InnervatIon (posterIor vIew)
Opthamc
Naxary
xary
Sura
Superfca peronea
Unar
lntercostabracha
Nandbuar
Cervca cutaneous
Neda thoracc
nteror femora cutaneous
Greater occpta
Lesser occpta
Supracavcuar
Common peronea
Saphenous
Tba
Neda pantar
Latera antebracha
cutaneous
Pada
Nedan
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Nerve pathways
The dagram beow shows how sensory
mpuses trave through the nervous
system from a receptor n the skn to the
spna cord and bran. The sgna s
drected to severa regons. The spna
cord contros any refex actons, the
cortex creates the sensaton, and the
cerebeum coordnates the movements.
NeuraI cIrcuIts
The mpuses for smpe refex actons do
not enter the bran.
Sgnas to and from the cortex are drected
through the thaamus.
Spna cord
Cerebra cortex
Thaamus
Hypothaamus
Cerebeum
Touch receptor n skn
Nusce
Nerve pIexI
T0
Nerve
illary ner e
edian ner e
usculocutaneous
ner e
adial ner e
lnar ner e
huscIe suppIy
Detod, teres mnor
Forearm fexors, some hand
musces
Coracobrachas, bceps
brach, brachas
Trceps brach, forearm
extensors
Wrst fexors, ntrnsc hand
musces
Sensory suppIy
Skn of atera and posteror
upper arm
Skn of rada pam, pamar skn
of rada three and a haf dgts
Skn of atera forearm
Skn of posteror arm, skn of
rada back of hand and three and
a haf dgts
Skn of meda sde of wrst, hand,
and unar one and a haf dgts
AnococcygeaI
nerve
lnferIor gIuteaI
nerve
PerforatIng
cutaneous nerve
PosterIor fenoraI
cutaneous nerve
PudendaI nerve
ScIatIc nerve
SuperIor gIuteaI
nerve
None
Guteus maxmus
None
None
Pernea musces
Nusces of ower eg and foot
Guteus medus, guteus
mnmus, tensor fascae atae
Skn around anus
None
Skn of ower meda buttock
Skn of ower buttock and
posteror thgh
Gentas
Skn of eg and foot
None
Nerves of the cervIcobrachIaI pIexus
Nerves of the sacraI pIexus
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Nerve
e oral ner e
enitofe oral
ner e
liohy ogastric
ner e
lioinguinal ner e
Lateral fe oral
cutaneous ner e
bturator ner e
huscIe suppIy
Sartorus, rectus femors,
vastus ateras, vastus
ntermedus, vastus medas,
pectneus musces
Cremaster musce
Externa obque, nterna
obque, and transversus
abdomns musces of ower
abdomna wa
Externa obque, nterna
obque, and transversus
abdomns musces of ower
abdomna wa
None
dductor ongus, adductor
brevs, adductor magnus,
gracs, obturator externus
musces
Sensory suppIy
Skn of anteror thgh,
anteromeda eg, and meda
surface of foot and bg toe
Skn of upper meda thgh and
scrotum or aba ma|ora
Skn of ower abdomna wa
Skn of ower abdomna wa
and genta area
Skn of atera thgh
Skn of meda thgh
Nerves of the Iunbar pIexus
PIexI of spInaI nerves
The spna nerves assocated wth
each eve of the spna cord form
pex (snguar: pexus). These
nteracng networks exst n pars,
each a mrror mage of the other, on
ether sde of the spne. They carry
nerve mpuses to and from specfc
parts of the body.
Cervcobracha pexus
Lumbar pexus
Sacra pexus
PrctectIng the nervcus s stem
T2
ProtectIon for the braIn
TIere nre mnny Inyers oI IIssue, some
proIecIIve, some supporIIve, beIveen
IIe brnIn nnd IIe ouIsIde nIr.
SkIn oI IIe scnIp, vIII InIr, InI, nnd IIssues.
PerIosteun, n IIIn membrnne coverIng IIe
skuII.
SkuII, IousIng IIe brnIn; IIs Iused bones nnd
domed sInpe gIve II sIrengII.
ura nater, n IougI, IneInsIIc ouIer menInge
(membrnne) ImmedInIeIy vIIIIn IIe skuII.
BeIveen Inyers oI durn mnIer nre venous
sInuses (cInnneIs IInI cnrry oII used bIood
nnd cerebrospInnI IIuId).
ArachnoId nater, nn eInsIIc membrnne
nIIncIed Io IIe durn mnIer. VIIIIn II nre
nrncInoId grnnuInIIons (vnIves IInI conIroI
IIe IIov oI cerebrospInnI IIuId).
BIood vesseIs provIdIng nourIsImenI nnd
oygen Ior brnIn IIssues.
SubarachnoId space IIrougI vIIcI
cerebrospInnI IIuId cIrcuInIes nround IIe brnIn
nnd spInnI cord.
PIa nater, n IIIn membrnne on Iop oI IIe
IrreguInr surInce oI IIe brnIn IIseII.
BraIn tIssue, IIe soII IIssue oI IIe cerebrnI
nnd cerebeIInr IemIspIeres.
CerebrospInaI fIuId
TIe nervous sysIem Is proIecIed ngnInsI Injury
by cerebrospInnI IIuId vIIcI cIrcuInIes
IIrougI IIe subnrncInoId spnce nround IIe
brnIn nnd spInnI cord nnd IIrougI venIrIcIes
(IIuIdIIIIed cnvIIIes) In IIe brnIn. II Is n cIenr,
vnIery subsInnce conInInIng proIeIns, gIucose,
uren, nnd snIIs, nnd II serves ns boII n sIock
nbsorber Ior IIe cenIrnI nervous sysIem nnd n
suppIIer oI nuIrIenIs. II Is mnde vIIIIn IIe
venIrIcIes oI IIe brnIn.
entrIcIes
VIIIIn IIe brnIn IIe severnI venIrIcIes. TIese
produce cerebrospInnI IIuId (Irom IIIIered
bIood pInsmn), vIIcI IIen cIrcuInIes nround
IIe brnIn, spInnI cord, nnd IIrougI IIe
venIrIcIes. TIe venIrIcIes comprIse Ivo
InIernI venIrIcIes under IIe cerebrum, IIe
IIIrd venIrIcIe nbove IIe brnInsIem, nnd
IIe IourII venIrIcIe beIveen IIe pons nnd
cerebeIIum. (TIe InIernI venIrIcIes vere once
cnIIed IIe IIrsI nnd second venIrIcIes.)
Subarachnod
space
Sku
Skn
Perosteum
Bran tssue
Dura mater
rachnod mater
Pa mater
Latera ventrce
Thrd ventrce
Fourth ventrce
Spna cord
Bood vesses
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Cross sectIon structure
The spna cord, ke the bran, s
protected by bone, cerebrospna fud,
and ayers of tssue. The eements of
the spna cord are as sted here.
Vertebra
Epdura space, whch contans fat ces
and vens
Dura mater
rachnod mater
Subarachnod space fed wth
cerebrospna fud
Pa mater
The spna cord contanng gray and
whte matter
The root of the spna nerve
Subarachnod space
Pa mater Spna cord
Spna cord
Spna nerve
Epdura space
rachnod mater
Dura mater
Spna nerve
Vertebra
Gray
matter
Whte
matter
Nerve damage and dIscrders
T4
CarpaI tunneI syndrone A dIsorder vIII
nn unknovn cnuse IInI resuIIs In pnIn In
IIe IIngerIIps nnd IIumb. II Is nssocInIed
vIII repeIIIIve ncIIons cnusIng IensIons In
IIe Innd.
huItIpIe scIerosIs (hS) TIe progressIve
desIrucIIon oI IIe ouIer pnrI oI nerve
ceIIs, vIIcI nIIecIs IIeIr nbIIIIy Io
IrnnsmII ImpuIses.
NeuraIgIa PnIn cnused by nerve dnmnge
or IrrIInIIon.
NeurItIs TIe InIInmmnIIon oI n nerve or
nerves.
NeurosyphIIIs TIe Ierm used vIen IIe
seunIIy IrnnsmIIIed dIsense sypIIIIs (cnused
by n bncIerIum) nIIncks IIe nervous sysIem.
Nunbness IIen Iempornry Ioss oI
sensnIIon due Io obsIrucIIon oI ImpuIses
pnssed nIong sensory nerves. Cnn be cnused
by bIood suppIy Io n nerve beIng cuI oII
nIIer n person Ins remnIned In IIe snme
posIIIon Ior n Iong IIme (nIso cnuses pIns
nnd needIes); by drugs (nnesIIesIn); or by
dnmnge Io IIe nervous sysIem.
ParaIysIs TIe Ioss oI IIe nbIIIIy Io use
moIor nerves resuIIIng Irom dnmnge Io IIe
spInnI cord.
ParesthesIas AIIered or nbnormnI
sensnIIons In IIe skIn.
PoIIonyeIItIs (poIIo) A vIrnI InIecIIon IInI
nIIncks IIe nervous sysIem cnusIng pnrnIysIs
nnd someIImes denII.
ScIatIca PnIn In IIe scInIIc nerve (mnIn
nerve oI IIe Iegs) cnused by pressure or
InIInmmnIIon.
ShIngIes An InIecIIon oI IIe perIpIernI
nervous sysIem cnused by IIe cIIckenpo
vIrus Ierpes zosIer.
CarpaI tunneI syndrone
Isorders of the nervous systen
Ths s a condton characterzed by
pan and tngng, or numbness, n
the thumb and fngers. lt can affect
ether or both hands. The cause s
unknown, athough t s beeved to
resut from pressure on the medan
nerve n the wrst. Ths nerve passes
through a tunne formed by the
wrst bones the carpas. lf tssues
wthn the wrst swe due to n|ury
or nfecton, they press on and pnch
the nerve.
Carpa
bones of
wrst
T5
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EpIduraI anesthesIa
n epdura n|ecton admnsters drugs
nto the epdura space between the
vertebrae and the dura mater of the
spna cord. The epdura space contans
vens, arteres, and fat. Epdura
n|ectons are used to treat sweng,
nfammaton, and pan caused by
neuroogca condtons that affect nerve
roots, such as a spped dsk and to
manage the pan of chdbrth. oca
anesthetc s gven pror to the man
procedure to numb the area. The
medcaton used usuay contans an
anesthetc or a musce reaxant, and a
cortcosterod. The n|ecton s
sometmes caed a cortsone shot.
Ste of the
epdura n|ecton
at the sacrum
The mxture of anesthetc and cortcosterod s
n|ected sowy nto the space around the
spna cana (beow).
The optmum poston may need to be exposed
before the n|ecton s actuay made (above).
Spna cord
Spna nerve
Space surroundng
the spna cord
Vertebra
Coccyx
Sacrum
Lumbar vertebrae
lntrcductIcn
T6
InvoIunIaiy body piocesses, sucI as IIe acIIon oI IIe
dIgesIIve sysIem oi sveaIIng, aie conIioIIed by IIe
auIonomIc neivous sysIem . Iong vIII IIe
somaIIc neivous sysIem, IIe makes up IIe
peiIpIeiaI neivous sysIem. TIe peiIpIeiaI neivous
sysIem connecIs IIe iesI oI IIe body Io IIe cenIiaI
neivous sysIem IIe biaIn and spInaI coid . TIe maIn
ioIe oI IIe auIonomIc neivous sysIem Is one oI
ieguIaIIon. oi eampIe, II keeps IIe body aI IIe
coiiecI IempeiaIuie and conIioIs bieaIIIng.
AutononIc nervous systen
TIe nuIonomIc nervous sysIem (ANS)
reguInIes InvoIunInry (noI under conscIous
conIroI) ncIIvIIIes. II consIsIs oI Ivo pnrIs: IIe
sympnIIeIIc nnd pnrnsympnIIeIIc nervous
sysIems. TIese Ivo sysIems vork In
opposIIIon Io encI oIIer In order Io
mnInInIn IomeosInsIs (n bnInnce) oI
condIIIons vIIIIn IIe body.
SynpathetIc nervous systen
uIpuI Irom IIIs sysIem sIeps up InIernnI
bodIIy ncIIvIIy. II sIImuInIes IIe body Io rencI
Io emergencIes by IncrensIng IIe IenrI rnIe,
dIInIIng IIe pupIIs, nnd svIIcIIng bIood
suppIy Irom IIe InIesIInes (cnusIng n sInkIng
IeeIIng, nnusen, or even InconIInence) nnd
skIn (cnusIng II Io become pnIe) Io IIe
muscIes nnd brnIn. TIe vork oI IIe
sympnIIeIIc nervous sysIem Is oIIen
cnIIed IIe IIgII or IIIgII response
becnuse II mnkes IIe body deIend IIseII
or move nvny Irom dnnger.
ParasynpathetIc nervous systen
In brond Ierms, IIIs pnrI oI IIe nuIonomIc
nervous sysIem does IIe opposIIe Io IIe
sympnIIeIIc sysIem. II decrenses IIe IenrI
rnIe, conIrncIs IIe pupIIs, nnd Ieeds bIood
nvny Irom IIe brnIn nnd muscIes Io IIe
dIgesIIve sysIem nnd IIe skIn.
AutononIc nervous systen
The autonomc nervous system s part
of the perphera nervous system. lt
contros nvountary body processes.
ReguIatIon
The autonomc nervous
system keeps the body
stabe, so ts vta processes
can contnue unaffected.
The two parts of the
autonomc system are
nvoved n preparng the
body to respond
appropratey to events.
Centra NS Somatc NS utonomc NS
Perphera NS
SECTlON : A TONONlC NS
TT
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
rganI atIon
rgan affected
eart
Eye
Sweat gIands
Tear gIands
SaIIvary gIands
GastrIc fIuIds
lntestInaI fIuIds
Lungs
(broncha tubes)
BIood vesseIs
n skn
n skeeta musce
n dgestve tract
LIver
Stonach
lntestInes
Idney
Pancreas
BIadder
aIr foIIIcIes
SynpathetIc stInuIatIon
cceerates the heartbeat
Dates the pups
Stmuates sweat secreton
lnhbts secreton
Decreases secreton
lnhbts secreton
lnhbts secreton
Dates
Constrcts
Dates
Usuay nhbts defecaton
Peeases gucose and
decreases be secreton
Decreases actvty
Decreases actvty
Decreases voume of urne
lnhbts secreton
Peaxes the badder
Produces goose pmpes
ParasynpathetIc stInuIatIon
Sows the heartbeat
Constrcts the pups
Generazed secreton
Stmuates cryng
Stmuates secreton
Stmuates secreton
Stmuates secreton
Constrcts
Dates
Dates
lncreases perstass
lncreases be secreton
lncreases actvty
lncreases actvty
None
Promotes secreton
Contracts the badder
None
S mpathetIc ccntrcI
TS
SynpathetIc systen
The autonomc nervous system s
connected to the bran, especay the
medua obongata and hypothaamus,
by crana nerves and spna cord. The
sympathetc autonomc nervous system
s nked entrey va the spna cord.
The nerves pass through sympathetc
rIgIns of nerves and neuraI gangIIa
ganga, whch form a chan, or trunk,
on ether sde of the spna cord. Nerves
connect the ganga to dfferent parts of
the body. For exampe, the steate
gangon s nked to the heart and ungs.
The spanchnc (vscera) nerves are part
of the abdomna aortc pexus.
Thoracc
secton of
spna cord
Lumbar
secton of
spna cord
Steate gangon
Greater and esser thoracc
spanchnc nerves
Lumbar spanchnc nerves
T0
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
SynpathetIc IInks
The nerves of the
sympathetc nervous
system nk to the man
body organs, such as the
stomach and other
dgestve structures,
kdneys, and the gentas.
Nerves aso connect to
the sma bood vesses
and sweat gands n the
skn. Nerves that serve
one partcuar area tend
to be custered nto a
gangon, such as the
ceac gangon, whch
connects the man part of
the dgestve system.
SoIar pIexus
The soar pexus s a
sympathetc gangon,
whch s a ma|or nk to
the adrena gand.
Neurons n the adrena
gand produce the
hormone norepnephrne.
SynpathetIc hornone
The hormone norepnephrne (aso caed
noradrenane) causes the fght or fght
response. mong other thngs, t dates the
trachea and reeases sugar nto the bood.
ha|or areas affected by the synpathetIc
nervous systen
Bood vesses of the head
Pup of the eye
Lungs
Lver
dney
Savary and
acrma gands
Heart
Badder
lntestne
Stomach
Gentas
Pancreas
Paras mpathetIc ccntrcI
S0
ParasynpathetIc systen
Unke the sympathetc autonomc nervous system, the
parasympathetc system s connected drecty to the
bran va crana nerves. The vagus nerves (crana
nerve ), whch serve the heart and other vta organs,
are among the most mportant par of them.
Other parts of the parasympathetc system, such as the
nerves that serve the rectum, badder, and gentas, are
connected to the sacra secton at the base of the
spna cord, va the hypogastrc (meanng beneath the
stomach) pexus.
CranIaI nerves
Pars of the crana
nerves orgnate n the
medua obongata, part
of the branstem.
Parasympathetc neurons
produce the
neurotransmtter
acetychone.
Crana
nerves
Crana nerve lll
Crana nerve Vll
Crana nerve l
Crana nerve
Hypogastrc pexus Sacra
secton of
spna cord
S1
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
ParasynpathetIc
IInks
Stmuaton by the
parasympathetc system
causes the heartbeat to
sow and bood pressure
to ower. The pups
constrct, reducng the
amount of ght gettng
nto the eye. The bood
suppy to the skn and
vscera organs s
ncreased. The smooth
musces that ne the
ntestnes and stomach
begn to produce
perstatc waves. These
movements, whch are
nhbted by the
sympathetc system,
churn the contents of the
gut and force t down to
the rectum.
ConscIous controI
though the NS s
often descrbed as beng
nvountary, a certan
amount of contro can be
apped. Nedtaton can
be used to ater many
autonomc functons.
ha|or areas affected by the parasynpathetIc
nervous systen
The body at rest
The parasympathetc nervous system s domnant durng
seep, when the heart rate s sower and respraton s deeper
and more reguar.
Bood vesses of the head
Pup of the eye
Lungs
Secretory parts of
the nose and mouth
Heart
Lver
dney
Badder
lntestne
Stomach
Nembrane of
nose and paate
Gentas
Pancreas
GIands
The pnea gand s aso
caed the epphyss.
The ptutary gand s often
caed the hypophyss.
The hypothaamus s part of
the bran, where t contros
the rest of the bodys
gands wth hormones.
lntrcductIcn
S2
ndociIne gIands secieIe Ioimones InIo IIe bIood
cIicuIaIoiy sysIem, vIIcI IianspoiIs IIem Io aII paiIs
oI IIe body vIeie IIey aIIecI IIssues Io InIIuence bodIIy
giovII, deveIopmenI, acIIvIIy, and iepaIi. oimone
ouIpuI depends IaigeIy on negaIIve Ieedback piocesses.
igans IncIuded In IIe endociIne sysIem aie IIe
IypoIIaIamus, pIIuIIaiy gIand, pIneaI gIand, IIyioId,
paiaIIyioId gIands, IIymus, adienaI gIands, pancieas,
IesIes, and ovaiIes.
haIe endocrIne systen
The mae gonads (testes) are hed n the
scrotum, postoned outsde the vscera.
FenaIe endocrIne systen
The femae gonads (ovares) are
postoned n the pevs.
Hypothaamus
Thyrod gand
Parathyrod
gands
Pnea
gand
Pnea
gand
Thyrod gand
drena
gands
Thymus
Ovares
Testes
drena
gands
Thymus
Parathyrod gands
Ptutary gand
Hypothaamus
Ptutary
gand
Pancreas
Pancreas
SECTlON : HORNONA S STEN
S3
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
AdrenaI gIands FndocrIne gInnds IocnIed
one on encI kIdney. TIe corIe nnd meduIIn
produce n rnnge oI Iormones.
AntIdIuretIc hornone (A ) A pIIuIInry
Iormone IInI decrenses urIne ouIpuI nnd
Increnses bIood pressure.
CortIcosteroIds Hormones produced In IIe
corIe oI IIe ndrennI gInnds.
EndocrIne gIands ucIIess gInnds reIensIng
Iormones InIo IIe bIood.
EpInephrIne A Iormone Irom IIe ndrennI
meduIIn IInI prepnres IIe body Ior IIgII or
IIIgII under sIress.
Estrogens FemnIe se Iormones, mnInIy
Irom IIe ovnrIes.
FoIIIcIe stInuIatIng hornone (FS ) A
pIIuIInry Iormone IInI sIImuInIes egg nnd
sperm producIIon In IIe gonnds.
GIand A sIrucIure IInI synIIesIzes nnd
secreIes n IIuId.
GIucagon A pnncrenIIc Iormone IInI brenks
dovn gIycogen Io gIucose.
GIucocortIcoIds CorIIcosIeroIds IInI IeIp
conIroI IongIerm sIressors.
GonadocortIcoIds Se Iormones produced
In IIe ndrennI corIe.
Gonads MnIe nnd IemnIe reproducIIve
orgnns vIII endocrIne IuncIIons.
Growth hornone A pIIuIInry Iormone.
ornones CIemIcnI subsInnces reIensed
InIo IIe bIood by gInnds Io InIIuence oIIer
pnrIs oI IIe body.
ypothaIanus A pnrI oI IIe brnIn vIII
endocrIne IuncIIons.
lnsuIIn A pnncrenIIc Iormone IInI Iovers
gIucose IeveIs In IIe bIood.
lsIets of Langerhans RegIons oI IIe
pnncrens IInI produce gIucngon nnd InsuIIn.
LuteInI Ing hornone (L ) A pIIuIInry
Iormone IInI IrIggers se Iormone ouIpuI.
hIneraIocortIcoIds AdrennI Iormones IInI
reguInIe bIood snII IeveIs.
NorepInephrIne A Iormone Irom IIe
ndrennI meduIIn nnd nIso n neuroIrnnsmIIIer.
varIes FemnIe se orgnns IInI produce ovn
(eggs) nnd se Iormones.
xytocIn A pIIuIInry Iormone IInI
sIImuInIes conIrncIIons durIng Inbor nnd
IrIggers IIe mIIk ejecIIon reIIe.
Pancreas An nbdomInnI orgnn IInI
produces pnncrenIIc juIce nnd Iormones.
ParathyroId gIands Four gInnds on IIe
IIyroId gInnd.
PIneaI gIand An endocrIne gInnd In IIe
brnIn IInI secreIes meInIonIn.
PItuItary gIand A IIreeIobed, pensIzed
gInnd beIov IIe IypoIInInmus. II produces
grovII Iormone, Iormones IInI ncI on
oIIer endocrIne gInnds, oyIocIn, nnd AH.
II Is oIIen cnIIed IIe body`s mnsIer gInnd.
Progesterone FemnIe se Iormone IInI
IeIps prepnre IIe uIerus Io receIve eggs.
ProIactIn A pIIuIInry Iormone IInI
sIImuInIes mIIk producIIon.
SteroIds Hormones mnde Irom sIeroI InIs.
Testes MnIe se orgnns IInI produce sperm
nnd se Iormones.
Testosterone MnIe se Iormone mnInIy
produced In IIe IesIes.
Thynus An endocrIne gInnd IocnIed beIInd
IIe sIernum. II produces IIymosIn.
ThyroId An endocrIne gInnd nI IIe IronI oI
IIe neck, producIng IIyroId Iormone.
ThyroId hornone Mnde up oI
IrIIodoIIyronIne (T
3
) nnd IIyroIne (T
4
),
IIyroId Iormone.
EN CRlNE S STEh: E R S
EndccrIne gIands and hcrmcnes
S4
GIand
Ptutary gand
Pnea gand
Thyrod gand
ornones secreted
By the anteror ptutary:
Growth hormone
Proactn
Thyrod-stmuatng
hormone
drenocortcotropc
hormone
Foce-stmuatng
hormone
Lutenzng hormone
By the posteror ptutary:
Oxytocn
ntduretc hormone
(DH)
Neatonn
Thyrod hormone,
whch s made up of
trodothyronne (T
3
) and
thyroxne (T
4
)
ChIef actIons of hornones
Promotes growth of skeeta musces
and ong bones.
Stmuates mk producton.
Stmuates thyrod gand.
Stmuates adrena cortex.
Stmuates ovaran foces.
Trggers progesterone producton and
ovuaton (femaes), stmuates
testosterone producton n maes.
Stmuates uterne contractons
n abor and produces et-down
refex to cause mk e|ecton.
Causes decrease n urne output and
ncrease n bood pressure.
Nay pay a roe n bodys durna
cyce and reguate onset of sexua
maturaton (especay n femaes).
Contros rate of metabosm needed
for norma tssue growth and
deveopment (especay of nervous
and reproductve systems).
EndocrIne systen
A Iormone Is n cIemIcnI produced In one pnrI
oI IIe body IInI Ins nn eIIecI on severnI oIIer
pnrIs. In IIIs vny, Iormones nre cIemIcnI
messengers. TIe nnme Is derIved
Irom IIe Creek Ior Io seI In moIIon. MosI
Iormones nre produced by endocrIne gInnds
buI n Iev come Irom IIssues, sucI ns IIe
sIomncI, vIose prImnry roIe Is noI ns n gInnd.
Hormones, Ior enmpIe IIyroIne, reguInIe
meInboIIsm, IIe processes IInI converI Iood
InIo energy nnd IIvIng sIrucIures. Hormones
nre nIso InvoIved In grovII nnd deveIopmenI.
For enmpIe, IIe se Iormones pIny n vIInI
roIe In conIroIIIng Iov n body mnIures. IIer
Iormones conIroI bIood composIIIon or
prepnre IIe body Ior perIods oI sIress.
GIand
Parathyrod gand
Thymus
Pancreas
drena
(suprarena)
gands
Testes
Ovares
S5
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
ornones secreted
Parathyrod hormone
Thymosn
lnsun
Gucagon
By the adrena medua:
Epnephrne
(adrenane) and
norepnephrne
(nonadrenane)
By the adrena cortex:
Nneraocortcods
Gucocortcods
Gonadocortcods
(mosty mae sex
hormones produced
by both sexes)
Testosterone
Estrogens
Progesterone
ChIef actIons of hornones
Peguates cacum eves n bood
Contros maturaton of
T-ymphocytes (whte bood ces).
lncreases uptake of gucose
from bood nto ces.
lncreases breakdown of gycogen
stored n ver.
Prepares for short-term stress,
the autonomc fght or fght
response.
Peguates bood sats.
Heps contro ong-term stressors.
Thought to contrbute to onset
of puberty, femae sex drve.
Stmuates deveopment of mae
reproductve system and secondary
sexua characterstcs and promotes
sperm producton.
Naturaton of femae reproductve
system and deveopment of
secondary sexua characterstcs n
femaes, acts wth progesterone to
produce menstrua cyce.
cts on uterus n pregnancy and acts
wth estrogens to produce menstrua
cyce.
Hcw hcrmcnes wcrk
S6
hat are hornones?
Hormones are produced n mnute
amounts by the endocrne gands
and by some ces n nonendocrne
organs. They are chemca
messengers substances that
coordnate the actvty of ces and
organs by actvatng enzymes.
Peeased nto the bood,
hormones crcuate around the
body but affect ony those ces
and organs (caed target ces
and organs) that are receptve
to them.
These target ces and organs
have receptor stes that match
a partcuar hormone. When a
ste s matched wth an
approprate hormone, the
receptor s actvated and the ce
s swtched on.
Types of hornones
There are two man types of
hormones that crcuate through
the body.
Poypeptdes, whch make up
most of the bodys hormones,
are derved from amno acds.
Sterods, produced by the testes,
ovares, and adrena cortex, are
derved from choestero.
nother type s the prostagandn.
Sometmes caed tssue
hormones, these are not cassed
as hormones but have hormone-
ke effects. They do not crcuate
throughout the body but affect
ony ces wthn the tssue
producng the prostagandns.
NegatIve feedback
The eve of hormones n the bood s
controed by the negatve feedback
mechansm. Ths mantans
equbrum: f the eve of a hormone
n the bood fas, more s secreted, f
the eve of a hormone rses, ess s
secreted. Some dseases and dsorders,
such as tumors, can resut n
hypersecreton (the secreton of too
much hormone) or hyposecreton
(secreton of too tte hormone).
ornones at work
Peceptor ste
Hormones
Peceptor ste
Ces swtched on
Peceptor ste
ST
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
ow hornones are trIggered
Hormone secreton s trggered by
hormona, humora, and neura stmu.
ornonaI stInuIus
Endocrne organs are stmuated to
reease hormones by other hormones.
For exampe, the hypothaamus
produces hormones that stmuate the
anteror (front) obe of the ptutary
gand. Ths n turn secretes ts own
hormones that stmuate other
endocrne gands, ncudng the thyrod
gand, the adrena cortex, and, n men,
the testes. When hormones secreted by
these endocrne gands reach a certan
eve n the bood, negatve feedback
nhbts the further reease of anteror
ptutary hormones.
unoraI stInuII
The presence n the bood of substances
other than hormones can stmuate the
reease of hormones. For exampe, when
the eve of cacum (naturay present n
the bood) begns to fa, ths stmuates
the parathyrod gands to reease
parathyrod hormone. Parathyrod
hormone acts n such a way as to
ncrease the cacum eve, whch then
ends the stmuus to produce
parathyrod hormone.
NeuraI stInuII
Sometmes the nervous system
stmuates the reease of hormones.
For exampe, durng perods of stress,
nerves stmuate the adrena medua to
secrete the hormones norepnephrne
and epnephrne.
The stInuII that trIgger hornones
Thyrod gand drena cortex Testes
Parathyrod
gands
drena medua
Spna cord
Nerve
Bood
vesse
Hypothaamus
Ptutary gand
Parathyrod
gands
Bood vesse
Th rcId and parath rcId gIands
SS
SectIon of thyroId
Thyroxne s produced
by foces. These are
rngs of ces (cuboda
eptheum) that secrete
the hormone formng a
centra cood space.
Cacton s secreted
by custers of para-
focuar C-ces whch
are postoned among
the foces. Sma
bood vesses runnng
through the gand
coect the hormones
and take them to the
rest of the body.
The thyroId
The thyrod gand s
postoned around the
trachea (wndppe) and
esophagus n the neck.
lt s supped wth fresh
bood by two arteres
and ts secreted
hormones are carred
away by vens
connected to the
|uguar ven.
hIcroscopIc sectIon through thyroId gIand
AnterIor vIew of thyroId gIand
lnferor thyrod artery
Trachea
Parafocuar C-ces
Foces
Cood
Bood vesse
and oose
connectve tssue
Thyrod
cartage
lsthmus
Left obe
Thyrod gand
Carotd artery
Superor thyrod artery
Vens eadng to
|uguar ven
Common carotd artery
Subcavan
artery
Pght obe
S0
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
hyroid
Thyroxne,
trodothyronne
Cactonn
ParathyroIds
Parathyrod
hormone (PTH) or
parathormone
Target tIssues
Nost body ces
Bone
Bones, kdneys,
dgestve tract
Effects
Contros the rate at
whch the body uses
stored energy.
lnhbts the breakdown
of bone and decreases
the amount of cacum
n the bood.
lncreases the amount of
cacum n the bood.
Decreases the amount of
phosphate n the bood.
Stmuates the breakdown
of bone.
ThyroId and parathyroId
ParathyroId gIands
The four parathyrod
gands are ocated on the
back of the thyrod gand.
The gands work together
to produce parathyrod
hormone (PTH).
GIands and hornones
PosterIor vIew of thyroId and parathyroId gIand
ParathyroId hornone
Parathyrod hormone
reguates the amount of
cacum and phosphate n
the bood.
These substances are
used n bones and hep
musces and nerves work.
lnferor
thyrod artery
Pght obe
Parathyrod gands
Left obe
Parathyrod gands
Esophagus
Th mus and pIneaI gIands
00
The thynus In a chIId
The thymus s an organ
n the chest used to
deveop a persons
mmune system. The
thymus fs a arge part
of a newborns chest and
produces ymphocytes
(whte bood ces).
The organ produces
thymosn, a hormone
assocated wth
ymphocyte producton.
The thymus grows for
about 12 years and then
begns to shrnk.
AnterIor vIew of thynus In newborn chIId
AnterIor vIew of thynus
In an aduIt
Sternum
(breast bone)
Sternum
(breast bone)
Thymus
Pght obe
Pght
obe
The thynus In an aduIt
fter the age of 12, the thymus begns
to shrnk as the ymph nodes and speen
take over ts roe n the mmune system.
The thymus of oder aduts may be hard
to ocate among the fatty tssue around
the breast bone.
Left obe
Left obe
Thymus
01
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
hy us
Thymosn
PIneaI gIand
Neatonn
Target tIssues
lmmune system
tssues
Hypothaamus
Thynus and pIneaI gIand
GIands and hornones
The braIn
The bran produces hormones tsef, and
s assocated wth two gands, the pnea
and ptutary. The hypothaamus
produces hormones that contro these
gands. The ptutarys hormones are
nvoved n fertty and growth. The
pnea gand produces meatonn, whch
reguates the bodys rhythms.
Cross sectIon through the braIn
Effects
ssocated wth
the producton of
T-ymphocytes
Nay nhbt a hormone
affectng the ovares
Nay reguate actvtes
such as seep
Hypothaamus
Nedua obongata
Cerebeum
Thaamus
Pnea gand
Ptutary gand
Pons
AdrenaI gIands
02
AdrenaI gIands
The body has two adrena gands. Each
one s pyramd-shaped and ocated on
the top of a kdney. The gands are aso
caed suprarena (above the kdney)
gands. The adrena gands produce
epnephrne and norepnephrne, the
hormones assocated wth the
autonomc nervous system. Other parts
of the gands produce sex hormones
and other reguatory hormones.
Transverse sectIon hIcroscopIc sectIon
Zona fasccuata
Nedua
Left kdney
orta
drena gands
Pght kdney
lnferor vena cava
Pena ven
Capsue
Cortex
lnternaI structure
There are two sectons n an adrena
gand: the outer cortex and nner
medua. The medua s controed by
nerves and makes stress hormones.
The cortex s more compex, beng
made of severa ayers. Each ayer
produces hormones that reguate bood
chemstry and sexua deveopment.
Capsue
Zona gomeruosa
Nedua
ReIatIve posItIon and
bIood suppIy
03
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
drenal corte
Nneraocortcods
(adosterone)
Gucocortcods
(cortso)
ndrogens and
estrogens
AdrenaI neduIIa
Epnephrne
(adrenane)
norepnephrne
(noradrenane)
Target tIssues
dney
Nost body
tssues
Nost body
tssues
Heart, bood
vesses, ver,
adpose tssue,
and severa
others
Effects
Peguate the eve of
mneras (sodum and
potassum) n the bood.
lncrease water retenton.
lncrease the eve of
gucose (sugar) n the
bood.
lnhbt nfammaton.
lnhbt the mmune
response.
Effect s usuay masked
by hormones from the
ovares and testes.
lncrease heart rate and
bood pressure.
lncrease bood fow to
skeeta musces
(epnephrne ony).
lncrease the eve of
gucose n the bood.
AdrenaI gIands
GIands and hornones
Two gIands In one
TIe ndrennI gInnds couId be IIougII oI ns Ivo
sepnrnIe gInnds due Io IIe dIsIIncI dIvIsIon
beIveen IIe corIe nnd meduIIn.
TIe meduIIn Is InnervnIed by mnny neurons
Irom IIe sympnIIeIIc nervous sysIem. VIII
IIs roIe In prepnrIng IIe body Ior sIress, IIe
ndrennI meduIIn cnn be vIeved ns nn
eIensIon oI IIe nuIonomIc nervous sysIem.
TIe ndrennI corIees, Iovever, mnke n rnnge
oI sIeroIdnI Iormones. TIese pIny n vIInI roIe
In reguInIIng IIe body. TIere nre Ivo Iypes oI
ndrennI sIeroIds. TIe mInernIocorIIcoIds, sucI
ns nIdosIerone, conIroI IIe nmounI oI vnIer,
sodIum, nnd poInssIum In IIe body. CIuco
corIIcoIds, sucI ns corIIsoI, nre InvoIved In IIe
meInboIIsm oI gIucose nnd oIIer subsInnces.
TIe ndrennI corIe nIso produces se
Iormones, mnInIy mnIe ones In boII sees.
Hovever, IIe se Iormones Irom IIe gonnds
drovn ouI IIe eIIecIs oI IIe ndrennI ones.
Pancreas as a hcrmcnaI gIand
04
The pancreas
Ths s an organ postoned under the
stomach. The pancreas has an endocrne
roe, but t s aso an exocrne gand (one
wth a duct). ln ts endocrne functon,
the pancreas produces nsun and
gucagon, two hormones that contro
the amount of sugar n the bood. These
IgestIve organ
The pancreas s a thn organ ocated
nsde a oop n the duodenum.
Dgestve |uces contan sats that
neutraze stomach acds.
lsIets of Langerhans
These contan two types of ce. Each
type produces one of the pancreatc
hormones, nsun or gucagon.
Damaged sets can cause dabetes.
hormones are produced
by structures caed the lsets of
Langerhans. The pancreas aso secretes
dgestve |uces nto the duodenum
(sma ntestne). These |uces, whch are
mxed wth be, are a mxture of
enzymes used to dgest food.
AnterIor vIew and schenatI ed sectIon
Body
Speen
Pancreatc
duct
Ces secretng
dgestve |uces
Common be duct
Duodenum
Head
Ta
lsets of Langerhans
05
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Pancreas
Gucagon
lnsun
Target tIssues
Lver
Lver, skeeta
musces, adpose
Effects
lncreases the eve of
gucose n the bood
Decreases the eve of
gucose n the bood
Promotes the storage
of gucose
Decreases the eve of
potassum n the bood
Pancreas
GIands and hornones
hIcroscopIc sectIon
The sets of Langerhans are areas of
secretory ces found throughout the
pancreas. The sets are surrounded by
ces that secrete dgestve |uces. lnsde
the sets, B-ces secrete nsun.
Gucagon s secreted by -ces. The
dgestve |uces dran nto a centra duct
that connects to the duodenum. The
hormones, however, are coected by
capares runnng through the sets.
hIcroscopIc sectIon through the pancreas
Ces secretng
dgestve |uces
B-ces secretng nsun
-ces secretng gucagon
Capares
NegatIve eedback and hcrmcnes
06
hen bIood sugar IeveIs are hIgh
1 fter eatng, the bood has a hgh eve
of carbohydrates.
2 Carbohydrates are converted nto
gucose, ncreasng bood sugar eves.
3The hgh gucose eve stmuates beta
ces n the pancreas to secrete nsun.
4 lnsun ncreases the uptake of gucose
by the ver, adpose tssue, and musce.
5The bood sugar eve fas unt a
norma bood sugar eve s reached.
hen bIood sugar IeveIs are Iow
6 s a resut of skppng a mea, the
bood has a ow eve of carbohydrates.
The bood sugar eve fas.
The ow gucose eve stmuates the
apha ces n the pancreas to secrete
gucagon.
Gucagon resuts n the manufacture
and reease of gucose nto the bood.
1 The bood sugar eve rses unt a
norma bood sugar eve s reached.
NegatIve feedback: effects of gIucagon and InsuIIn
TIe ncIIvIIy oI gIucngon nnd InsuIIn provIdes nn enmpIe oI Iov negnIIve Ieedbnck
mnInInIns nn equIIIbrIum (bnInnce) oI Iormones In IIe body.
1
2 3
4
5, 1
ey:
gucose
carbohydrate
nsun
gucagon
6
0T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
rgan
Stonach
uodenun of
snaII IntestIne
Idney
eart
ornone
Gastrn
lntestna gastrn
Secretn
Choecystoknn
Erythropoetn
ctve vtamn D
3
tra natruretc
factor
Target tIssue
Stomach
Stomach
Pancreas
Lver
Stomach
Pancreas
Gabadder
Sphncter of Odd
Bone marrow
lntestne
dney
drena cortex
Effect
Stmuates gands
to produce
hydrochorc acd.
Stmuates the secreton
of acd and peptn by
the stomach.
Stmuates the reease
of pancreatc |uces.
lncreases the reease
of be.
lnhbts secretory
actvty.
Stmuates the reease
of |uces.
Stmuates the reease
of be.
Stmuates sphncter
to reax.
Stmuates the
producton of red
bood ces.
Stmuates the transport
of cacum.
lnhbts the reabsorpton
of sodum and reease
of renn.
lnhbts the secreton of
adosterone.
ornones produced by non endocrIne gIands
Sex gIands and hcrmcnes
0S
The testes are the prmary mae
reproductve organs, ocated wthn
the testces.
FunctIons
The testes are responsbe for producng
semen and sperm, but they aso have
specazed ces wth an endocrne
functon. These secrete mae sex
hormones caed androgens, the
prncpa androgen beng testosterone.
Testosterone s responsbe for:
the growth and deveopment of mae
reproductve organs and mantenance
of ther adut sze,
haIe sex gIands
The sex gands (sometmes caed
gonads) are the ovares n women and
the testes n men. The two testes are
The naIe reproductIve tract
outsde the body nsde the scrotum.
Ther man functon s to produce sperm,
whch s reeased though the pens.
the growth and dstrbuton of
body har,
the enargement of the arynx (and
voce changes),
ncreased skeeta and muscuar
growth,
the mae sexua drve.
ow testosterone Is trIggered
Testosterone s secreted n response
to hormones reeased by the
hypothaamus and anteror obe of
the ptutary gand. The eve of
testosterone s reguated by a negatve
feedback process.
Prostate gand
Urethra
Pens
Vas deferens
Badder
Scrotum
Tests
00
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
The fenaIe reproductIve tract
FenaIe sex gIands
The ovares are the prmary femae
reproductve organs, ocated n the ower
abdomen on ether sde of the uterus. They
produce the ova (eggs) for reproducton,
but each aso produces structures the
ovaran foces and
the corpus uteum whch have an
endocrne functon assocated wth
reproducton.
FunctIons
The ovaran foces secrete the hormone
estrogen, whch at the begnnng of
puberty promotes:
maturaton of the femae reproductve
organs, such as the uterus and vagna,
deveopment of breasts,
growth and dstrbuton of body har,
dstrbuton of fat n the hps, egs,
and breasts.
The corpus uteum secretes some
estrogen but mosty progesterone
whch causes the nng of the uterus to
thcken n preparaton for pregnancy.
Both estrogen and progesterone are
responsbe for changes that occur
durng the menstrua cyce.
ow estrogen and progesterone are
trIggered
Lke testosterone, estrogen and
progesterone are secreted n response
to hormones reeased by the
hypothaamus and ptutary gand. The
eves of estrogen and progesterone are
reguated by negatve feedback.
The ovares are controed by the anteror
ptutary gand. Under the nfuence of
estrogen produced by an ovaran foce,
the ptutary produces foce-stmuatng
hormone (FSH) and utenzng hormone
(LH). These hormones cause the foce
PItuItary controI over ovuIatory cycIe
to rpen and reease an ovum durng
ovuaton. The remans of the foce
forms a corpus uteum, whch produces
progesterone. lf the ovum s not
fertzed the progesterone eve drops
and menstruaton begns.
Vagna
Ovary
Faopan tube
Cervx
Uterus
EndccrIne dIscrders and stress
100
The chenIstry of stress
TIe orgnns prImnrIIy InvoIved In IIe body`s
rencIIon Io sIress nre:
TIe brnIn (a) vIIcI perceIves n IIrenI.
TIe IypoIInInmus (b) vIIcI secreIes n
reIensIng Iormone IeIIIng IIe pIIuIInry gInnd
(c) Io secreIe ndrenocorIIcoIropIIn (ACTH)
InIo IIe bIood.
ACTH rencIes IIe ndrennI gInnds (d).
TIe ndrennI corIe produces corIIcoIds,
Iormones IInI IeIp IIe body cope vIII
sIress. TIe meduIIn, or cenIer, oI IIe gInnd
reIenses epInepIrIne (nIso cnIIed ndrennIIne),
vIIcI Increnses IIe IenrI rnIe nnd InIensIIIes
oIIer ncIIvIIIes InkIng pInce In IIe body.
Hormone IeveIs In IIe bIood nre monIIored
by IIe IypoIInInmus nnd IIe pIIuIInry
gInnd.
ow stress affects the body
ln stressfu stuatons the hormones
epnephrne and norepnephrne act on
many parts of the body wth dramatc
resuts. mong the changes that take
pace are the foowng.
1 Har may stand on end.
2The pups of the eyes date.
3The output of sava fas.
4The skn turns pae as bood vesses
suppyng t contract.
5The body sweats, ready to coo tsef f
there s great actvty.
6The chest expands and breathng
becomes faster and deeper n order to
dever more oxygen to musces.
The heart beats faster and harder, and
bood pressure rses.
Gucose s reeased from the ver to
provde food for musces.
The bood suppy to the dgestve
system s dverted and dgeston sows.
1 The badder and rectum may empty.
11 Nusces tense, ready for acton.
12 lf the skn s broken, bood coaguates
more qucky.
Ptutary
drena gands
Hypothaamus a
b
d
c
11
10 12
8
3
4
7
5
1
2
101
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
AddIson s dIsease Cnused by
undersecreIIon oI ndrennI sIeroId Iormones.
ResuIIs In venkness, nnusen, Iov cIrcuInIIon,
nnd bronzIng oI IIe skIn.
Adenona A Iumor oI nn endocrIne gInnd.
AdrenogenItaI syndrone versecreIIon oI
ndrennI se Iormones, resuIIIng In InIense
mnscuIInIzIng oI IIe body.
AIdosteronIsn verproducIIon oI IIe
ndrennI Iormone nIdosIerone, resuIIIng In
n decrense In IIe body`s poInssIum sIore.
CretInIsn vnrIIsm nnd menInI reInrdnIIon
cnused by Ioo IIIIIe IIyroIne In cIIIdIood.
CushIng s syndrone Cnused by
oversecreIIon oI gIucocorIIcoId Iormones
Irom IIe ndrennI gInnds. ResuIIs In n
redIsIrIbuIIon oI body InI nnd oIIer eIIecIs.
Iabetes InsIpIdus FIIecI oI
underproducIIon oI IIe Iormone AH.
Iabetes neIIItus CondIIIon cInrncIerIzed
by IrequenI IIIrsI nnd urInnIIon nnd due Io
ecess nmounIs oI sugnr In IIe bIood.
ResuIIs Irom n Inck oI InsuIIn, vIIcI
conIroIs bIood sugnr.
GIgantIsn versecreIIon oI grovII
Iormone In cIIIdIood, resuIIIng In InIIer
IInnnvernge sInIure. II IIe oversecreIIon
occurs In nduIIIood, IIe condIIIon Is
ncromegnIy, resuIIIng In n IIIckenIng oI
IncInI bones nnd IIngers.
GIucagon defIcIency A bIoodsugnr dIsorder
cnused by n Inck oI gIucngon produced by
IIe pnncrens.
GoIter An nbnormnI grovII oI IIyroId
IIssue due Io Inck oI IodIne.
GyneconastIa FcessIve grovII oI IIe mnIe
mnmmnry gInnd (brensI) cnused by
oversecreIIon oI IemInIzIng Iormones.
ypersecretIon verproducIIon (oI n
Iormone). InderproducIIon Is cnIIed
IyposecreIIon.
yperthyroIdIsn versecreIIon oI IIe
IIyroIne by IIe IIyroId, resuIIIng In
Incrensed meInboIIc nnd IenrI rnIes,
cIrcuInIIon, nnd bIood pressure.
ypogIycenIa Lov bIood sugnr, vIIcI cnn
cnuse nnIeIy, Iremors, venkness, nnd even
unconscIousness nnd denII.
ypothyroIdIsn IndersecreIIon oI
IIyroIne, resuIIIng In n very Iov meInboIIc
rnIe nnd sIuggIsI ncIIvIIy, someIImes
nccompnnIed by obesIIy.
hyxedena AccumuInIIon oI vnIer In skIn
resuIIIng Irom IIyroId Iormone deIIcIency
In nduIIs.
PItuItary dwarfIsn IndersecreIIon oI
grovII Iormone Irom IIe pIIuIInry gInnd In
cIIIdIood, resuIIIng In smnIIerIInn
nvernge sInIure.
SeasonaI affectIve dIsorder (SA )
CondIIIon resuIIIng Irom cInnges In IIe
body`s IeveI oI IIe Iormone meInIonIn. TIe
IeveI vnrIes sensonnIIy: II Is IIgIer In vInIer
nnd Iover In summer, vIen Incrensed
dnyIIgII InIIbIIs IIs producIIon. SympIoms
IncIude IIredness nnd depressIon.
SInnond s dIsease IndersecreIIon oI
pIIuIInry Iormones durIng nduIIIood,
resuIIIng In sympIoms oI deIIcIency oI
IIyroId, ndrennI, nnd se Iormones.
Tetany MuscIe IvIIcIes, spnsms, nnd
convuIsIons resuIIIng Irom n Inck oI cnIcIum
In IIe bIood. II mny be cnused by n
dysIuncIIon In IIe pnrnIIyroId gInnds
(IypopnrnIIyroIdIsm), or by nn InIecIIon.
ThyrotoxIcosIs verncIIvIIy oI IIe IIyroId
gInnd, oIIen due Io nn nuIoImmune dIsense
oI IIe IIyroId.
Isorders of the endocrIne systen
102
AdIpose tIssue C

AdrenaI gIands
S E

T

Afferent D

AIInentary canaI
G G
T

Anus T

Aorta T

AppendIx
A

l

ArterIoIe A

Artery A

A
T

T

AudItory R
AxIIIary R
Backbone ertebraI
coIunn
BasaI gangIIa P

BasophII A

BIceps A

BIIe ducts T

BIadder A

BIood A

E
L
BIood pressure T

Bone T

Bone narrow S

BraIn T

BraInstenA

l

Breast A

Breastbone Sternun
BronchIoIe A

Bronchus T

CapIIIary T

CardIac R
CardIovascuIar R

CartIIage G
Cecun T

CeII T

103
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
CNS T
CerebeIIun T
l
CerebraI cortex T



CerebrunT

CervIx A

CIavIcIe E
CIItorIs A

CNS CentraI nervous
systen
Coccyx F

CoIIagen A

CoIon T

ConnectIve tIssue T

CorIun ernIs
Cornea T

Coronary arterIes S
CorpuscIes A

Cortex T
CranIaI nerves T

CranIunT

Cutaneous R
CutIcIe EpIdernIs
DNA A

ernIs C T

Iaphragn A
l

IgestIon T

NA eoxyrIbonucIeIc
acId
uodenun T

E|acuIatIon T

EndocardIun T

EndotheIIun T

En ynes B

EpIdernIs C T
EpIgIottIs A

EpItheIIun T

Erythrocytes R
Esophagus G T

104
FaIIopIan tubes U
O T

Fenur T

FoIIIcIe A
O

ForebraIn T
GaIIbIadder A

Ganetes S

GastrIc O
AIInentary canaI
Genes B

DNA
GenItaIIa S
GIand A

Gonads P

GranuIocytes

Gray natter T

GuIIet Esophagus
eart T

enogIobIn T

epatIc R
epatIc portaI veIn
PortaI veIn
IndbraIn B

ornones C

ypophysIs PItuItary
gIand
ypothaIanus A

lIeun T
lnnune systen T

l

Snooth
nuscIe
1e|ununT
1oInt T
aryotype T

Idney A

LactatIon M
Large IntestIne B
T

Larynx T
Leukocytes
T

LIganent F
LIver T

Lungs T

Lynph A

Lynph gIand Lynph
node
Lynph node L
O

LynphatIc systen A

hannary gIands T

heduIIa obIongata T

heIosIs A

henInges T

henopause

henstruatIon M

hetaboIIsn T

hItosIs O

hucous nenbranes T

NasaI R
NasaI cavIty T

Nerve A

Nervous systenT

l

Neuron N A

Neurone Neuron
NeurotransnItter A

NucIeIc acIds M

NucIeus T

Ifactory R
ptIc R
rgan A

rganeIIes T

varIes F

vIducts FaIIopIan
tubes
vuIatIon T

vunA
PaIate T
Pancreas A

systen T


T

PeIvIs A

PerIcardIun T

PerIstaIsIs

105
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
106
Rectun T

RefIex actIon T

RenaI R
RespIratIon B
T
D



RIbs T

SaIIvary gIands T
SerunB

SInus A

SkeIeton T

SkIn T

SnaII IntestIne T

M
Snooth nuscIe
U
l M

SphIncter A

SpInaI cord T

SpIne ertebraI
coIunn
Sternun T

SuprarenaI gIands
AdrenaI gIands
Suture A

Taste buds T

Phagocytes T

Pharynx T
PIneaI gIand E
A
PItuItary gIand
H A

l

ADH
l
PIasna T
PIeura T

PIexus A

PortaI veIn H
D

Prostate gIand A

l

Pudendun uIva
PuInonary R
Receptor A

Teeth B
D

Tendons B
TestIs T O

ThaIanus A
l

Thynus A
l
ThyroId A

TIssue A

Trachea T

TubuIe A
TunIca A
B

UnstrIated nuscIe
Snooth nuscIe
Ureter T

Urethra T

UrInary systenT

UrIne L
tubes
Uterus A

l

UvuIa A
l

agIna T

ascuIar R

eIn A

enous R
entrIcIe A

enuIe A
ernIforn appendIx
AppendIx
ertebra A
ertebraI coIunn
B S T

l

estIbuIe A

ocaI cords T

uIva P T
hIte natter T

IndpIpe Trachea
onb Uterus
10T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
eb sItes tc vIsIt
10S
Gray s Anatony
, contanng
htt bartleby co
BIoIogy nIIne
boogy Web ste nks.
Bl hE
scences.
htt bio e ac u
researchers.
unan Anatony nIIne
htt innerbodyco
and nutrton.
pen Irectory Pro|ect: NeuroIogy
edical ecialties Neurology
The BIoIogy Pro|ect
UnIversIty of Nebraska: BraIns RuIe
lnformaton, nteractve games, and esson
pans on the human bran, ncudes sk
the Bran Expert and Neet a
Neuroscentst features.
htt brainsrule co
partcuary usefu.
Facts On Fe, lnc.
lndex
100
acetychone 13, 22, 80
adrena gands 28, 85,
2- 3
dsorders 101
hormones 82, 83, 87
stress 48, 100
sympathetc nervous
system 7
adrenocortcotrophc
hormone (CTH) 28, 48,
100
anesthesa 75
antduretc hormone (DH)
28, 84, 101
arachnod ayer 10, 11, 55,
72
spna cord 5 , 73
autonomc nervous system
(NS) 7, 8, , 10, 11,
7 -81
adrena gands 2, 3
deveopment 35
perphera nervous
system
smokng 52
spna cord 5
axons (nerve fbers) , 11,
13, 14, 1
memory 45
motor neurons 22, 23
neura crcuts 15
sensory neurons 20
synapses 18
baance 7, 42, 2
bran (CNS) , 10, 11, 32-55
autonomc nervous
system 7
centra nervous system
, 8,
cerebrospna fud 40
deveopment 34-35
dsorders 30, 54-55
endocrne gands 2 , 27
functons 42-43
hormone producton 1
memory 44
parasympathetc
nervous system 80
protecton 72
sensory neurons 20, 21
seep 4
stress 48, 100
stroke 31
structure 33, 3 -41
whte matter 13
branstem 10, 33, 37, 41,
42, 43
breathng,
autonomc nervous
system 7
bran 33
hndbran
medua obongata 43
seep 4 , 47
stress 48, 100
vagus nerve 2
C
(CNS) , 8, , 10, 11, 32,
5
deveopment 34
motor unts 23
neurons 15, 1
refex arcs 24
cerebeum , 10, 33, 3 , 41
baance 42
deveopment 34-35
functon 43
movement contro 42
nerve pathways
cerebra cortex 11, 48,
cerebra hemorrhage 31,
54, 55
cerebrospna fud 40, 55,
72
spna cord 5 , 73
cerebrum and cerebra
hemspheres 10, 32,
33
deveopment 34-35
functon 42, 43
movement contro 42
optca cortex 7
structure 3 -3
ventrces 40
conscousness , 10, 11,
43
seep 4
corpus caosum 33, 37,
38, 3
cortex 10, 3 , 38, 3
functons 42
optca 7
cortcosterods 83
crana nerves 10, 2- 3
deveopment 34
parasympathetc system
80
perphera nervous
system -7
sensory nnervaton 8
D
dendrtes , 10, 12, 13, 14,
15, 1
memory 45
motor neurons 22
sensory neurons 20
synapses 18
dermatomes 10, 21, 0,
1
lndex
110
dabetes 4, 101
dencephaon , 10, 11,
33, 38
deveopment 34
functon 43
dgeston and dgestve
organs,
autonomc nervous
system 7, 8, 7 , 77
hormones
parasympathetc
nervous system 81
stress 100
sympathetc nervous
system 7
vagus nerve 2
dura mater 11, 55, 5 , 72,
73, 75
spna cord 5 , 73
ears , 7, 10
baance 42
crana nerves 7, 2
emotons 11, 32, 37, 38,
3
cerebrum 10, 43
stress 48
endocrne system 7,
2 -2
gands 82, 83, 84, 8 ,
87
dsorders 101
epnephrne 11, 83, 85, 87,
2, 100
estrogens 2 , 83, 85,
eyes , 7, 10, 33
baance 42
deveopment 35
optc nerve 2
sensory neurons 20
seep 4
foce-stmuatng
hormone (FSH) 28, 83, 84,
ganga 14, 1 , 0, 78, 7
gray matter 10, 32, 38
spna cord 58, 5 , 73
growth hormone 2 , 27,
28, 82, 83, 84, 101
headache 30, 4 , 53
hearng 33, 43
heart and heartbeat 10
autonomc nervous
system 8, , 7
bran 33
medua obongata 43
parasympathetc
nervous system 80, 81
seep 4 , 47
stress 48, 100
sympathetc nervous
system 7
vagus nerve 7, 2
heat receptors , 25
hormones and hormona
system 7, 8 -101
bran 10, 1
dsorders 101
endocrne gands 88- 5
endocrne system 2 ,
27, 28, 82-85
negatve feedback
non-endocrne gands
7
sex gands 8-
stress 48, 100
sympathetc nervous
system 11
hypothaamus 10, 11, 38,
83
bran 33
endocrne gands 2 , 27,
28, 2
functon 43
hormones 82, 87, 1
nerve pathways
sex hormones 8,
stress 100
nsun 2 , 83, 85, 4, 5,
ntegence 32, 33, 43, 54
sets of Langerhans 83, 4,
5
L
earnng 10, 45
mbc system 7, 37, 3 , 43
utenzng hormone (LH)
28, 83, 84,
medua obongata , 10,
33, 37, 41, 43, 80
meatonn 83, 84, 1, 101
memory 10, 33, 3 , 44-45
zhemers dsease 30
amnesa 54
cerebrum 43
mennges 10, 11
cerebrospna fud 40
menngts 30, 40, 54, 55
spna cord 58, 5
menstrua cyce 85,
menta ness 48-4
mnd 10, 11, 32, 33
memory 44
stress 48
moods 32, 3 , 53
111
motor cortex 3 , 42
motor end pate 12, 13, 14,
22, 23, 25
motor (efferent) nerves ,
, 10, 11, 15, 22-23
motor unts 23
refex arcs 24, 25
spna cord 5
spna nerves 70, 71
mutpe sceross (NS) 74
myen 11, 12, 13, 1 , 5
N
nerve pathways 20, 24,
nerves and nerve ces
(neurons) , 11, 12, 14-15,
1
autonomc nervous
system 7
bran 32, 35
dermatomes 21
dsorders 30, 54-55
gray matter 10
memory 44, 45
motor 22-23
nerve mpuse 13, 1 , 17
neura crcuts 15
refex arcs 24-25
sensory 20-21
synapses 18-1
neuroga ces 12, 13, 35
neurotransmtters 13, 18,
1 , 22
nodes of Panver 13, 1
norepnephrne
(noradrenane) 13, 7 , 83,
85, 87, 2
ofactory system 7, 3 , 2,
3
optc nerve 7, 3 , 2, 3
ovares 28, 82, 83, 85, 8,
oxytocn 28, 83
P
pan , 21, 25
pancreas 2 , 82, 83, 85,
4- 5,
parayss 54, 74
parasympathetc nervous
system 7, , 10, 11, 7 ,
80-81
parathyrod gands 82, 83,
87, 8 , 101
perphera nervous system
(PNS) , 8, , 10, 11, 14
autonomc nervous
system 7
ganga 14
neurons 15
spna cord 5
pa mater 11, 55, 5 , 72, 73
pnea gand 27, 82, 83, 84
1
ptutary gand 10, 82, 83,
84, 1
endocrne system 2 -2
hormona stmu 87
sex hormones 8,
stress 48, 100
pons , 10, 11, 3 , 42, 43
baance 42
pressure receptors , 7
progesterone 83, 85,
proactn 28
proproreceptors
prostagandn 8
receptors , 7, 13
afferent system
dermatomes 0
hand 4
nerve pathways
neura crcuts 15
refex arcs 24
sensory neurons
20-21
spna cord 5
refex actons , 11, 15,
24-25, 5 ,
respraton 10
sava and savary gands
77, 7 , 100
Schwann ces 12, 13, 1
scatc nerve , 70, 74
senses , 7, 43, 44, 48
sensory cortex 42
sensory (afferent) nerves
11, 5 , , 8-
nerve endngs 13
neurons , , 11, 20, 21,
24, 25
spna nerves 70, 71
sensory organs 20
sex hormones 2 , 28, 83,
84, 85, 3
adrenas 2
ptutary gand 2
sex organs 8-
sght 33, 43
skn , 7, 72
autonomc nervous
system 7
dermatomes 10
hormones 2
nerves 8,
parasympathetc
nervous system 81
refex arcs 25
sensory suppy 20, 21,
70, 71
lndex
112
stress 48, 100
sympathetc nervous
system 7
sku (cranum) , 7, 2 , 32,
72
seep 30, 4 -47, 81
sme 3 , 2, 3
somatc nervous system
(SNS) 8, , 11, 5
sound , 7, 2
speech 33, 3 , 43
spna bfda 30
spna cord 11, 32, 5 -75
, 8, , 10
cerebrospna fud 40
deveopment 34
epdura anesthesa 75
medua obongata 37
nerve pathways
neura crcuts 15
parasympathetc
nervous system 80
refex arcs 24, 25
sensory neurons 20, 21
spna nerves 7
structure 58-5 , 73
sympathetc nervous
system 78
whte matter 13
spna nerves 7, 11, 21, 57,
0, 5, 7
bracha pexus 10
dermatomes 21, 0
deveopment 34
epdura anesthesa 75
neura crcuts 15
perphera nervous
system
sensory nnervaton 8
spna cord 5 , 57, 58,
5 , 73
sterods 83, 8 , 3
stress , 48-51
stroke 30, 31, 55
subarachnod space 72, 73
sweat and sweat gands 7,
7 , 77, 7 , 100
sympathetc nervous
system 7, , 10, 11, 78-7
adrena gands 2, 3
autonomc nervous
system 7
synapses , 13, 15, 1 ,
18-1
memory 45
refexes 24, 25
sensory neurons 20
taste , 7, 2, 3
testes 28, 82, 83, 85, 87, 8
testosterone 2 , 83, 85, 8
thaamus 10, 11, 33, 38, 3
deveopment 34
functon 43
movement contro 42
nerve pathways
thnkng , 3 , 43
thymus gand 82, 83, 85,
0, 1
thyrod gand 28, 83, 84,
88, 8 , 101
endocrne system 2
hormona stmu 87
hormones 82, 83
tba nerve , 7, 8
tongue , 7, 2, 3
touch , 7, 21, 0,
vagus nerve 7, 2, 3, 80
ventrces 40, 41, 72
vertebrae 5 , 57, 58, 73,
75
vertebra coumn (spne) ,
11, 5 , 57, 58
vestbuar system 7
vsua cortex 42
vountary contro 8, , 10,
15, 43
water eve 28
whte matter 11, 13
bran 32, 38, 3
spna cord 58, 5 , 73
THEFACTS ON FlLE
THE HUMANBODY
HEART AND
ClRC ATOR
S STEN
THE DlAGRAM GROUP
eart and CIrcuIatory Systen
Edtora: Lone Bender, Davd Hardng, Dens ennedy,
Gordon Lee, Jame Stokes, Barbara Tayor
Facts On Fe, lnc.
New ork N 10001
The Facts On Fe ustrated gude to the human body. Heart and
crcuatory system / the Dagram Group.
p. cm.
lncudes ndex.
lSBN 0-81 0-5 82- (hc : ak. paper)
1. Cardovascuar system Juvene terature. 2. Heart Juvene
terature. l. Tte: lustrated gude to the human body Heart and
crcuatory system. ll. Tte: Heart and crcuatory system. lll. Dagram
Group.
P103.F33 2005
12.1 dc22
2004022 27
Set lSBN: 0-81 0-5 7 -
purchased n buk quanttes for busnesses, assocatons,
nsttutons, or saes promotons. Pease ca our Speca Saes
Department n New ork at 212/ 7-8800 or 800/322-8755.
EB Dagram 10 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
Note to the reader
Leg and foot 4
Bood pressure
Crcuatory dsorders 8
SECTlON
OOD
lntroducton 70
Bood ces 72
Bood ce deveopment 74
Bone marrow and speen 7
Beedng and bood cottng 78
Bood groups and transfusons 80
Bood dsorders and defenses 82
SECTlON
NPHATlC S STEN
lntroducton 84
Lymph crcuaton 8
Lymph nodes 88
Lymph dsorders 0
SECTlON
lNN NlT & DE ENSE
lntroducton 2
Lnes of defense 4
lmmunty and antbodes
Ceuar mmunty 8
lmmune and defense dsorders 100
Web stes to vst 108
lndex 10
SECTlON
OODS STEN
lntroducton
Heart and crcuaton 8
Cardovascuar key words 10
Heart 12
Bood vesses 14
rteres 1
Capares 18
Vens 20
Bood pressure and puse 22
Heart and exercse 24
Bood dsorders 2
SECTlON2
HEART
lntroducton 28
The heart and thorax 30
Heart musce 32
Controng heart rate 34
lnsde the heart 3
Fow of bood through the heart 38
Heart vaves 40
The cardac cyce 42
Stress, det, and exercse 44
eepng your heart heathy 4
Heart dsorders 1 48
Heart dsorders 2 50
SECTlON
ClRC ATlON
lntroducton 52
Vens 54
orta and venae cavae 5
Head, face, and neck 58
Lungs and dgestve tract 0
rm and hand 2
Ccntents
lntrcductIcn
4
dIsorders oI IIe Iumnn IenrI nnd cIrcuInIory
sysIems. II Ins been vrIIIen nnd IIIusIrnIed
In medIcIne, IenIII, IIIness, nnd IIrsI nId. TIe
subjecI Is denII vIII In cIenr sIeps, so IInI IIe
render cnn sIendIIy ncquIre n good overnII
nccess Io nrIIcIes.
TIere nre sI secIIons vIIIIn IIe book. TIe
IIrsI secIIon Iooks nI IIe orgnnIznIIon nnd
sIrucIure oI IIe bIood cIrcuInIory sysIem. TIe
IoIIovIng IIree secIIons survey encI mnjor
componenI oI IIe sysIem, Irom IIe IenrI Io
Iypes oI bIood ceIIs. SecIIon 5 Iooks nI IIe
IympInIIc sysIem, vIIcI IuncIIons In pnrnIIeI
vIII IIe bIood sysIem. TIe InsI secIIon denIs
vIII Iov bIood ceIIs provIde n deIense ngnInsI
InIecIIon. VIIIIn encI secIIon, dIscussIon nnd
IIIusIrnIIon oI IIe sIrucIure nnd IuncIIon oI
IIe nnnIomIcnI pnrIs nre IoIIoved by
prIncIpIes oI IenIIIcnre, IIIness, nnd eercIse.
TIese nre IoIIoved by n survey oI IIe mnIn
dIsorders nnd dIsenses nIIecIIng IIe regIon.
InIormnIIon Is presenIed ns doubIepnge IopIcs
nrrnnged In subsecIIons.
unan body systens
ttes n THE FCTS ON
FlLE lLLUSTPTED
GUlDE TO THE HUNN
systems n turn. Some
of the ttes n the seres
ncude more than one
for human ces and
budng bocks and
a body systems.
SkeIetaI and
huscuIar Systens
BraIn and
Nervous Systen
eart and
CIrcuIatory Systen
A O T THlS OO
5
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
SectIon 1: BL S STEh surveys IIe
IenrI, bIood vesseIs, cnpIIInrIes, cnrdIovnscuInr
eercIse, nnd cIrcuInIIon dIsorders.
SectIon 2: EART Iooks nI IenrI muscIe,
IenrI benI, bIood IIov, sIress, nnd cnrdInc
dIsorders.
SectIon 3: ClRCULATl N Iocuses on IIe
neIvork oI nrIerIes, cnpIIInrIes, nnd veIns, nnd
dIscusses bIood pressure.
SectIon 4: BL IenIures IIe mnny Iypes oI
bIood ceIIs, bIood groups, nnd bIood cIoIIIng.
SectIon 5: L hP ATlC S STEh Iooks nI
Iov cIrcuInIIng vIIIe bIood ceIIs, proIeIns,
nnd InIs nre cInnneIed Irom IIssue spnces InIo
IIe bIood cIrcuInIory sysIem.
SectIon 6: lhhUNlT AN EFENSE
enmInes Iov cerInIn vIIIe bIood ceIIs
respond Io InjurIes, IrnnspInnIs, nnd
InIecIIons.
body IuncIIons
ns n reIerence resource oI Imnges nnd IeI Ior
use In scIooIs, IIbrnrIes, or In IIe Iome
IenIIIcnre.
CeIIs and
GenetIcs
IgestIve
Systen
Systen
ReproductIve
Systen
eart facts
persons heart beats
100,000 tmes a day.
Each heart chamber hods
the same voume of bood
about 2.5-2.8 fud ounces
(70-80 m).
lntrcductIcn
6
TIe caidIovascuIai sysIem cIicuIaIes bIood aiound IIe
body, suppIyIng ceIIs vIII oygen and nuIiIenIs and
iemovIng vasIe pioducIs. TIe maIn paiIs oI IIIs cIosed
sysIem aie IIe IeaiI and a neIvoik oI Iubes aiIeiIes,
veIns, and capIIIaiIes Io IianspoiI IIe bIood. osI
aiIeiIes caiiy ied, oygenaIed bIood mosI veIns caiiy
bIue, deoygenaIed bIood.
eart TIIs muscuInr pump IIes In n snc (IIe
perIcnrdIum) beIveen IIe Iungs, nnd II pumps
bIood nround IIe body. II Ins Iour cInmbers:
nn (upper) nIrIum nnd n (Iover) venIrIcIe on
encI sIde oI IIe muscuInr sepIum IInI dIvIdes
IIe IenrI IengIIvIse. AIrIn receIve bIood Irom
veIns; venIrIcIes pump bIood InIo nrIerIes.
nIves vIIIIn IIe IenrI conIroI IIe IIov oI
bIood In nnd ouI oI IIe IenrI.
ArterIes TIese brnncIIng bIood vesseIs Inke
bIood Irom IIe IenrI Io IIe body IIssues. TIe
body`s mnIn nrIery Is IIe norIn. ArIerIoIes nre
IIny nrIerIes IInI reguInIe bIood suppIy Io
cnpIIInrIes.
eIns TIe veIns nre bIood vesseIs IInI
IrnnsporI bIood Io IIe IenrI. nIves In veIns
nIIov IIe bIood Io IIov onIy In one dIrecIIon.
TIe InrgesI veIns nre IIe InIerIor nnd IIe
superIor venn cnvn. TIe smnIIesI nre IIe
venuIes IInI Inke bIood Irom cnpIIInrIes. In
porInI sysIems, sucI ns IIe IepnIIc porInI
sysIem, veIns Inke bIood beIveen Ivo
dIIIerenI seIs oI IIssue, sucI ns IIe dIgesIIve
sysIem nnd IIe IIver. enous sInuses (vIde
cInnneIs) drnIn bIood Irom IIe brnIn.
CapIIIarIes TIese IIny Iubes IInk nrIerIoIes
vIII venuIes. CnpIIInrIes ecInnge subsInnces
vIII nenrby IIssues vIn cnpIIInry ceII vnIIs.
BIood TIe mnjor componenIs oI IIIs compIe
IIuId nre: pInsmn (bIood IIuId), eryIIrocyIes
(red ceIIs), IeukocyIes (vIIIe ceIIs), nnd
CardIovascuIar systen
The heart and
bood vesses
make up the
crcuatory
system of the
human body.
Heart
SECTlON : OOD S STEN
T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Bood facts
ln a tny drop of bood, there
are fve mon red ces,
and 10,000 whte ces.
The crcuatory system
contans about 0,000 mes
(150,000 km) of vesses.
IIrombocyIes (pInIeIeIs).
TIere nre Iour mnIn bIood
groups: A, B, AB nnd .
BIood Iypes Inve Io be
cnreIuIIy mnIcIed Ior bIood
IrnnsIusIons or Ior
IrnnspInnI surgery.
Bone narrow TIIs Is n red or
yeIIov IIssue conInIned
vIIIIn bone cnvIIIes. Red
mnrrov produces red bIood
ceIIs. YeIIov mnrrov Is mosIIy
InI IIssue.
SpIeen A Inrge orgnn beIov
IIe dInpIrngm, IIe spIeen
sIores nnd reIenses red bIood
ceIIs, eIImInnIes dnmnged red
bIood ceIIs, nnd mnkes ceIIs
IInI produce nnIIbodIes.
LynphatIc systen TIIs
drnInnge sysIem Is reInIed Io
IIe bIood sysIem. BIInd
ended Iubes run pnrnIIeI Io
nrIerIes nnd veIns nnd cnrry
coIorIess IIuIds (IympI) Irom
body IIssues Io IIe bIood.
Some IympInIIc vesseIs
conInIn enInrgemenIs cnIIed
IympI nodes, vIIcI IeIp
vIII IIe Immune response
nnd produce IympIocyIes
IInI kIII bncIerIn.
ow bIood cIrcuIates around the body
The pumonary crcuaton pumps bood to and from
the ungs. The systemc crcuaton pumps bood to
and from a other parts of the body.
Head and arms
Lungs
Superor
vena cava
Heart
lnferor vena cava
dneys
Legs
Porta ven
Lver
lntestnes
bdomna aorta
CIrcuIatIon facts
On average, bood takes
about one mnute to
compete a fu crcut
around the body.
The aorta s the argest
artery and the vena cava s
the argest ven.
The average body contans
pnts (5 ) of bood.
Heart and cIrcuIatIcn
S
TIe IenrI Is n IoIIov muscIe
nbouI IIe sIze oI n grnpeIruII.
II Is IIe sIrongesI muscIe In
IIe body. LyIng vIIIIn IIe rIb
cnge, IIe IenrI Is veII
proIecIed ngnInsI dnmnge by
IIe surroundIng bones. TIe
mnss oI IIe IenrI IIes
cenIrnIIy In IIe cIesI, buI IIe
npe, vIere IIe benI Is mosI
ensIIy IeII, Inpers Iovnrd IIe
IeII. TIe IenrI begIns Io
pump Iess IInn n monII nIIer
concepIIon, nnd by
nduIIIood Is pumpIng nbouI
3,000 gnIIons (11,356 I) oI
bIood per dny, nI nn nvernge
rnIe oI 70 benIs n mInuIe. TIe
rnIe nI vIIcI n IenrI benIs Is
nIIecIed by n vnrIeIy oI
IncIors, sucI ns body
IempernIure, emoIIons,
Iormones, drugs, ncIIvIIy,
bIood pressure, IenrI dIsense,
nnd nge. A nevborn bnby Ins
n IenrI rnIe oI nbouI 140 benIs
per mInuIe; In n 10 yenr oId II
Is nbouI 0; nnd In nn nduII II
Is nbouI 60 0.
ha|or arterIes and veIns
The networks of arteres and vens are
supermposed mrror mages. Capary systems
form the nks between the
ends of the ma|or vesses.
ArterIes: whIte
eIns: coIor
Juguar ven
Cephac ven
orta
lac artery
lac ven
lnferor vena cava
Bracha artery
Heart
Femora artery
Femora ven
0
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
BIood fIow through the
heart
Ths dagram shows the path
that bood takes through the
heart. Deoxygenated bood
enters the upper chamber
(atrum) of the rght sde of
the heart and s then pumped
by the ower chamber, or rght
ventrce, to the ungs for
oxygenaton. The
reoxygenated bood returns
to the eft atrum and s
pumped to the body by the
eft ventrce. There s a
system of vaves whch open
to et bood through, then
cose to prevent any backfow.
Ths keeps bood fowng n
the same drecton.
Deoxygenated bood
Oxygenated bood
ArterIes and pressure poInts
ln the case of an n|ury, pressure can be
apped to certan arteres that are cose to the
surface n order to stem the fow of bood.
These pressure ponts are aso the paces
where a puse s most easy taken.
Tempora artery
Common carotd
artery
Faca artery
Subcavan artery
nteror
tba artery
Bracha artery
Poptea artery
xary artery
Femora artery
Posteror
tba artery
Unar artery
Pada
artery
Pght
ventrce
Pght
atrum
Left atrum
Left
ventrce
ClRCULATl N: E R S
CardIcvascuIar ke wcrds
10
Aorta TIe InrgesI nrIery, nrIsIng Irom IIe IeII
venIrIcIe oI IIe IenrI.
ArterIoIe A smnII nrIery suppIyIng bIood
Irom n mnIn nrIery Io n cnpIIInry.
Artery A bIood vesseI IrnnsporIIng bIood
Irom IIe IenrI Io eIsevIere In IIe body.
BIood pressure TIe pressure oI bIood
ngnInsI bIoodvesseI vnIIs, especInIIy IIe
vnIIs oI nrIerIes.
BrachIaI artery Mnjor nrIery suppIyIng IIe
nrm nnd Innd.
BrachIaI veIn rnIns IIe nrm nnd Innd.
CapIIIary TIe IInIesI Iype oI bIood vesseI,
connecIIng nn nrIerIoIe nnd n venuIe.
CardIac veIns rnIn IIe IenrI muscIe.
CarotId artery FIIIer oI IIe Ivo mnIn
nrIerIes In IIe neck, one on encI sIde.
CephaIIc veIn rnIns IIe nrm nnd Innd.
Coronary arterIes SuppIy IIe IenrI muscIe.
IastoIe TIe InIervnI beIveen conIrncIIons
oI IIe IenrI.
EndotheIIun SIngIe Inyer oI vIde, IInI ceIIs
IInIng IIe IenrI, bIood vesseIs, nnd IympI
vesseIs.
FenoraI artery SuppIIes IIe IIIgI nnd skIn
oI IIe Iover nbdomen.
FenoraI veIn rnIns deep pnrIs oI IIe Ieg.
eart TIe IoIIov muscuInr orgnn IInI
pumps bIood nround IIe body.
epatIc artery SuppIIes IIe IIver.
epatIc veIn rnIns IIe IIver.
lIIac artery SuppIIes IIe peIvIs regIon nnd
IIe Ieg.
lIIac veIn rnIns IIe peIvIs regIon nnd Ieg.
lnferIor vena cava TIe mnjor veIn drnInIng
IIe body beIov IIe dInpIrngm.
1uguIar veIn rnIns IIe Iend.
Lunen TIe cnvIIy InsIde n bIood vesseI.
PopIIteaI veIn rnIns IIe cnII.
Pressure poInt A pInce vIere pressure cnn
be nppIIed Io nn nrIery In order Io conIroI
bIeedIng.
PuInonary artery CnrrIes deoygennIed
bIood Irom IIe IenrI Io n Iung.
PuInonary cIrcuIatIon TIe sysIem oI bIood
vesseIs IrnnsporIIng bIood beIveen IIe IenrI
nnd IIe Iungs.
PuInonary veIn CnrrIes oygennIed bIood
Irom n Iung Io IIe IenrI.
PuIse TIe reguInr IIrobbIng oI nn nrIery,
vIIcI cnn be IeII ns II epnnds encI IIme
IIe IenrI pumps bIood IIrougI II.
RenaI artery SuppIIes IIe kIdney, ureIer, nnd
ndrennI gInnd.
RenaI veIn rnIns IIe kIdney, ureIer,
ndrennI gInnd, dInpIrngm, ovnry, or IesIIs.
SubcIavIan artery SuppIIes IIe Iend, neck,
spInnI cord, IIyroId, Inryn, cIesI muscIes,
nnd nrm.
SubcIavIan veIn rnIns IIe Iend, neck, nnd
sIouIder.
SuperIor vena cava rnIns IIe body nbove
IIe dInpIrngm, ecepI IIe IenrI nnd Iungs.
SystoIe A conIrncIIon oI IIe IenrI IInI
pumps bIood IIrougI IIe body.
TIbIaI artery SuppIIes Iover Ieg nnd IooI.
TunIca A IIssue Inyer IormIng n conIIng.
ArIerIes nnd veIns Inve IIree sucI Inyers
(InIImn, medIn, ndvenIIIIn).
asa vasorun TIny bIood vesseIs In IIe
vnIIs oI oIIer bIood vesseIs.
eIn A bIood vesseI IInI IrnnsporIs bIood
Irom cnpIIInrIes bnck Io IIe IenrI. nIves In
veIns prevenI bnckIIov oI bIood.
enuIe A smnII veIn.
11
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M
EART: E R S BL : E R S
AortIc arch TIe pnrI oI IIe norIn IendIng
Irom IIe nscendIng norIn nnd IormIng nn
nrcI up, over, nnd Io IIe renr oI IIe IenrI.
AtrIoventrIcuIar vaIve ( A vnIve) A vnIve
beIveen n venIrIcIe nnd nn nIrIum.
AtrIun FIIIer oI IIe Ivo upper cInmbers oI
IIe IenrI, vIIcI receIve bIood Irom IIe
veIns (pIurnI: nIrIn).
BIcuspId vaIve A IenrI vnIve vIII Ivo cusps
(IInps): IIe mIIrnI vnIve.
CardIac ReInIIng Io IIe IenrI.
CardIac cycIe TIe sequence oI evenIs
InvoIved In IIe pumpIng ncIIon oI IIe
IenrI. TIe nIrIn conIrncI IogeIIer nnd Iorce
bIood InIo IIe venIrIcIes. TIe venIrIcIes
IIen boII conIrncI Io pump bIood InIo IIe
norIn nnd IIe puImonnry nrIery.
CardIac nuscIe InvoIunInry sIrInIed muscIe
oI n Iype IInI occurs onIy In IIe IenrI.
Coronary arterIes TIe rIgII nnd IeII
coronnry nrIerIes nre brnncIes oI IIe norIn
IInI suppIy IIe IenrI muscIe vIII bIood.
Coronary sInus TIe vIde IermInnI porIIon
oI IIe coronnry veIn vIIcI empIIes InIo IIe
rIgII nIrIum.
CuspId ConsIsIIng oI cusps (IInps). BIcuspId
IenrI vnIves Inve Ivo cusps, nnd IrIcuspId
vnIves Inve IIree.
EndocardIun TIe membrnne IInI IInes IIe
IenrI nnd IIe IenrI vnIves.
hyocardIun TIe mnIn pnrI oI IIe IenrI
vnII, comprIsIng cnrdInc muscIe.
PerIcardIun TIe doubIeInyered membrnne
IInI encIoses IIe IenrI nnd nIIncIes II Io IIe
dInpIrngm nnd sIernum.
entrIcIe ne oI IIe Ivo Iover cInmbers oI
IIe IenrI.
BIood A sIIcky red IIuId comprIsIng
pInsmn, red bIood ceIIs (eryIIrocyIes), vIIIe
bIood ceIIs (IeukocyIes), nnd pInIeIeIs
(IIrombocyIes).
BIood type Any oI vnrIous Iypes oI
bIood (noInbIy A, B, AB, , RIposIIIve, RI
negnIIve) nnmed Ior IIe nnIIgen(s) IIey do
or do noI conInIn.
CorpuscIes A Ierm oIIen used Ior red nnd
vIIIe bIood ceIIs.
ErythrobIast An ImmnIure ceII Irom vIIcI
nn eryIIrocyIe deveIops.
Erythrocytes Red bIood ceIIs, vIIcI
IrnnsporI oygen nnd cnrbon dIoIde usIng
IemogIobIn.
GranuIocytes VIIIe bIood ceIIs vIII
cyIopInsm IInI conInIns grnnuIes.
AgrnnuIocyIes do noI Inve IIese grnnuIes.
enogIobIn TIe IronrIcI, oygen
IrnnsporIIng pIgmenI In red bIood ceIIs IInI
gIves IIem IIeIr coIor.
Leukocytes VIIIe bIood ceIIs. TIey nIInck
InvndIng mIcroorgnnIsms nnd IeIp Io
combnI InjurIes.
honocytes PIngocyIIc IeukocyIes Iormed In
IIe bone mnrrov.
NeutrophII TIe mosI pIenIIIuI Iype oI vIIIe
bIood ceII. A Iype oI grnnuIocyIe.
Phagocytes Types oI IeukocyIes IInI enguII
nnd desIroy mIcroorgnnIsms nnd IoreIgn
bodIes.
PIasna TIe IIuId pnrI oI bIood.
PIateIets Thronbocytes.
Serun BIood pInsmn IInI does noI conInIn
cIoIIIng IncIors buI does conInIn nnIIbodIes.
Thronbocytes ( PInIeIeIs) IscsInped,
nonnucIenIed sIrucIures In bIood IInI
promoIe cIoIIIng.
Heart
12
eart bIood vesseIs
The argest arteres of the
heart are the aorta, whch
carres oxygenated bood
away from the heart, and
the pumonary arteres,
whch carry oxygen-poor
bood from the heart to the
ungs. The argest vens of
the heart are the two venae
cavae, whch dran bood
from the body to the heart,
and the pumonary vens,
whch carry oxygen-rch
bood from the ungs to
the heart.
Bood from nsde the
heart cannot seep through
to reach the heart musce,
so ths has a separate
network of vesses caed
the coronary system, whch
comes from the aorta.
eart IocatIon
The heart s ocated n
the center of the thorax.
Two-thrds of the heart
es to the eft of the
bodys mdne. The
upper part of the heart
(the base) es |ust
beow the second rb,
whe the bottom of the
heart (the apex) s
ocated between the
ffth and sxth rbs.
ExternaI vIew of the heart fron the front
ReIatIve posItIon In thorax
pex
Base
Pbs
Heart
ortc arch
Superor
vena cava
lnferor
vena cava
Pght
coronary
artery
Pumonary trunk
Fat
Left coronary
artery
13
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M
PuInonary cIrcuIatIon
TIe rIgII sIde oI IIe IenrI pumps bIood Io IIe
Iungs nnd reIurns bIood Io IIe IeII sIde oI IIe
IenrI. TIIs Is cnIIed IIe puImonnry cIrcuII.
BIood gnIns oygen Irom IIe Iungs nnd Ioses
cnrbon dIoIde Io IIem.
CIrcuIatIon
CIrcuInIIon Is reIerred Io ns eIIIer puImonnry
or sysIemIc.
SystenIc cIrcuIatIon
TIe IeII sIde oI IIe IenrI pumps bIood Io
IIssues, vIIcI reIurn bIood Io IIe rIgII sIde oI
IIe IenrI. TIIs Is cnIIed IIe sysIemIc cIrcuII.
BIood In IIe sysIemIc cIrcuII gIves oygen Io
IIssues nnd gnIns cnrbon dIoIde Irom IIem.
Body tssues gve CO
2
to bood
Bood gves
CO
2
to ungs
Lungs
Bood takes O
2
from ungs
Pumonary crcut
Systemc crcut
Body tssues take O
2
from bood
Pght sde
of heart
Left sde
of heart
Iccd vesseIs
14
ArterIes
rteres are the bood
vesses that carry bood
away from the heart. They
branch nto smaer
vesses caed arteroes,
whch nk up wth
capares n the capary
network. The muscuar
arteres and arteroes can
be dated or constrcted
by the autonomc nerves
suppyng smooth
musce. Ths aows
ad|ustment of bood fow
to organs and tssues,
such as ncreased fow to
the ntestne after a mea.
ArterIes of braIn:
sIde vIew
ha|or arterIes
Subcavan artery
Pumonary artery
Frontopoar artery
Carotd artery
Gastrc artery
Femora artery
lac artery
Pena artery
Hepatc artery
nteror cerebra
artery
Coronary artery
orta
Opthamc artery
Basar artery
lnteror carotd artery
Vertebra artery
15
D
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M
eIns
Vens are the bood
vesses that carry bood
to the heart. They can
coapse or expand to
accommodate varatons
n bood fow. Novement
rees on the surroundng
musces, whch contract
and compress the thn
was of the ven. ln the
capary network, bood
drans nto tny venues,
whch |on together to
form vens. Vens become
arger and ess branched
as they move away from
the capares and toward
the heart.
eIns of braIn:
sIde vIew
ha|or veIns
Superor vena cava
Superor sagtta snus
Confuence of
the snuses
Subcavan ven
Juguar ven
Great saphenous ven
lac ven
Pena ven
Cephac ven
Pumonary ven
Hepatc ven
Femora ven
Hepatc porta ven
lnferor vena cava
nastomotc ven
Straght snus
Sgmod snus
ArterIes
16
Structure of arterIes
rteres have three ayers
of tssue n ther was.
The outermost ayer
(tunca adventta) s
made many of
connectve tssue fbers,
whch renforce the artery
wa. The mdde ayer
(tunca meda) s a thck
ayer of eastc and
muscuar fbers, whch
heps the arteres
wthstand and absorb the
waves of pressure
created by the heart
ventrces pumpng bood
aong them. n nner
ayer (tunca ntma) of
fat epthea ces
(endotheum) nes the
arteres, as t does the
nner surface of the
whoe crcuatory system.
Artery facts
Bood s pumped nto
the aorta at a speed of
amost a me an hour
(30 to 40 cm/sec).
The was of arge
arteres have ther own
bood vesses caed the
vasa vasorum (vesses of
the vesses).
Structure of an artery
Lumen (centra cana)
Tunca ntma (nner ayer)
Endotheum of tunca ntma
Tunca meda (mdde ayer)
Externa eastc membrane
Tunca adventta (outer ayer)
Vasa vasorum
(bood vesses of artery)
Fber coverng
Smooth musce of tunca meda
Ces of adventta
1T
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ArterIoIe structure
rteroes have three
coverngs, or tuncae. s
ther was contan a arge
number of smooth
musce ces, arteroes
can date or constrct
more easy than arteres,
hepng to contro the
fow of bood nto
capares and organs. n
arteroe can date to
ncrease bood fow to
capares by as much as
400 percent.
CharacterIstIcs of arterIes
The bood fowng through arteres s
under hgh pressure, so the artera was
are thcker and more muscuar than the
was of vens. Ths aows the arteres to
expand wth the surge of pressure at each
heart beat and smooth out the bood fow.
Unke vens, arteres do not need vaves
to prevent the backfow of bood because
the bood fows strongy aong arteres n
one drecton.
Artery facts
The word artery comes from the Greek
word for wndppe.
The pumonary arteres are the ony arteres
that transport deoxygenated bood.
Cross sectIon of a
snaII arterIoIe
Cross sectIon of a
Iarge arterIoIe
Cross sectIon of an artery
Tunca adventta
Tunca meda
Endotheum
lnterna eastc
amna
Lumen
Subendothea ayer
Lumen (centra cana)
Endotheum
Lumen (centra cana)
Endotheum
Smooth
musce ces
Smooth
musce ces
CapIIIarIes
1S
Structure of capIIIarIes
Capares are mcroscopc bood
vesses whose was are extremey
thn usuay ony one endothea ce
thck. capary wa has ony one ayer,
the tunca ntma. There are severa
dfferent types of capares, cassfed
accordng to ther structure.
Contnuous capares are abundant n
the skn and musces. Ther ce was
contan nterceuar cefts (gaps).
Fenestrated capares have ces
connected by thn membranes caed
fenestratons (pores).
Snusoda capares have
fenestratons and a wder umen than
other types. They are modfed to aow
arge moecues to pass between ther
was. They are found ony n the ver,
bone marrow, ymphod tssue, and
some endocrne organs.
The capIIIary network
The networks of capares nkng
arteres and vens are known as capary
beds. Each capary bed provdes a nk
between many arteroes and venues.
Cross sectIon of a capIIIary
contnuous capary, showng the
cefts, or gaps, between endothea
ces.
CapIIIary externaI structure
Endothea ces
Ceft
rteroe Venue
Capary bed
Ceft
Lumen
Basa membrane
Endotheum
10
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FunctIons
Capares nk arteres and
vens and aso assst wth the
exchange of gases, nutrents,
and waste products between
the bood and body tssues.
Substances pass through the
capary wa by a varety of
processes, such as dffuson,
osmoss, and ftraton. Bood
stays n the capares for ony
a second or so but as the
capares are very short, ths s
ong enough for the exchange
of substances.
Oxygenated bood arrves at
the capary bed from
arteroes and devers
oxygen and nutrents to ces.
Waste products (such as
CO
2
) pass out of ces and nto
capares. Deoxygenated
bood n capares s then
transferred to venues to be
transported out of the area.
CapIIIary facts
lf a the capares n an adut
body were connected, they
woud stretch about 0,000
mes ( ,000 km).
Capares are about 00 tmes
narrower than a medum ven.
CapIIIary network suppIIed by
severaI arterIes
ow capIIIarIes work
rteroes
Capares
rteres
Capares
Vens
Venues
rteroes
Venues
Lymph
capary
Tssue ces
VeIns
20
Structure of veIns
The was of vens have
the same three ayers as
arteres but the mdde
ayer, the tunca meda, s
much thnner. The outer
ayer, the tunca
adventta, s the thckest
ayer n vens but s
thnner than the tunca
meda n arteres. Vens
usuay contan vaves to
prevent the backfow of
bood. These vaves are
formed from fods of the
nnermost ayer, the
tunca ntma. They are
especay abundant n
the egs, where bood has
to overcome the
downward pu of gravty
to return to the heart.
Structure of a veIn
eIn facts
Nost vens carry
deoxygenated bood but
the four pumonary vens
carry oxygenated bood.
The argest vens, the
venae cavae, are named
after the Latn cava,
meanng cavern, because
of ther great sze.
Lke arteres, vens have
ther own bood vesses,
sma vasa vasorum.
Lumen (centra cana)
Vaves
Tunca ntma (nner ayer)
Endotheum of tunca ntma
Tunca meda (mdde ayer)
Externa eastc membrane
Tunca adventta (outer ayer)
Vasa vasorum
(bood vesses of artery)
Fber coverng
Smooth musce of tunca meda
Ces of adventta
21
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enuIe structure
enuIes nre IIny veIns IInI
IInk up vIII cnpIIInrIes
nnd drnIn bIood Irom
IIem. TIose venuIes
nenresI Io cnpIIInrIes
consIsI mnInIy oI
endoIIeIIum nnd n IIIn
ouIer Inyer, cnIIed IIe
IunIcn ndvenIIIIn. TIese
venuIes nre ensIIy nIIecIed
by InIInmmnIIon nnd
nIIergIc rencIIons. TIey
evenIunIIy unIIe Io Iorm
Inrger venuIes vIII n IIIn
mIddIe Inyer ns veII.
Cross sectIon of a
Iarge venuIe
Cross sectIon of a veIn
Cross sectIon of a
snaII venuIe
CharacterIstIcs of
veIns
The bood fowng through
vens s at ow pressure
and fows sowy. Vens are
more fexbe than arteres
and they coapse f bood
pressure s not mantaned.
Nany vens are sheathed n
skeeta musce that
contracts to compress the
was of the vens and drve
bood toward the heart.
Vaves ensure the correct
drecton of fow. They
swng open for each puse
of bood, then fap shut to
prevent backfow.
Lumen
Endotheum
Smooth
musce ces
Lumen Smooth
musce ces
Endotheum
Tunca meda
Subendothea ayer
Tunca adventta
Tunca ntma (endotheum)
Vaves Vaves
BIood pressure fact
Bood pressure s hgher n the feet than n the
arms because of gravty.
Iccd pressure and puIse
22
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
heasurIng bIood pressure
BIood pressure Is IIe pressure or pusI oI bIood
ngnInsI IIe vnIIs oI bIood vesseIs. BIood IIovs
nIong n pressure grndIenI (Irom IIgIer Io
Iover pressure) nnd IIIs keeps bIood IIovIng.
BIood pressure Is mensured usIng Ivo
InsIrumenIs sImuIInneousIy, n
spIygmomnnomeIer Io mensure bIood
pressure, nnd n sIeIIoscope Io IIsIen Io IIe
sound oI bIood ns II pumps IIrougI IIe
brncIInI nrIery In IIe nrm. TIe
spIygmomnnomeIer records pressure In mm
Hg (mIIIImeIers oI mercury). For enmpIe, n
bIood pressure oI 110 mm Hg Is equnI Io IIe
pressure eerIed by n coIumn oI mercury
110 mm IIgI.
Types of bIood pressure
Tvo Iypes oI bIood pressure nre mensured.
SysIoIIc pressure Is IInI pressure eerIed on
IIe vnIIs oI IIe norIn IendIng dIrecIIy Irom
IIe IenrI nnd oIIer Inrge nrIerIes. II Is
produced vIen IIe IenrI conIrncIs (benIs).
InsIoIIc pressure Is IIe pressure IInI cnn be
mensured vIen IIe IenrI reInes beIveen
benIs.
BIood pressure readIngs
NormnI bIood pressure Is nround 120/70
I.e., n sysIoIIc rendIng oI 120 mm Hg nnd n
dInsIoIIc rendIng oI 70 mm Hg. Mnny IncIors
nIIecI bIood pressure, Iovever, nnd n IenIIIy
nduII cnn Inve n rendIng IInI vnrIes grenIIy
Irom IIIs IIgure.
1 TIe cuII oI IIe spIygmomnnomeIer Is
InIInIed unIII II Is IIgII enougI Io sIop IIe
IIov oI bIood In IIe brncIInI nrIery. AI IIIs
poInI, pressure on IIe cuII Is grenIer IInn
pressure In IIe nrIery nnd no sounds cnn be
Ienrd IIrougI IIe sIeIIoscope.
2 Pressure In IIe cuII Is grndunIIy reIensed
unIII IIe bIood Is nbIe Io IIov InIo IIe
consIrIcIed nrIery. II Is nI IIIs poInI IInI IIe
bIood cnn be Ienrd pumpIng nnd n
mensuremenI oI sysIoIIc pressure Is Inken.
IsunIIy IIIs Is vIen IIe spIygmomnnomeIer
mercury IeveI rends nbouI 120 mm Hg.
3 Pressure In IIe cuII Is reduced IurIIer unIII
IIe bIood Is nbIe Io IIov IreeIy IIrougI IIe
nrIery. TIe poInI nI vIIcI bIood Is nbIe Io
IIov IreeIy Is IndIcnIed by muIIIed sounds
IIrougI IIe sIeIIoscope. TIIs Is n mensure oI
dInsIoIIc pressure, oIIen nround 70 mm Hg.
1
2
3
Cuff tghtened to stop
bood fow
Cuff reeased
sghty and
systoc pressure
measured
Cuff reeased further and
dastoc pressure measured
23
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The puIse
our puse s the measure of your
heartbeat ts speed, strength, and
reguarty. The best pace to fee the
puse s at the wrst. ou shoud earn to
take your puse there n order to assess
your ftness and aso as a check aganst
exercsng too strenuousy. Ths method
of takng your puse s descrbed to the
rght. The puse test shown beow s an
exceent way of checkng a ftness
program. lf you do the test every two
weeks, and pot the resuts on a graph,
you w be abe to see how your ftness
s mprovng.
PuIse test (beIow)
1 Step up wth one foot onto a bench or
ow char about 1 nches (41 cm) hgh.
2 Brng the other foot up onto the top of
the bench.
3 Step down agan wth one foot.
4 Brng the other foot down to the foor.
Pepeat 24 tmes a mnute for two
mnutes.
5 St down for two mnutes, then take
your puse and record the resut.
TakIng your puIse
The ustraton above shows the pace
on the wrst where the puse s most
easy fet. Pace the frst three fngers of
your rght hand on the nsde of your eft
wrst, and count the number of beats for
30 seconds. Nutpy by two for the rate
per mnute.
PuIse rates (above)
Ths dagram shows a seecton of
maxmum recommended puse rates for
varous ages. (a) shows the typca puse
range for peope at rest, (b) shows puse
ratngs by age for peope unused to
exercse, and (c) shows the maxmum
eves to whch you shoud rase your
puse when you are ftter.
1 2 3 4 5
5
55
45
35
25
ge
Puse
0 100 200
5
115
105
130
115
150
125
1 5
135
175
a b c
Heart and exercIse
24
ReguInr, sensIbIe eercIse Is one oI IIe grenIesI
gIIIs IInI you cnn gIve your IenrI. I course, n
IenrI unused Io eerIIon sIouId noI be
subjecIed Io sudden or sIrenuous eercIse ns
IIIs cnn be dnngerous. TIe IeveI nnd InIensIIy
oI eercIse sIouId be Incrensed onIy grndunIIy,
over severnI veeks, ns you IeeI yourseII
becomIng IIIIer nnd more cnpnbIe.
Good and bad IIfestyIes
TIe nge oI convenIence Ins removed mnny oI
IIe nnIurnI eercIse ncIIvIIIes Irom our IIves.
AuIomobIIes, IrnIns, nnd nIrpInnes Inve Inken
IIe IIme nnd eIIorI ouI oI IrnveI, nnd eIecIrIc
IooIs nnd gndgeIs Inve reduced IIe nmounI oI
IIme spenI In mnnunI Inbor. TeIevIsIon Ins
brougII nn enormous Incrense In sporIs
specInIorsIIp rnIIer IInn pnrIIcIpnIIon, nnd
IIe poIIuIIon nnd overcrovdIng oI more urbnn
envIronmenIs Ins mnde vnIkIng n Inr Iess
nppenIIng eercIse IInn II used Io be. espIIe
IIe recenI crnzes Ior joggIng, IenIII cIubs, nnd
so on, IIe popuInIIon In genernI Ins become
more nnd more sedenInry.
hedIcaI advIce and seIf care
II you nre mIddIenged or eIderIy, or II you
Inve been unused Io eercIse Ior severnI yenrs
or Ionger, IIen II Is sIrongIy ndvIsnbIe Io
consuII n docIor beIore embnrkIng on eercIse
oI nny sorI. He vIII conIIrm IInI you nre In n
suIInbIe condIIIon Io begIn eercIsIng, nnd vIII
ndvIse you on Iov quIckIy or Iov sIovIy Io
Incrense your IeveI oI eercIse. You sIouId nIso
Iook nIIer yourseII by IosIng nny ecess veIgII
nnd by mnkIng sure IInI you do noI eercIse
Ioo sIrenuousIy II you nre overveIgII. II Is
ndvIsnbIe Io cIeck your puIse reguInrIy so IInI
you do noI eceed IIe recommended
mnImum Ior your nge nnd IIIness IeveIyou
cnn do IIIs by reIerrIng Io IIe puIse dIngrnms
IInI nppenr on pnge 23.
ExercIse In daIIy actIvItIes
Your dnIIy rouIIne cnn be nIIered Io provIde
mnny opporIunIIIes Ior eercIse. InsIend oI
InkIng IIe cnr Io vork, Iry vnIkIng or cycIIng;
II you Inke n bus or IrnIn, geI oII n coupIe oI
sIops enrIy nnd vnIk IIe resI oI IIe vny. Ise
sInIrs rnIIer IInn IIe eIevnIor. Ise your IuncI
Iours Ior vnIkIng rnIIer IInn jusI enIIng,
drInkIng, nnd sIIIIng nround. oIn n sporIs cIub
vIII members oI your InmIIy or IrIends, nnd
encournge one nnoIIer Io pIny reguInrIy. AvoId
drInkIng nIcoIoI nnd smokIng, so IInI IIe
good you nre doIng your body by eercIsIng Is
noI counIerncIed.
ow to tackIe exercIse
SeI nsIde reguInr IImes Io eercIse, oIIervIse
IIe ncIIvIIy vIII be squeezed ouI oI your
rouIIne. CIoose nn eercIse IInI you enjoy;
IIe eercIse IIme sIouId be n pIensure, noI nn
endurnnce IesI. Tnke reguInr resIs durIng your
eercIse perIod, especInIIy In IIe enrIy veeks,
nnd cIeck your puIse; II you nre nenr your
mnImum rnIIng, sIop Ior n vIIIe unIII your
puIse sIovs, nnd IIen conIInue.
Remember IInI nII eercIse ncIIvIIIes sIouId
be buIII up very sIovIy over n Iev veeks.
Never eercIse Io IIe poInI oI eInusIIon. SIop
nI once II you IeeI InInI, dIzzy, or sIck; II you
become pnIIId or very sIorI oI brenII; II you
geI spoIs beIore IIe eyes; or II you eperIence
pnIns In IIe cIesI or Iend.
AIvnys precede nnd IoIIov nn eercIse sessIon
vIII genIIe cnIIsIIenIc, or mobIIIIy, eercIses,
sucI ns bendIng nnd sIreIcIIng. TIese
eercIses nIIov IIe bIood IIov Io speed up nnd
sIov dovn grndunIIy. TIIs proIecIs IIe IenrI
Irom sIrnIn nnd sIops IIe bIood Irom
pooIIng In IIe Iegs vIen eercIse Ins
sIopped buI IIe IenrI Is sIIII pumpIng sIrongIy.
II Is unvIse Io drInk very coId drInks or Inke n
coId sIover ImmedInIeIy nIIer eercIsIng ns
IIe sIock Io IIe body cnn sIrnIn IIe IenrI.
25
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The fIt and unfIt heart
The ft heart s an effcent heart. lt ony has to pump
the bood sowy as t s pumpng a arge voume at
one tme, and aso pumpng t strongy. The norma
puse of a traned endurance runner may be as ow as
40 beats per mnute. The unft heart, on the other hand,
s an neffcent heart. lt has to pump the bood rapdy
as t pumps a sma voume of bood at a tme and ts
pumpng acton s poor. The puse rate of a sedentary
worker can be as hgh as 80- 0 beats per mnute.
C
L N
D
C
waste nutrent
eIpIng the heart
Exercse strengthens the
muscuar was of the heart so
that they pump bood more
effcenty and the genera bood
crcuaton mproves. Ths
enabes the bodys other
musces to work harder, because
more oxygen s reachng them
and the waste substances that
they produce are beng
dspersed more rapdy. s a
resut, a person who exercses
reguary fees ftter and more
capabe of exerton.
erobc exercses, those that
take extra ar nto the ungs, are
exceent for strengthenng the
heart and provdng the bood
wth penty of oxygen. Such
exercses ncude: brsk wakng,
|oggng, swmmng, cycng,
|umpng, or skppng. Nore
strenuous aerobc actvtes
ncude racket sports and cross-
country skng.
CIrcuIatIon and exchange
Lungs oxygen passes nto bood n exchange
for carbon doxde.
Body tssues carbon doxde and waste
products pass nto bood n exchange for
oxygen and nutrents.
40
S0 00
Iccd dIscrders
26
BIood dIsorders
AgranuIocytosIs A condIIIon In vIIcI
bIood Incks grnnuIocyIes, IIe vIIIe bIood
ceIIs IInI proIecI IIe body ngnInsI bncIerInI
InIecIIons. II Is n resuII oI n deIecI In bone
mnrrov.
AnenIa A condIIIon In vIIcI IIe bIood Ins
nn nbnormnIIy Iov nbIIIIy Io cnrry oygen.
TIere nre mnny dIIIerenI Iypes, IncIudIng
npInsIIc nnemIn (IIe desIrucIIon oI red bone
mnrrov resuIIIng In IIe producIIon oI Iever
bIood ceIIs); IemoIyIIc nnemIn (bIood ceIIs
nre dnmnged IIrougI bncIerInI InIecIIon, Ior
enmpIe); IemorrIngIc nnemIn (bIood Is IosI
IIrougI n vound, Ior enmpIe); Iron
deIIcIency nnemIn (resuIIIng, Ior enmpIe,
Irom nn InndequnIe InInke oI IronrIcI Iood
or nn InnbIIIIy Io nbsorb Iron eIIIcIenIIy);
pernIcIous nnemIn (Inck oI vIInmIn B
12
cnuses red bIood ceIIs Io sveII, reducIng IIeIr
oygencnrryIng cnpncIIy); nnd sIckIeceII
nnemIn (red bIood ceIIs become crescenI
sInped nnd rupIure ensIIy).
ErythrobIastosIs fetaIIs A rnre bIood dIsense
oI IIe nevborn IInI cnn resuII In IIe
desIrucIIon oI red bIood ceIIs. II Is cnused by
IIe mIIng oI bIoods oI dIIIerenI RIesus
(RI) groups.
Erythroedena A condIIIon, nIso knovn ns
ncrodynIn or pInk dIsense, IInI cnuses n mIId
Iever, resIIessness, venkness, nnd redness oI
IIe Ince, IIngers, nnd Ioes. II Is usunIIy
cnused by n poIsonIng oI IIe bIood by
mInernIs used In medIcInes sucI ns InnIIves.
II Is mosIIy resIrIcIed Io cIIIdren nnd Is
nov rnre.
enophIIIas SevernI dIIIerenI bIeedIng
dIsorders cnused by Inck oI IIe IncIors
necessnry Ior bIood cIoIIIng. TIey nre
IeredIInry dIsenses IrnnsmIIIed by
unnIIecIed moIIers (cnrrIers) nImosI nIvnys
Io sons.
lnfectIous nononucIeosIs (gInnduInr Iever)
A conIngIous dIsense cnused by n vIrus IInI
nIIecIs vIIIe bIood ceIIs.
LeukenIa (cnncer oI IIe bIood) An Incrense
In IIe number oI vIIIe bIood ceIIs IInI
InIerIeres vIII normnI body processes. TIere
nre dIIIerenI Iypes oI IeukemIn, nnmed
nccordIng Io vIIcI oI IIe mnny vIIIe bIood
ceII Iypes nre nIIecIed. LympIocyIIc
IeukemIn, Ior enmpIe, nIIecIs IympIocyIes.
LeukopenIa A decrense In IIe number oI
vIIIe bIood ceIIs.
huItIpIe nyeIona A Iumor oI IIe bone
mnrrov IInI ndverseIy nIIecIs producIIon oI
nev red nnd vIIIe bIood ceIIs.
PoIycythenIa An nbnormnI Incrense In IIe
number oI red bIood ceIIs, vIIcI cnuses IIe
bIood Io IIov sIuggIsIIy. TIere nre Ivo
Iypes: nonspecIIIc nnd IInI cnused by Ioo
IIIIIe oygen In IIe bIood. TIe InIIer Is
usunIIy nssocInIed vIII n respIrnIory dIsorder
oIIen cnused by smokIng.
Rhesus dIsease A condIIIon In vIIcI red
bIood ceIIs nre desIroyed ns n resuII oI IIe
mIIng oI bIoods oI IncompnIIbIe groups.
TIe RIesus IncIor Is n subsInnce presenI In
red bIood ceIIs oI mosI peopIe (RIesus
posIIIve, or RI ). PeopIe vIo Inck IIe IncIor
nre RIesus negnIIve, RI.
SeptIcenIa BIood poIsonIng cnused by
bncIerIn or IIe IoIns IIey produce. In some
cnses, II cnn be InInI.
ThronbocytopenIa A deIIcIency In bIood
pInIeIeIs (vIIcI IeIp IIe cIoIIIng process)
resuIIIng In bIeedIng Irom smnII vesseIs.
2T
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eart dIsorders
AngIna pectorIs CondIIIon cInrncIerIzed
by pnIn In IIe cIesI nnd someIImes IeII
nrm, especInIIy durIng IImes oI sIress or
eerIIon.
ArrhythnIa AbnormnI IenrI rnIe or
rIyIIm: IncIycnrdIn (InsIer IInn normnI
IenrI rnIe) nnd brndycnrdIn (sIover IInn
normnI IenrI rnIe).
CardIac arrest TIe IenrI censes Io benI
eIIecIIveIy.
CardIonyopathy A dIsense oI IIe IenrI`s
muscIe IInI resuIIs In n decrense In IIe
eIIIcIency vIII vIIcI II conIrncIs nnd
cIrcuInIes bIood.
CardItIs InIInmmnIIon oI IIe IenrI.
CongenItaI heart defects HenrI deIecIs In
nevborn bnbIes.
ConstrIctIve perIcardItIs TIe perIcnrdIum
(IInIng) oI IIe IenrI Is scnrred or dIsensed,
prevenIIng IIe IenrI Irom epnndIng
properIy.
Coronary artery dIsease Cnuses n reduced
suppIy oI oygen nnd oIIer nuIrIenIs Io
IIe mnIn IenrI muscIe.
Coronary heart dIsease IsunIIy reIerred
Io ns coronnry nrIery dIsense.
FIbrosIs of cardIac nuscIe ScnrrIng oI
IenrI muscIe.
hyocardIaI InfarctIon CommonIy cnIIed
IenrI nIInck, n condIIIon In vIIcI
obsIrucIIon oI bIood IIovIng Io IIe IenrI
muscIe resuIIs In IIssue denII. II Is mosI
oIIen cnused by nIIeroscIerosIs.
hyocardItIs InIInmmnIIon oI IIe
myocnrdIum (mnIn IenrI muscIe) IInI cnn
venken IIe IenrI, ImpnIrIng IIs IuncIIon.
PaIpItatIons SensnIIon oI n IenrIbenI IInI
Is rnpId or IrreguInr In some vny.
Igh and Iow bIood pressure
BoII IIgI nnd Iov bIood pressure nre bnd Ior
IIe body`s cIrcuInIIon. HIgI bIood pressure
(IyperIensIon) cnn cnuse bIood vesseIs Io
rupIure. II IIIs Inppens In IIe brnIn, II cnuses
n sIroke. HIgI bIood pressure mny be nn
InIerIIed probIem, buI II Is nIso reInIed Io
IncIors sucI ns sIress, obesIIy, n dIeI IInI Is
IIgI In snII nnd snIurnIed InIs, ngIng, nnd n
Inck oI pIysIcnI ncIIvIIy. Lov bIood pressure
(IypoIensIon) cnn nIso be dnngerous. II IIe
pressure In IIe nrIerIes InIIs Iov enougI, bIood
sIops cIrcuInIIng. MnssIve bIeedIng, or
IemorrInge, cnuses denII In IIIs vny.
FaIntIng
TIIs Inppens vIen IIe brnIn Is brIeIIy sInrved
oI oygen. II cnn occur IIrougI sIock, or Ienr,
on jumpIng up nIIer kneeIIng, nIIer n Iong
sonkIng In n IoI bnII, or In enrIy pregnnncy.
VnrnIng sIgns nre IurnIng pnIe, n coId svenI
on IIe Ince, dIzzIness, nnd nnusen. II you IeeI
dIzzy nnd nbouI Io InInI, sII vIII your Iend
beIveen your knees ns sIovn In IIe dIngrnm
nbove rIgII. TIIs Improves bIood IIov Io IIe
brnIn nnd sIouId prevenI ncIunI bInckouI. II n
person does InInI, IIe IIm or Ier dovn vIII
IIe IeeI rnIsed nnd Ioosen IIgII cIoIIIng
nround IIe neck, cIesI, nnd vnIsI. Recovery
Inkes no more IInn n mInuIe or Ivo.
TakIng bIood
pressure
RecoverIng fron
a faInt
Front vIew
eart facts
The average adut human
heart s fve nches ong and
three nches wde (12 cm by
cm). lt measures two and
a haf nches ( .3 cm) from
front to back.
n aduts heart weghs
about 10.5 ounces (300 g).
lntrcductIcn
2S
TIe IeaiI Is IIe coie oI IIe caidIovascuIai sysIem. TIIs
doubIe pump beaIs auIomaIIcaIIy, nIgII and day, Io
keep bIood cIicuIaIIng aiound IIe body. IeaiI beaI
Is a sudden IIgIIenIng oI IIe muscIe In IIe vaIIs oI IIe
IeaiI. TIIs s uee es bIood ouI oI IIe IeaiI cIambeis
and InIo IIe bIood vesseIs. specIaII ed Iype oI IeaiI
muscIe caIIed myocaidIum gIves IIe IeaiI IIs specIaI
pumpIng abIIIIy.
BIood for the heart
TIe IenrI muscIe needs n
generous suppIy oI oygen Io
keep II vorkIng eIIIcIenIIy.
TIIs oygen Is deIIvered by
IIe Ivo coronnry nrIerIes,
vIIcI cover IIe surInce oI
IIe IenrI vIII n neIvork IInI
Iooks rnIIer IIke n crovn. TIe
Ierm coronnry comes Irom
IIe LnIIn vord coronnrIus,
mennIng beIongIng Io n
crovn or vrenII. SIrucIures
nnd evenIs InvoIvIng IIe
IenrI oIIen mnke use oI IIe
vord coronnry.
eart fron above
eart vaIves
Workng wthn the heart musce are vaves that aow
bood to fow through the heart n ony one drecton.
The heart vaves aso prevent the backfow of bood n
the ma|or arteres and vens.
Coronary
arteres
Upper eft
pumonary ven
Pght pumonary
vens
ortc vave at
begnnng of aorta
Pumonary vave
at begnnng of
pumonary artery
Superor
vena cava
SECTlON 2: HEART
20
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eart facts
The heart beats some two
and a haf bon tmes
durng a 70-year fetme.
bout fve percent of a
the bood pumped by the
heart goes to ts own
musce tssue.
The heart pumps roughy
3,000 gaons (11,35 ) of
bood n a day.
ArterIes and veIns of the heart
The argest arteres and vens of the heart
form the begnnng of the pumonary
(ung) and systemc (body) crcuatons.
Two arge vens caed venae cavae dran
oxygen-poor bood from the body to the
heart. The pumonary arteres carry ths
bood from the heart to the ungs. The
pumonary vens carry oxygen-rch bood
from the ungs back to the heart. The
aorta then carres ths oxygen-rch bood
to the body.
eart fron behInd
Left pumonary vens
Left pumonary artery
lnferor vena cava
Pght pumonary artery
Superor vena cava
Left common carotd artery
lnnomnate (brachocephac) artery
Pght pumonary vens
Left subcavan artery
ortc arch
The heart and thcrax
30
eart beats
To sten to the heart
beatng, doctors and
nurses poston a
stethoscope between the
ffth and sxth rbs on a
ne eadng down from
the mdde of the eft
coar bone. Ths area s
drecty over the apex of
the heart, whch moves
forward when the heart
ventrces contract and
strkes the wa of the
thorax. Ths can be fet
from the outsde of the
chest as a heartbeat.
The heart es n the
thoracc cavty, whch s
sandwched n between
the breastbone n front
and the thoracc
vertebrae behnd. By
pressng rhythmcay on
the ower part of the
breastbone wth the hee
of the hand, t s possbe
to compress the heart n
order to mantan bood
fow f the heart stops
beatng. Ths technque
can hep to save a
persons fe.
The heart and rIbs
Cross sectIon at IeveI of th vertebra PosItIon of the heart
Sternum
(breastbone)
Sxth rb
Ffth rb
Poston for
stethoscope
Sternum Pght ventrce
Left ventrce
Left atrum
Left ung
orta
Pght atrum
Percardum
Pght ung
Spna cord
Left coarbone
Outne of heart
Vertebra
SECTlON 2: HEART
31
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The heart es n
between the two
ungs and n front
of the descendng
aorta and the
esophagus. bove
the heart there are
the ascendng
aorta, the superor
vena cava, and the
pumonary arteres
rgans and bIood vesseIs In and around the heart
Cross sectIon at IeveI of 5th thoracIc vertebra
The heart s
postoned coser
to the front of the
thoracc cavty
than to the back,
drecty behnd
the sternum. The
hearts apex s
ocated on the
daphragm beow.
Cross sectIon at IeveI of 6th thoracIc vertebra
The rght ventrce
(ower chamber)
of the heart s
ocated party n
front of the eft
ventrce. The eft
ventrce faces
toward the eft
sde and the back
of the thorax.
Cross sectIon at IeveI of th thoracIc vertebra
Esophagus
Bronch
Esophagus
Descendng
thoracc aorta
Pght ung
scendng aorta
Superor vena cava
Descendng
thoracc aorta
Sternum
Left ung
Pumonary trunk
Left pumonary
artery
Sternum
Sternum
Pght aurce
Superor vena cava
Descendng
thoracc aorta
ortc vave
Left atrum
Bronch
Pght pumonary
artery
Left ung
Pumonary vave
Pght atrum
lnferor vena cava
Pght ventrce
Esophagus
Left ung
Left ventrce
Heart muscIe
32
eart s punpIng power
TIe mIddIe Inyer oI IIe IenrI`s vnII Is n IIIck
Inyer oI IenrI, or cnrdInc, muscIe, knovn ns
myocnrdIum (myo menns muscIe). TIe
myocnrdIum consIsIs oI IIree spIrnI Inyers oI
cnrdInc muscIe nIIncIed Io n Irnmevork oI
dense IIbrous IIssue IInI Iorms IIe skeIeIon
oI IIe IenrI. TIe spIrnI Is IIe besI nrrnngemenI
Ior squeezIng bIood ouI oI IIe IenrI`s
cInmbers. TIe IIIckesI IenrI muscIe Is In IIe
vnII oI IIe IeII venIrIcIe, vIIcI pumps bIood
nII IIe vny Io IIe IIngers nnd Ioes nnd bnck
ngnIn. TIe rIgII venIrIcIe onIy Ins Io pump
bIood Io IIe Iungs, so IIs vnIIs nre Iess IInn
eart nuscIe structure
Cardac musce s dfferent from the
other two types of musce n the body. lt
has strpes, ke skeeta musce, but
works as a coordnated unt, rather than
as a group of separate unts, as skeeta
musce does. Cardac musce ces act
together because they are connected by
ntercaated dscs. These eectrca
connectors aow nerve mpuses to
trave through the heart wthout
stoppng.
CardIac nuscIe fIbers LongItudInaI sectIon of cardIac nuscIe
InII ns IIIck ns IIose oI IIe IeII venIrIcIe. TIe
nIrInI vnIIs Inve mucI Iess muscIe IInn IIe
venIrIcIe vnIIs nnd so nre quIIe IIIn. TIe IeII
nIrInI vnII Is, Iovever, IIIcker IInn IIe rIgII
nIrInI vnII. RIngs oI cnrdInc muscIe nround IIe
IrIcuspId nnd mIIrnI InIeI vnIves Iock IIem
IIgIIIy sIuI vIen IIe venIrIcIes pump bIood
Io IIe body nnd Iungs.
CnrdInc muscIe conInIns bundIes oI ncIIn
nnd myosIn IIInmenIs nnd conIrncIs In IIe
snme vny ns oIIer body muscIes. BuI II dIIIers
Irom oIIer muscIes In IIe vny IInI nerve
sIgnnIs IrnveI IIrougI IIe IIbers nnd sIImuInIe
IIe muscIe Io conIrncI.
lntercaated dsc
Nusce ce
nuceus
Nusce fber
Connectve tssue
lntercaated dsc
Nusce ce nuceus
Connectve tssue
SECTlON 2: HEART
33
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Coronary vesseIs
Bood fows nto the heart
musce through the rght
and eft coronary arteres.
These arteres branch off
the aorta behnd the faps
of the aortc semunar
vave. Coronary vens
dran deoxygenated
bood from the heart
musce nto the rght
atrum of the heart.
AutonatIc heart
Heart musce responds to
the autonomc or
nvountary nervous
system, as we as to ts
own nternay generated
eectrca commands. lt s
not under conscous
contro, and works
automatcay, ke the
smooth musce that nes
the stomach and other
nterna organs.
huscIe facts
The fbrous skeeton of
the heart, together wth
the vaves nsde the
heart, make up about
haf of the hearts weght.
The wa of the eft
ventrce s up to haf an
nch (1.3 cm) thck n
some paces.
Front vIew showIng coronary vesseIs
Front vIew showIng heart nuscIes
Left coronary
artery
Great cardac
ven
Pght
coronary
artery
Pght
atrum
Sma
cardac ven
Coronary snus
(receves bood from
coronary vens and
emptes bood nto
rght atrum)
ortc vave
Pght ventrce
Pght
atrum
Left atrum
Pumonary
vave
CcntrcIIIng heart rate
34
The heart s conductIon systen
The heart musce has the abty to
contract rhythmcay on ts own. Lke
other musces, t requres an eectrca
mpuse (sgna) n order to do ths.
though the rate at whch the heart
SectIon showIng InpuIse conductIng systen
beats s controed by sgnas from the
autonomc nervous system, the heart
has ts own but-n conducton
system for generatng mpuses
and coordnatng contractons.
Factors affectIng stroke voIune
TIe nmounI oI bIood pumped by n venIrIcIe
encI IIme II conIrncIs depends on IIe nmounI
oI bIood In II nnd IIe Iorce oI IIe conIrncIIon.
TIese nre nIIecIed by n number oI IncIors.
ActIvIty FercIse Increnses IIe speed oI bIood
reIurnIng Io IIe IenrI, vIIcI In Iurn Increnses
IIe sIroke voIume.
ln|ury Severe bIood Ioss cnuses sIroke voIume
Io decrense.
Isease Becnuse IIe IenrI Is n muscIe II Is
prone Io dIsorders nnd dIsense In IIe snme
vny oIIer muscIes nre, nnd IIIs cnn nIIecI IIs
sIze nnd nbIIIIy Io conIrncI.
Left atrum
Bunde of Hs
(atroventrcuar bunde)
Left ventrce
Left branch
Snoatra node
Pght ventrce
Pght branch
Pght atrum
troventrcuar
(V) node
SECTlON 2: HEART
35
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
ow contractIons occur
Four structures n the heart wa
generate strong mpuses and
conduct them rapdy to certan
regons of the heart wa.
1 n mpuse s generated and
conducted by the snoatra
node (the hearts pacemaker).
Ths spreads through the atra,
causng them to contract.
2 t the V node, the mpuse s
reayed va the V bunde,
bunde branches, and Purkn|e
fbers to the ventrces. Ths
causes the ventrces to
contract.
ln ths way, contracton of the
atra s aways foowed by
contracton of the ventrces.
Ths synchronzaton forces the
heart to beat faster and more
effcenty.
Factors affectIng heart rate
TIe rnIe nI vIIcI n IenrI benIs Is nIIecIed by n
vnrIeIy oI IncIors.
Body tenperature HIgIer body IempernIure
resuIIs In nn Incrensed IenrI rnIe; n Iover body
IempernIure reduces IIe IenrI rnIe.
EnotIons FcIIemenI, nnger, nnIeIy, nnd
IrIgII, Ior enmpIe, nII cnuse IIe IenrI Io benI
InsIer. epressIon nnd grIeI cnn decrense IIe
IenrI rnIe.
ChenIcaIs CIemIcnIs presenI In IIe bIood
(sucI ns Iormones) nIIecI IIe IenrI rnIe, ns do
cIemIcnIs Inken ns drugs.
Age ur resIIng IenrI rnIes grndunIIy sIov
dovn ns ve geI oIder.
Gender Men Iend Io Inve Iover IenrI rnIes
IInn vomen, vIII 7072 benIs per mInuIe
compnred Io 7882 Ior vomen.
ActIvIty Igorous eercIse, Ior enmpIe,
Increnses IIe IenrI rnIe; durIng perIods oI
reInnIIon IIe IenrI rnIe sIovs dovn.
PhysIcaI condItIon TIe resIIng IenrI rnIe oI
peopIe vIo eercIse Iends Io be Iover IInn
IInI oI IIe InncIIve.
BIood pressure SIImuII nIIecIIng bIood
pressure In genernI nIso nIIecI IenrI rnIe.
eart dIsease nrIous dIsenses nnd dIsorders
oI IIe IenrI cnn nIIecI IenrI rnIe.
1
2
Snoatra node
V node
tra
Purkn|e fbers
Bunde branch
Ventrces
V bunde
lnsIde the heart
36
AtrIa and ventrIcIes
The heart s a hoow organ that
contans four chambers. wa of
musce caed the septum dvdes the
heart nto rght and eft sdes. The four
chambers are the rght atrum, the eft
atrum, the rght ventrce, and the eft
ventrce. The atra are often caed
recevng chambers, because they
receve bood. The two ventrces are
arger than the two atra. Ther was are
aso thcker and more muscuar because
they are responsbe for the pumpng
acton of the heart. The ventrces are
sometmes caed dschargng chambers.
Chanbers of the heart
lnterventrcuar
septum
Left ventrce
Pght ventrce
Pght atrum
Left atrum
SECTlON 2: HEART
3T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
CoverIngs and IInIngs
protectve sac caed the percardum
covers the heart. lts tough outer ayer,
the fbrous percardum, s nked by
gaments to the breastbone, spne, and
other parts of the chest cavty. Ths
anchors the heart frmy n poston.
lnsde the fbrous percardum are two
more ayers of percardum wth a fud-
fed space n between. Ths heps the
two ayers to sp aganst each other
wthout frcton whe the heart beats.
The nnermost ayer of percardum
forms the outer ayer of the heart, so t s
caed epcardum (upon the heart).
etaIIed structure of the heart waII
Cross sectIon of heart showIng structure of heart waII
eart facts
trum means entrance ha, whe
ventrce means tte bey.
Each atrum has a fapke structure caed an
aurce, meanng tte ear. The functon of
the aurce s not known.
Heart chamber
Endocardum (nng
of heart chambers)
Nyocardum (heart
musce)
Vscera ayer
Percarda cavty
Pareta
ayer
Percardum
(sac coverng
heart)
Endocardum
Fbrous
percardum
Serous
percardum
Percarda cavty
Epcardum
Nyocardum
Icw c bIccd thrcugh the heart
3S
BIood vesseIs of the heart
eart and bIood systen
Here the heart s shown
wth the man bood
vesses that ead to and
from t.
BIood to the heart
Bood from the body enters the heart through two arge
vens, caed the superor (upper) vena cava and the
nferor (ower) vena cava (pura: venae cavae). Bood
from the ungs enters the heart through the pumonary
vens.
BIood fron the heart
Bood from the heart s pumped to the body through
the aorta. The aorta s caed the ascendng aorta as t
extends upward from the heart, the aortc arch where t
bends, and the descendng aorta where t contnues
downward. Bood from the heart s pumped to the
ungs through the pumonary arteres.
orta
Left pumonary artery
Left
pumonary
ven
Superor
vena cava
lnferor
vena cava
Pght
pumonary
ven
Pght
pumonary
artery
SECTlON 2: HEART
30
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
FIIIIng of chanbers In the heart
Bood enters the two upper chambers
(atra) of the heart. Then t s pumped
nto the two ower chambers (ventrces).
Fnay, t s pumped out of the two
ventrces and eaves the heart.
BIood enters the atrIa
BIood Is punped Into the
ventrIcIes
2 The atra contract, forcng
bood nto the ventrces. The
ventrces start to f.
1 Bood from the venae cavae
fs the rght atrum of the
heart and bood from
the pumonary vens
fs the eft atrum of
the heart.
entrIcIes fIII wIth bIood
3 The two ventrces become
fu and stretched and
pressure buds up.
BIood Ieaves the ventrIcIes
4The two ventrces contract,
pumpng bood out of the heart.
Bood from the rght ventrce
fows through the pumonary
arteres to the ungs.
Bood from the eft
ventrce fows
through the aorta
to the rest of the
body.
Pght ventrce
Pght ventrce
Left atrum
Left ventrce
Left ventrce
lnferor vena
cava
Superor
vena cava
Pght atrum
orta
Pumonary
artery
Heart vaIves
40
Structure of vaIves
The four heart vaves are n two pars: atroventrcuar
(V) vaves between atra and ventrces, and semunar
(haf-moon) vaves between ventrces and man
arteres. The vaves are made of tough, rubbery faps,
caed cusps, whch grow out of the heart wa. Joned
to the free ends of the V vaves are a number of cords
caed chordae tendneae (heart strngs) attachng them
to musces n the wa of the ventrce. The heart strngs
keep the V faps pontng n the drecton of the bood
fow, stoppng them beng turned nsde out and
forced through nto the atra. The semunar vaves do
not have heart strngs. Bood fowng the wrong way
makes the cusps baoon out so that ther edges sea
tght.
SenIIunar vaIves
The aortc semunar
vave and pumonary
semunar vave are
ocated at the base of the
two arge arteres eavng
the heart (the aorta and
pumonary artery). Each
s crescent-shaped and
conssts of three cusps.
TrIcuspId vaIve
SenIIunar vaIve
SenIIunar vaIve cut and
opened out
AortIc vaIve
Cosed
Cosed
no bood
fows
Open -
bood fows
through
Open
aIve facts
s the heart vaves sap
shut to prevent the
backfow of bood, they
make a ub-dub sound.
The ub s the V
vaves cosng, whe the
dub s the sound of
the semunar vaves
shuttng.
AtrIoventrIcuIar vaIves
The trcuspd vave
conssts of three cusps,
whe the bcuspd, or
mtra, vave has ony two
cusps. They both stop
bood fowng back from
ventrces to atra.
Pght coronary
artery
Papary
musce
Left coronary
artery
Chordae
tendneae
Cusp
SECTlON 2: HEART
41
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
PosItIon of heart vaIves
eart vaIves vIewed fron above
Pght ventrce
Left ventrce
Pght atrum
Trcuspd vave
Pumonary semunar vave
Papary musces
Chordae tendneae
Papary musces
Bcuspd vave
Left atrum
ortc semunar vave
Trcuspd (rght
atroventrcuar) vave
ortc vave
(semunar)
Pumonary vave
(semunar)
Ntra (bcuspd or eft
atroventrcuar) vave
The cardIac c cIe
42
A compIeIe IenrIbenI Is cnIIed IIe cnrdInc
cycIe. ne IenrIbenI menns IIe conIrncIIon
(nIso cnIIed sysIoIe) nnd reInnIIon (dInsIoIe) oI
IIe nIrIn, IoIIoved by IIe conIrncIIon nnd
reInnIIon oI IIe venIrIcIes. FncI cnrdInc cycIe
Inkes nbouI 0.8 seconds Io compIeIe II IIe
IenrI benIs nI nn nvernge oI 72 benIs per
mInuIe. In n normnI IenrIbenI, IIe Ivo nIrIn
conIrncI sImuIInneousIy vIIIe IIe Ivo
venIrIcIes reIn. VIen IIe Ivo venIrIcIes
conIrncI, boII nIrIn reIn. urIng n IypIcnI
IenrIbenI, IIe nIrIn conIrncI Ior nbouI 10
percenI oI IIe IIme nnd IIe venIrIcIes Ior
nbouI 40 percenI. TIe dIrecIIon oI bIood IIov
IIrougI IIe IenrI Is conIroIIed by IIe
nIrIovenIrIcuInr (A ) nnd semIIunnr vnIves.
1 tra f wth bood
troventrcuar vaves are cosed
2 tra contract
V vaves open
AtrIoventrIcuIar (A ) vaIves
A vnIves prevenI IIe bnckIIov oI bIood Irom
IIe venIrIcIes Io IIe nIrIn vIen IIe IenrI
conIrncIs.
1 BIood IIIIs IIe nIrIn. TIe A vnIves nre
cIosed.
2 Pressure In IIe nIrIn rIses, IorcIng IIe vnIves
open. TIe venIrIcIes begIn Io IIII vIII bIood.
3 As IIe venIrIcIes become IuII, IIe A vnIves
cIose. TIIs prevenIs bIood Irom reIurnIng Io
IIe nIrIn.
SenIIunar vaIves
TIe semIIunnr vnIves prevenI IIe bnckIIov oI
bIood InIo IIe venIrIcIes.
4 TIe venIrIcIes conIrncI unIII pressure
eceeds IInI oI bIood In IIe norIn nnd
puImonnry nrIery.
5 TIe semIIunnr vnIves nre Iorced open nnd
bIood IIovs ouI oI IIe IenrI.
6 TIe venIrIcIes reIn nnd bIood begIns Io
IIov bnckvnrd Iovnrd IIe IenrI. TIe cusps oI
IIe semIIunnr vnIves nre IIIIed vIII bIood nnd
IIey cIose. BIood Is prevenIed Irom IIovIng
bnck InIo IIe venIrIcIes.
Pght
atrum
V vave
(cosed)
V vave (open)
V vave (open)
Left
atrum
V vave
(cosed)
SECTlON 2: HEART
43
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
3 V vaves cose
Ventrces are fu of bood
4 tra reax
Ventrces contract
5 Semunar vaves open
6 Ventrces reax
Semunar vaves cose
Pght ventrce Semunar
vaves open
Semunar
vaves cosed
V vave
(cosed)
Left ventrce
V vave
(cosed)
Stress, dIet, and exercIse
44
Stress and the cIrcuIatIon
The ustraton shows some of the parts
of the body that may be affected by the
acton of stress on the heart and
crcuaton.
1 Ptutary gand, ths reeases
adrenocortcotrophn hormone (CTH)
nto the boodstream, whch stmuates
the reease of adrenane and other
hormones.
2 Skn, paor may occur as bood s
dverted away from the skn to the
musces.
3 Lungs, the rate of breathng speeds up
and ncreases the oxygenaton of the
bood.
4 Lver, ths reeases extra sugar nto the
bood n order to provde the body wth
extra energy f requred.
5 Bood, the serum choestero eve of
the bood tends to be hgher n peope
under stress. The eves of fbrnogen,
pateets and ymphocytes n the bood
are a ncreased, these are defense
mechansms, ntended to prepare for the
repar of damaged tssues.
6 Heart, the heart rate speeds up
dramatcay, n order to transport
usI ns IIe condIIIon oI IIe body nnd
cIrcuInIIon cnn nIIecI IIe IenrI, so IIe
condIIIon oI IIe mInd Is reIIecIed In IIe sInIe
oI IIe IenrI. SIress Is one oI IIe mnjor
conIrIbuIIng IncIors Io IenrI dIsense, pnrIIy
becnuse II nIIers IIe body`s sysIems (sucI ns
IIe bIood cIoIesIeroI IeveI) In sucI n vny IInI
IIe IenrI cnn be dnmnged, nnd pnrIIy becnuse
IIose vIo IIve under sIress nre npI Io deveIop
condIIIons IInI sIrnIn IIe IenrI, sucI ns IIgI
bIood pressure Irom overvork, respIrnIory
probIems Irom smokIng, poor cIrcuInIIon Irom
Inck oI eercIse, nnd so on. TIe sIressed
person usunIIy Ins n busy scIeduIe nnd
IIereIore IrequenIIy skIps menIs, Ins n Iev
drInks InsIend oI enIIng, or enIs snncks or
InkeouI Ioods Io sInve oII Iunger pnngs. TIese
enIIng InbIIs nIIecI IIe body ndverseIy.
ConscIous removnI oI boII IIe cnuses nnd
eIIecIs oI sIress recondIIIon IIe IenrI nnd nIIer
IIe ouIIook so IInI IenrI dIsense Is Inr Iess
IIkeIy Io occur.
oxygen and nutrents to the musces
more rapdy.
Speen, ths reeases more red ces
nto the bood to assst n carryng the
extra oxygen from the ungs.
Gentas, stress can often cause
mpotence. though the orgns may be
psychoogca, excessve tredness and
ack of reaxaton experenced under
stress can be precptatng factors.
1
2
3
8
5
7
4
SECTlON 2: HEART
45
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
on t:
exercse
strenuousy
wthout medca
supervson,
exceed the
recommended
puse mt for
your eve,
contnue to
exercse f you
fee pan or
dscomfort.
eat arge meas,
exercse wthn
one and a haf
hours of eatng a
mea,
ever smoke, or
drnk heavy,
exercse
strenuousy f
you are
overweght,
exercse aganst
the cock, or
force yoursef to
do an exercse
actvty that you
dske.
o:
reduce your
overa ntake of
fats as we as
choestero n
your det,
eat smaer
portons of
meat no more
than oz (170 g)
a day,
ncrease your
ntake of fresh
vegetabes and
fruts (except
avocados and
oves, whch are
comparatvey
hgh n fat, and
so best avoded),
eat breads,
cereas, and
four products
that do not
contan much fat
or sugar, and
substtute whoe
mk wth skm
mk, and eat
ow-fat yogurt.
Ietary guIdeIInes ExercIse guIdeIInes
on t:
et fats account
for more than
30-35 of your
day food
consumpton,
eat food that
contans more
than 300 mg of
choestero day,
eat more than
three egg yoks
per week,
use saturated fats
(anma fats) n
cookng,
eat meat that s
obvousy fatty
even ean meat
contans fat,
eat nuts, whch
have a hgh fat
content,
eat whoe-mk
dary products, or
|ust substtute
butter wth
margarne use
a ow-fat spread
nstead.
o:
choose an
exercse that you
en|oy and s
wthn your
capabtes,
check up wth a
doctor f you
have any heath
doubts,
ose any excess
weght,
warm up and
coo down wth
approprate
exercses each
tme,
wak nstead of
usng other
transport
whenever
possbe,
keep a cose
check on your
puse rate, both
durng and after
exercse, and
vary your
exercse actvty
f you get bored.
eepIng cur heart heaIth
46
II Ins become IncrensIngIy evIdenI IInI nn
nnnIysIs oI dIeI pInys n very ImporInnI roIe In
IIe undersInndIng oI IenrI dIsense. ocIors
orIgInnIIy renIIzed IInI n IIgI InInke oI
cIoIesIeroI, Iound pnrIIcuInrIy In snIurnIed
nnImnI InIs, vns nssocInIed dIrecIIy vIII
nIIeroscIerosIs, nnd pnIIenIs vere puI on Iov
cIoIesIeroI dIeIs. Hovever, IIe serum
cIoIesIeroI In IIeIr bIood Iended sIIII Io
remnIn IIgI, nnd IurIIer resenrcI revenIed
IInI II IIe body Is Iov In cIoIesIeroI, IIe IIver
mnnuIncIures II Irom oIIer InIs In IIe dIeI. So
II becnme evIdenI IInI bIood cIoIesIeroI couId
onIy be kepI Iov on n dIeI Iov In InIs oI nII
kInds, nnd IIIs Ins become IIe nImosI
unnnImous recommendnIIon Irom IenIII
sources Ior n dIeI Iovnrd n IenIIIIer IenrI.
VIen pInnnIng your dIeI, remember Io seek
dIeInry ndvIce Irom n specInIIsI II you or oIIer
members oI your InmIIy Inve IIgI bIood
pressure or n IIsIory oI IenrI dIsense.
Low fat snacks
PIenIy oI nuIrIIIous
IovInI snncks cnn be
enIen In Inrge
qunnIIIIes vIIIouI
sIgnIIIcnnI InI InInke.
FruII juIce, IresI IruII,
nnd rnv vegeInbIes
sucI ns cnrroIs, ceIery,
IeIIuce, cucumber,
IomnIo, pepper,
cnuIIIIover, cnbbnge,
nnd sprIng onIon cnn
nII be enIen IreeIy.
Igh fat snacks
II you Inke n pncked
IuncI Io vork or
Inve n snnck menI In
IIe evenIng, nvoId
snnck Ioods IInI cnn
be very IIgI In InI.
CIeese nnd vIoIe
mIIk, nIIIougI IIgI
In proIeIn nnd Iov In
sugnr, nre nIso IIgI In
InI. PoInIo cIIps nnd
Inmburgers sIouId
nIso be nvoIded.
Neat s a ma|or enemy of
peope on a ow-fat det.
Fsh s generay much
ower n fat, athough the
choestero content s
reatvey hgh. The hgh
fat contents of many
meats can be reduced by
carefu preparaton and
cookng. Cut a vsbe fat
from meat before
cookng. Gr bacon,
sausages, and chops on a
rack so that the fat drps
away. To cook fsh, wrap
t n fo so the mosture
s retaned and there s
ReducIng fat In the dIet
no need to brush wth o
or fat.
Vrtuay a store-bought
cakes, pastres, cookes,
and crackers are hgh n
fat, athough most breads
are ow. Chocoate,
peanuts, and potato chps
are a very hgh n fat. For
home bakng, repace
butter wth unsaturated
margarne, nstead of
cream, use skm mk.
Eggs are very hgh n
choestero and so shoud
be avoded. Nany recpes
can be made eavng out
the eggs, and f ths does
not work, use ow-
choestero dred egg.
lt s much better to make
your own snack food.
Decous ow-fat
sandwches can be made
wth combnatons such
as: cottage cheese wth
pneappe or ceery,
samon and cucumber,
chcken and tomato, or
green saad. Peope on a
ow-fat det are advsed to
avod a cheeses except
cottage cheese.
SECTlON 2: HEART
4T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
ExercIse and fItness
Before and after every sesson of
schedued exercse, gente warmng up
exercses shoud be done to speed up
and sow down the fow of bood
graduay. These exercses aso aow
the body to warm up and coo down
graduay so that there s no
temperature shock, such as mght be
experenced after vgorous exercse on
a very cod mornng. Warmng up
exercses ncude bendng to the eft
and rght wth one arm curved over
your head and the other hand on your
hp. n aternatve exercse s |umpng
up n the ar wth your arms rased and
egs apart. For those startng out on a
reguar course of exercse for the frst
tme n severa years, begn wth ess
strenuous actvtes such as wakng or
swmmng. s your ftness ncreases,
you can move on to more aerobc
actvtes such as runnng, racket
sports, or canoeng. Exercse for ony a
few mnutes each tme for the frst
week or so, then graduay ncrease as
you fee yoursef gettng ftter and
more capabe. Pather than exercsng
aganst the cock, or settng targets,
make reaxaton and en|oyment the key
eements of your exercse sessons.
The fIt and unfIt heart
TIe dIngrnm beIov sIovs IIe compnrnIIve
nmounIs oI vork done by n III IenrI nnd nn
unIII IenrI durIng vnrIous ncIIvIIIes. TIe
IIgIer IIe IenrI rnIe, IIe Inrder IIe IenrI Is
InvIng Io vork; vIen IIe IenrI rnIe Is Iov,
IIe IenrI Is beIng used eIIIcIenIIy. TIe unIII
IenrI Ins Io vork mucI Inrder nII IIe IIme,
nnd so mny be under n consInnI sIrnIn. A
IenIIIy IenrI vorks under n seIIImposed
mnImum puIse rnIe oI nbouI 1 0 benIs per
mInuIe, vIIcI menns IInI even under severe,
unpInnned sIress II Is unIIkeIy Io Incrense IIs
vork Io n dnngerousIy InsI rnIe.
Type A and type B
PersonnIIIy Iype Is nov consIdered Io be n
deIInIIe rIsk IncIor In IenrI dIsense, nIIIougI
IIe dIrecI IInk Is uncerInIn. Type A, IIe Iype
mosI IIkeIy Io deveIop IenrI dIsense, Is IIe
person vIo drIves IImseII or IerseII
reIenIIessIy, Is Iense, Is oIIen under sIress oI
vnrIous kInds, Ins Iev or no pIIIosopIIcnI or
reIIgIous beIIeIs, nnd Ins Iev reInIng IobbIes.
Type B Is more reIned nnd ensygoIng, nnd
Inkes IIIe nI n genIIer pnce. II Is uncIenr ns yeI
vIeIIer Iype A`s IIkeIy IenrI probIems come
Irom geneIIc mnkeup or IIIesIyIe.
t rest
0 100 200
Sttng
Standng
Wakng
Punnng
Pecovery
after exercse
Heart rate (beats per mnute)
Ft heart
Unft heart
Heart dIscrders
4S
eart attacks
TIe Ierm IenrI nIInck Is usunIIy used Io
descrIbe n sudden bIocknge In n IenrI nrIery. A
more nccurnIe Ierm Is myocnrdInI InInrcIIon
(MI). II n IenrI nrIery Is bIocked Ior more IInn
n Iev mInuIes, IIe muscIe ceIIs (myocnrdIum)
mny become permnnenIIy dnmnged. II IIe
nmounI oI muscIe dnmnge Is smnII, IIere vIII
be enougI good muscIe IeII Ior IIe IenrI Io
vork ngnIn once IIe IenrI nIInck Is over. HenrI
nIIncks cnn sInrI nI nny IIme oI IIe dny or
nIgII, vIen n person Is resIIng or beIng
ncIIve. SomeIImes, n IenrI nIInck cnn be
brougII on by unusunIIy energeIIc ncIIvIIy or
by mnssIve sIress. PeopIe vIII n InmIIy IIsIory
oI IenrI nIIncks mny be more IIkeIy Io Inve n
IenrI nIInck IIemseIves. PeopIe vIII dInbeIes
nre nIso more IIkeIy Io Inve IenrI probIems
nIIIougI IIe renson Ior IIIs Is noI cIenr.
The man causes of
vavuar heart dsease
are: beng born wth
abnorma heart vaves
(congenta heart
dsease), the ong-term
effect of rheumatc fever,
and agng of the heart.
dsease of heart musce
caed cardomyopathy
can aso cause thckenng
of the musce around the
vave, and ead to
vavuar heart dsease.
Probems wth the heart
vaves dsrupt bood
fow, whch may
weaken the heart and
cause t to enarge.
HenrI nIIncks occur more oIIen In men IInn
vomen nnd mosIIy In peopIe over 40.
Artery bIockage
TIe mosI common renson Ior IenrI nrIerIes Io
become bIocked Is due Io n buIIdup oI Inyers
oI InIIy mnIerInI (cIoIesIeroI) InsIde IIe
nrIerIes. TIe vnIIs oI IIese dnmnged nrIerIes
mny crnck nnd n bIood cIoI mny Iorm on Iop
oI IIe crnck. TIIs cnn suddenIy bIock oII IIe
nrIery compIeIeIy. ccnsIonnIIy, IIe bIocknge
Is cnused by n spnsm oI IIe muscIe vnIIs oI
IIe coronnry nrIerIes. II cnn nIso be due Io n
very InsI IenrI rnIe, vIen IIe IenrI muscIe
demnnds more oygen IInn IIe bIood suppIy
cnn provIde. HenrI nIIncks cnuse severe pnIn
nnd oIIer sympIoms sucI ns svenIIng, nnusen,
or sIorIness oI brenII.
aIvuIar heart dIsease Cross sectIons through heart vaIves
Norma
vave
Narrowed
vave
Sm cusps
Enarged cusps
Pestrcted
bood fow
Norma
bood fow
SECTlON 2: HEART
40
SnokIng
MedIcnI resenrcI Ins proved IInI smokIng consIIIuIes n grnve
IenIII rIsk, vIII more nnd more dIsenses provIng Io be
nssocInIed vIII, or nggrnvnIed by, smokIng. Vomen vIo
smoke vIIIe pregnnnI cnn cnuse dnmnge Io IIeIr bnbIes. II n
smoker conIInues Io smoke nIIer n IenrI nIInck, IIIs doubIes
IIeIr rIsk oI InvIng nnoIIer IenrI nIInck vIIIIn one yenr. TIe
rIsk oI InvIng n IenrI nIInck sInrIs Io reduce ns soon ns n
person gIves up smokIng, nnd Is InII ns IIkeIy Io Inppen
vIIIIn one yenr oI sIoppIng smokIng. AdvIce on gIvIng up
smokIng cnn be obInIned Irom docIors, nurses, nnd
pInrmncIsIs, ns veII ns sIopsmokIng IeIp groups.
Effects of snokIng
Ths dagram ustrates some of the
parts of the body affected when a ppe,
cgar, or cgarette s smoked. These
effects wear off graduay when the
smokng stops, but f smokng s
frequent or contnuous, the affected
parts of the body have no tme to revert
to ther norma states.
1 Ncotne enters the boodstream,
subdung the transmsson of nerve
sgnas, and parayzng the ca of the
arways, whch trap harmfu partces.
Ncotne aso nhbts the aveoar
phagocytes whch destroy bactera and
vruses.
2The toxns carbon monoxde and
cyande n the smoke may cause a
headache.
3 Bood pressure rses because ncotne
causes the bood vesses to constrct.
4 The heart rate ncreases, and so the
reserve energy of the heart s decreased,
renderng the person ess capabe of
physca exerton or stran.
5The bood vesses to the hands and
feet are constrcted, eadng to poor
genera crcuaton.
6 Certan chemcas contrbute to the
rasng of serum choestero eves n the
boodstream.
The ungs f wth a mxture of ar and
tobacco smoke, whch deposts mnute
amounts of tar nsde the ungs.
2
1
4
7
3
5
Heart dIscrders 2
50
eart probIens
The top ustraton shows
the drecton of bood
fow through a norma
heart. The ower
ustraton shows some
of the probems that can
affect the heart.
1 Congenta
maformatons. Babes
can be born wth heart
probems, sometmes
nvovng a hoe n the
wa between the
chambers of the heart.
2 Dseases of the vaves.
These can ether be
congenta, or the resut
of dsease or nfecton.
3 Dseases of the bood
vesses. Deposts of fat
can be ad down wthn
the was of the vesses,
usuay the arger
arteres. Ths s often
assocated wth a rased
choestero and fat eve
n the bood.
4 Coronary artery
probems. The heart gans
ts bood suppy by a
system of vesses caed
the coronary artery
crcuaton. Lke the other
arteres, ths may have
fatty deposts n the
was, f the deposts
competey bock the
vesse then a heart attack
resuts. The area of the
heart musce supped by
that vesse s starved of
oxygen and des. lf ths
process happens to vesses
that suppy the bran wth
bood, then a stroke s the
resut. There are varous
factors that make heart
attacks more key. The
most mportant ones to be
avoded are cgarette
smokng, rased bood
pressure, beng
overweght, ack of
exercse, and stress.
5 Scar from an od heart
attack. lf a heart attack
occurs the scar s
permanent, but by
avodng the factors that
make heart attacks more
key, the damage can be
mnmzed.
6 Probems wth the heart
musce. The heart s a
muscuar pump, f the
bood pressure s rased,
whch may happen for a
varety of reasons (such
as kdney dsease), the
heart enarges and the
vaves may work
neffcenty. The ncrease
n pressure wthn the
bood vesses may cause
damage to the anatomy
of the vesse was and
cause a rupture. The most
frequent ste for ths s
wthn the sku, and a
stroke s the resut.
Probems wth the heart
pacemaker. The heart
beats n response to
sma eectrca mpuses
arsng n a bunde of
nerve fbers at the center
of the heart. lf ths
pacemaker s not
functonng correcty,
dsturbances of the
rhythm of the heart
resut.
3
7
1
4
2
5
SECTlON 2: HEART
51
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
eart dIsorders
AngIna pectorIs PnIn or dIscomIorI In IIe
cIesI, vIIcI Is cnused by InndequnIe oygen
suppIy Io IIe IenrI, someIImes ns n resuII oI
nnrroved coronnry nrIerIes. AngInn oIIen
Inppens durIng eercIse or sIress.
ArrhythnIa AbnormnI IenrI rnIe or rIyIIm
cnused by n dIsrupIIon oI IIe IenrI`s
conducIIon sysIem, vIIcI genernIes nnd
IrnnsmIIs eIecIrIcnI ImpuIses In IIe IenrI. II
cnn be cnused by coronnry nrIery dIsense,
sIress, eerIIon, or some drugs.
BradycardIa A sIov IenrI rnIebeIov 60
benIs n mInuIe.
CardIonegaIy FnInrgemenI oI IIe IenrI.
TIere nre n number oI cnuses.
CongenItaI heart defects HenrI deIecIs In
nevborn bnbIes IncIudIng: venIrIcuInr sepInI
deIecI (IIe vnII beIveen Ivo venIrIcIes does
noI Iorm properIy), conrcInIIon oI IIe norIn
(IIe norIn Is nnrroved), puImonnry sIenosIs
(IIe puImonnry semIIunnr vnIve Is
nnrroved), nnd IeIrnIogy oI FnIIoI (muIIIpIe
deIecIs).
Cor puInonaIe Isense oI IIe IenrI cnused
by dIsense oI IIe bIood vesseIs Io IIe Iungs
or dIsense oI IIe Iungs IIemseIves.
EndocardItIs InIInmmnIIon oI IIe
endocnrdIum (Inner IenrI IInIng) oIIen
resuIIIng Irom InIecIIon by bncIerIn.
EpIcardItIs InIInmmnIIon oI IIe epIcnrdIum
(ouIer IInIng oI IIe IenrI).
FIbrIIIatIon RnpId, IrreguInr conIrncIIons oI
IIe IenrI.
eart bIock FIecIrIcnI ImpuIses In IIe IenrI
nre bIocked nI poInIs In IIe conducIIon
sysIem.
eart faIIure TIe IenrI pumps Iess bIood
IInn IIe body needs nnd so Is noI cnpnbIe oI
suppIyIng IIe oygen demnnds oI IIe
IIssues. ResuIIs In congesIIon oI bIood nnd
Inck oI nuIrIIIon Io IIssues.
hItraI vaIve proIapse Improper cIosure oI
IIe mIIrnI vnIve (IIe vnIve beIveen IIe IeII
nIrIum nnd venIrIcIe). AIso cnIIed IIoppy
vnIve syndrome.
hyocardIaI InfarctIon CommonIy cnIIed
IenrI nIInck, n condIIIon In vIIcI
obsIrucIIon oI bIood IIovIng Io IIe IenrI
muscIe resuIIs In IIssue denII. II Is mosI
oIIen cnused by nIIeroscIerosIs oI IIe
coronnry nrIerIes.
PaIpItatIons RnpId or IrreguInr IenrIbenI
cnused by drugs, emoIIons, or IenrI
dIsorders.
PerIcardItIs InIInmmnIIon oI IIe bng
(perIcnrdIum) IInI encIoses IIe IenrI. Too
mucI IIuId mny be produced In IIe
perIcnrdInI spnce, so IInI IIe IenrI Is
compressed nnd unnbIe Io IIII properIy. TIe
Ivo Inyers oI IIe perIcnrdIum become sIuck
IogeIIer, resIrIcIIng IIe IenrI`s movemenI.
PuInonary atresIa A compIeIe bIocknge
beIveen IIe IenrI nnd IIe mnIn puImonnry
nrIery.
Stokes Adans syndrone A sudden nIInck
oI unconscIousness nccompnnyIng IenrI
bIock.
TachycardIa A InsI IenrI rnIenbove 100
benIs n mInuIe.
TrIcuspId atresIa TIe IenrI Ins no IrIcuspId
vnIve; IIe rIgII venIrIcIe Is usunIIy smnII.
TIere Is n reduced IIov oI bIood Io IIe
Iungs.
aIvuIar stenosIs NnrrovIng oI n IenrI
vnIve, vIIcI cnuses IIe IenrI Io vork Inrder
Io pusI bIood nround IIe body.
CIrcuIatIon facts
The combned surface of the
capares s ,000 square
yards (557.4 m
2
) an area
arger than a soccer fed.
The great arteres that
emerge from the heart are
often caed trunks.
lntrcductIcn
52
TIe cIicuIaIIon oI bIood means IIe vay IIaI bIood IIovs In
a cIicuIai paIIvay aiound IIe body. iom IIe IeII venIiIcIe
oI IIe IeaiI, bIood IIovs IIiougI bIood vesseIs Io aII paiIs oI
IIe body, and back Io IIe iIgII aIiIum oI IIe IeaiI. To
compIeIe IIe cIicuII and ieacI IIe IeII venIiIcIe agaIn, IIe
bIood Ias Io IIov Io IIe Iungs and back agaIn, enIeiIng IIe
IeaiI IIiougI IIe IeII aIiIum.
CIrcuIatory systen
ArterIes
Bood eaves the heart
through the aorta, whch
branches nto the carotd
artery to the neck, and
the bracha arteres to the
arms. The aorta runs down
to the abdomen, where t
dvdes nto the ac
arteres feedng the egs.
ArterIes front vIew
Subcavan artery
xary artery
Bracha artery
Femora artery
nteror tba artery
Posteror tba artery
Unar artery
Pada artery
Deep and
surface arteres
of the wrst
and hand
Brachocephac trunk
(nnomnate artery)
ortc arch
Thoracc aorta
Thoracc aorta
Pena artery
Common
ac artery
SECTlON : ClRC ATlON
53
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Artery
nteror tba artery
orta
xary artery
Basar artery
Bracha artery
Brachocephac trunk
Broncha artery
Carotd arteres
Ceac trunk
Cerebra arteres
Common ac artery
Coronary arteres
Faca artery
Femora artery
Gastrc arteres
Hepatc artery
lnferor mesenterc artery
lntercosta arteres
Lumbar arteres
Peronea artery
Posteror tba artery
Pumonary artery
Pada artery
Pena artery
Subcavan artery
Superor mesenterc artery
Tempora artery
Unar artery
Vertebra artery
Areas suppIIed
Front of ower eg
Heart, whoe body
Chest wa, shouder, breast
Bran pons, cerebeum, posteror cerebrum
rm, hand
Pght of head and neck, rght arm, rght thoracc wa
Lower trachea, broncha tree
Head, face, neck
Lower esophagus, stomach, ver, upper duodenum,
pancreas, speen
Bran cerebrum
Pevs, egs
Heart musce
Face, tons, soft paate
Thgh, skn of ower abdomen
Stomach
Lver
Spenc fexure of coon, descendng coon, sgmod
coon, proxma rectum
lntercosta musces, vertebrae, spna cord, back musces
Spna cord, vertebrae, psoas (on musces), quadratus
umborum, and other back musces
Caf musces
Back of ower eg
Carres deoxygenated bood from heart to ung
Latera forearm (thumb sde)
dney, proxma ureter, adrena gand
Head, neck, spna cord, thyrod, arynx,
chest musces, arm
Lower duodenum, |e|unum, eum, cecum, ascendng
coon, upper two-thrds of transverse coon
Parotd gand, temporomandbuar |ont, tempe
Nedum forearm (tte fnger sde)
Spne, cerebeum n bran
haIn arterIes
eIns facts
ln the venae cavae near
the heart, the bood
pressure s amost zero.
The nterna |uguar ven
drans deoxygenated
bood from the bran, and
aso from the face.
VeIns
54
eIns
over the body, bood ow n oxygen drans nto vens
that eventuay nk up wth the venae cavae. These arge
vens return bood from the body to the heart. Pumonary
vens carry hgh-oxygen bood from the ungs to the heart.
CIrcuIatory systen
eIns front vIew
Externa |uguar ven
Branchocephac
(nnomnate) ven
Superor vena cava
lnferor vena cava
Common ac ven
Great saphenous ven
Externa ac ven
Sma saphenous ven
lnterna ac ven
lnterna |uguar ven
Subcavan ven
Bracha ven
Unar ven
nteror tba ven
Posteror tba ven
Femora ven
Poptea ven
Pada ven
55
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
eIn
nteror tba ven
zygos ven
Basc ven
Bracha ven
Brachocephac
(nnomnate) ven
Cardac vens
Cerebra vens
Common ac ven
Externa |uguar ven
Faca ven
Femora ven
Gastrc ven
Great saphenous ven
Hemazygos ven
Hepatc ven
lnferor vena cava
lntercosta vens
lnterna |uguar ven
Neda antebracha ven
Nedan cubta ven
Nesenterc vens
Poptea ven
Porta ven
Posteror tba ven
Pumonary ven
Pada ven
Pena ven (eft)
Pena ven (rght)
Sma saphenous ven
Subcavan ven
Superor vena cava
Unar ven
Areas draIned
Front of ower eg
Latera and posteror abdomna and thoracc was,
esophagus, bronch n ungs
Neda sde of hand and forearm
rm, hand
Head, neck, arm, anteror thoracc wa
Heart musce
Bran cerebrum
Leg, pevs
Head, neck, shouder
Face
Deep parts of eg
Stomach
Superfca parts of nner sde of eg
Left ower posteroatera thoracc wa
Lver
Body beow daphragm
lntercosta spaces
Head, neck, shouder
Hand, anteror forearm
Hand, forearm
Sma and arge ntestnes
Caf
Drans bood from dgestve organs to ver
Back of ower eg
Carres oxygenated bood from ung to heart
Deep parts of back of hand and forearm
Left kdney, eft ovary or tests, eft ureter, eft adrena
gand, eft sde of daphragm
Pght kdney
Superfca part of ower eg
Head, neck, shouder
Body above daphragm (except heart and ungs)
Deep parts of pam and forearm
haIn veIns
Acrta and venae cavae
56
Aorta
The aorta s the man artery n the body,
carryng bood from the heart to the
other ma|or arteres. lt s n front of the
spne but behnd the esophagus. There
are four man sectons: the ascendng
aorta (whch branches nto the coronary
arteres), the aortc arch (whch branches
nto arteres for the head, neck, and
arms), the thoracc, or descendng,
aorta, and the abdomna aorta. Wthn
the abdomen, arteres branch off the
aorta to organs such as the kdneys.
PosItIon of aorta
and venae cavae
In the body
Carotd arteres
ortc arch
scendng aorta
Esophagus
Thoracc
(descendng)
aorta
Daphragm
dney
Common ac artery
bdomna aorta
Trachea (wndppe)
Pb (cut through)
Chest or thorax
Ceac trunk
(to dgestve
system)
Pena artery
Testcuar or
ovaran artery
5T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
eIn facts
The nferor vena cava s
approxmatey 1.38 nches
(3.5 cm) n dameter.
The ongest ven s the
great saphenous ven n
the eg.
enae cavae
The venae cavae are the argest vens n
the body. the vens from the upper
part of the body eventuay dran nto
the superor vena cava, whch s above
the heart. The venous bood from the
ower part of the body drans nto the
nferor vena cava, whch s beow the
heart. Both venae cavae empty ther
bood nto the rght atrum of the heart.
The nferor vena cava s arger than the
superor vena cava, and s the argest
bood vesse n the body.
lnterna |uguar ven
Superor vena cava
lntercosta vens
(between the rbs)
zygos ven
lnferor vena cava
Pena ven
bdomna aorta
Testcuar or ovaran ven
Common ac ven
Daphragm
Thoracc duct
Hemazygos ven
dney
ccessory hemazygos ven
Trachea (wndppe)
Hepatc porta ven (to ver)
Head, ace, and neck
5S
rteres runnng through the
neck keep the bran we
supped wth oxygen. lf ths
oxygen suppy shoud fa for
more than a few mnutes, the
bran begns to de. The two
vertebra arteres |on to
make the basar artery,
whch branches nto two and
termnates as the two
posteror cerebra arteres.
These suppy the cerebra
hemspheres of the bran.
ArterIes of face and neck
SIde vIew of arterIes of
head and neck
ArterIes at base of skuII
Cerebra hemsphere
Basar artery
Vertebra artery
lnterna carotd
artery
nteror cerebra
arteres
Ndde cerebra
artery
nteror spna
artery
Superfca tempora artery
Vertebra artery
Externa carotd artery
lnterna carotd artery
scendng cervca artery
scendng aorta
Subcavan artery
Occpta artery
Neda tempora artery
lnterna thoracc artery
Neda tempora artery
lnferor aba artery
Naxary (upper |aw) artery
50
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
CIrcuIatIon facts
The neck s a vunerabe
area because of the arge
bood vesses, arways,
and nerves wthn t.
snus s a cavty,
channe, or depresson.
SIde vIew of veIns of head
and neck
nteror faca ven
Cavernous snus
nguar ven
Brachocephac ven
Superor
sagtta snus
Great cerebra ven
Straght snus
Transverse snus
Sgmod snus
Vertebra ven
lnterna |uguar ven
Subcavan ven
Externa |uguar ven
Superor thyrod ven
eIns of face and neck
The prncpa neck vens are the arge
nterna |uguar vens, whch dran
oxygen-poor bood from the bran, sku,
and much of the face. The nterna
|uguar vens |on subcavan vens to
form brachocephac vens, whch dran
nto the superor vena cava. The externa
|uguar ven aso drans nto the
subcavan ven.
Superfca tempora ven
ungs and dIgestIve tract
60
Ths dagram shows the
bood suppy to the
ntestnes, whch are
coed nsde the
abdomen. The sma
ntestne (made up of the
duodenum, |e|unum, and
eum), and transverse
coon (mdde part of the
arge ntestne), have
been moved asde to
show the arteres
more ceary.
PuImonnry cIrcuInIIon Is IIe
suppIy oI bIood Io nnd Irom
IIe Iungs. TIe puImonnry
Irunk nnd Ivo puImonnry
nrIerIes cnrry deoygennIed
bIood Irom IIe rIgII venIrIcIe
oI IIe IenrI Io IIe Iungs.
Cnses nre ecInnged In IIe
puImonnry cnpIIInrIes nnd
IIen Iour puImonnry veIns
(Ivo Irom encI Iung) cnrry
oygennIed bIood Irom IIe
Iungs Io IIe IeII nIrIum oI IIe
IenrI. FncI puImonnry veIn
enIers IIe IenrI IIrougI n
sepnrnIe openIng.
BIood suppIy
to the IntestInes
BIood suppIy to the Iungs
CIrcuIatIon In rIght heart and puInonary artery
Front vIew of abdonen
Superor
vena cava
Pght
atrum
Pght ung Pumonary artery
Left ung
Pght ventrce
Pumonary
trunk
lnferor vena cava
scendng coon
Pght coc artery
Superor
mesenterc artery
leococ artery
Je|una and
ea arteres
Sma ntestne
Superor recta artery
Transverse coon
Left coc
artery
bdomna
aorta
lnferor
mesenterc
artery
Sgmod artery
Sgmod coon
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BIood suppIy to the IIver
Vens from the stomach, speen, pancreas, ntestnes,
and gabadder send ther bood to the ver nstead of
to the nferor vena cava. The ver removes excess
gucose and detoxfes any posonous substances
before sendng the bood through the hepatc vens to
the nferor vena cava. Ths means that bood passes
through two capary beds one n the dgestve
organs and one n the ver.
Front vIew of veIns of
hepatIc portaI systen
CIrcuIatIon facts
There are two porta
systems. One s n the
ver and the other s n
the bran, movng bood
from the hypothaamus
to the ptutary gand.
Pght branch
Pena vens
Superor mesenterc ven
Lgamentum venosum
Left hepatc ven
Esophagea vens
Spenc ven
Pght gastrc ven
Pena vens
Pght gastroeppoc ven
Common ac vens
Superor recta ven
lnferor vena cava
Porta ven
Paraumbca ven
Pght hepatc ven
Left branch
Pancreatcoduodena vens
Common ac vens
Pancreatc vens
Arm and hand
62
ArterIes of the arn
The man artery brngng
oxygenated bood nto
the arm s the bracha
artery. The bracha artery
n the front of the ebow
s the ste used for
measurng bood
pressure. The puse of
bood n the rada artery
can be fet on the back of
the wrst, and at the base
of the thumb.
Front vIew of rIght arn
ortc arch
Humerus
Pectoras
mnor
xary artery
Bracha artery
Deep bracha artery
Superor unar coatera
(sde by sde) artery
Pada artery
Deep pamar arch
(artery suppyng bood to fngers)
Dgta arteres
Superfca pamar arch
nteror nterosseous artery
Unar artery
Common nterosseous artery
Subscapuar artery
Frst rb
Subcavan artery
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SanpIIng bIood
When a doctor or nurse
takes a sampe of bood
for testng, they usuay
draw t from the medan
cubta ven. Ths s n the
bend of the ebow.
tournquet s apped
above the ebow to
dstend the ven so that
bood can be more easy
wthdrawn nto a
hypodermc neede.
eIns of rIght arn
(front vIew)
Dorsa venous
network
Cephac ven
Cephac ven
Basc ven
Nedan cubta ven
Nedan ven of forearm
RIght hand fron above
eIns of the hand
Nany of the vens on the back of the
hand are caed dorsa, whch
means upper surface. Vens across
the pam are caed pamar.
Dorsa dgta vens
Superfca
dorsa vens
Dorsa venous arch
Basc ven
Cephac ven
eg and cct
64
ArterIes of the Ieg
The externa ac artery brngs
oxygenated bood nto the eg and
becomes the femora artery on the
front of the thgh. The femora artery
becomes the poptea artery on the back
of the knee. Just beyond the knee |ont,
the poptea artery termnates by
dvdng nto the tba arteres. The
anteror tba artery contnues over the
anke to become the dorsa foot artery.
Front vIew showIng arterIes Back vIew showIng arterIes
bdomna aorta
Common ac artery
Deep femora artery
Femora artery
Poptea artery
nteror recurrent
tba artery
Latera tarsa artery
Dorsa dgta arteres
Superor gutea artery
lnferor gutea artery
Femora artery
Poptea artery
nteror tba artery
Peronea artery
Posteror tba artery
Neda pantar artery
Pantar arch
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Back vIew showIng
superfIcIaI veIns of Iower Ieg
SIde vIew showIng
superfIcIaI veIns of Iower Ieg
Great saphenous ven
eIns of Iower Ieg
The superfca vens of the eg are the
sma saphenous ven and the great
saphenous ven. The great saphenous
ven stretches from the foot to the
pevs. The superfca vens are under
the skn but nk wth deep vens, such as
the femora ven and tba vens. The
femora ven becomes the externa ac
ven, whch s the man tube dranng
bood back to the heart.
Sma saphenous ven
Perforatng vens
Sma saphenous ven
Great saphenous ven
Perforatng vens
Great saphenous ven
Iccd pressure
66
Bood pressure s the
force per unt area
exerted on the wa of
bood vesses by bood
wthn those vesses. lt
rses and fas under
dfferent condtons, such
as seepng, exercsng,
and perods of stress.
Bood fows from a
hgh-pressure regon to
a ow-pressure regon.
Bood s forced through
arteres by the
contracton of the heart,
and pressure s
therefore hgher n
arteres than n vens.
Larger bood vesses
(such as man arteres
ke the aorta) have
hgher pressure than
smaer vesses (such as
capares) because the
sze of the vesse has
an nfuence on the
resstance to bood fow
and the boods
veocty (speed).
heasurIng pressure
n nfatabe cuff wth a
pressure gauge (a
sphygmomanometer),
and a stethoscope, can
be used to measure
bood pressure (see
page 22 and dagram
above). The sounds
heard through the
UnderstandIng bIood pressure
Stethoscope
Bracha artery
Sphygmomanometer
stethoscope are caed
orotkoff sounds and
there are fve phases:
lnta tappng sound,
sounds ncrease n
ntensty, sounds at
maxmum ntensty,
sounds become muffed,
and, fnay, sounds
dsappear.
n oscotonometer
conssts of two
overappng cuffs and
aows bood pressure to
be read wthout a
stethoscope. The arger
cuff works ke the
sphygmomanometer
cuff, whe the smaer
cuff ampfes the puses
so these can be seen as
movements of a neede
on a pressure gauge.
AutonatIc bIood pressure
neasurenent
utomatc devces work
n a smar way to the
oscotonometer. One
cuff s wrapped around
the arm and the machne
nfates ths to a eve
greater than systoc
pressure (when the heart
contracts). s the cuff
defates sowy, a sensor
measures the changes n
the pressure of the cuff
caused by the puse.
Eectronc montors can
aso be used to measure
artera bood pressure n
crtcay patents by
nsertng a sma tube
drecty nto an artery,
such as rada or
bracha.
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Factors affectIng bIood pressure
Four ma|or factors affect bood pressure.
Cardac output s the voume of bood pumped by the
heart n one mnute. lf cardac output ncreases (as when
the heart beats faster durng perods of exctement, for
exampe), bood pressure ncreases. lf cardac output
decreases (durng perods of reaxaton, for exampe),
bood pressure decreases.
Bood voume s the amount of bood n the body. When
bood voume decreases (as a resut of severe beedng,
for exampe), bood pressure decreases. When bood
voume ncreases (as a resut of a transfuson, for
exampe), bood pressure rses.
Perphera resstance s the resstance that bood faces
when traveng through arteroes (tny arteres) and
capares. lncreased perphera resstance (e.g. bood
vesses constrcted by tght musces durng perods of
tenson, for exampe) resuts n ncreased bood pressure.
Peduced perphera resstance (for exampe, when bood
vesses date) resuts n reduced bood pressure.
Vscosty s the stckness of bood. lf bood can fow
smoothy through arteres and vens, pressure aganst the
artery was s reatvey ow. When bood becomes thck
and stcky, the heart has to work harder to pump t around
the body, and bood pressure rses.
PuIse
The puse s the
wave of pressure
that s generated
by the expanson
and reco of the
arteres.
s one puse s
transmtted wth
every heartbeat,
the puse can be
used to measure
heart rate.
The puse can
be fet on any
of the arteres
that are cose to
the surface.
The ocatons
where the puse
s most easy
taken are aso
known as
pressure ponts.
Igh and Iow bIood pressure
Bood pressure vares durng the day. lt
s usuay hghest n the mornng or f
someone s feeng anxous or stressed.
The foowng factors can a contrbute
to hgh bood pressure: beng
overweght, drnkng too much acoho,
eatng too much sat, and ack of
exercse. lf you have a famy hstory of
hgh bood pressure, you have a greater
chance of sufferng from hgh bood
pressure. Severe kdney dsease can
aso cause hgh bood pressure.
Low bood pressure does not usuay
produce any symptoms, athough
peope may fee dzzy or fant when they
stand after sttng or yng down. There s
usuay no need to treat ow bood
pressure, and peope wth ow bood
pressure tend to ve onger than peope
wth hgh, or even norma bood
pressure.
CIrcuIatcr dIscrders
6S
BIood vesseI and cIrcuIatory dIsorders
Aneurysn A bIoodIIIIed proIrusIon In IIe
vnII oI n veIn or nn nrIery. II nn nneurysm Is
noI IrenIed, IIe vesseI vIII evenIunIIy bursI,
nnd II IIe vesseI Is In IIe brnIn, n sIroke mny
occur.
ArterIoscIerosIs Term Ior n number oI
dIsorders (IncIudIng nIIeroscIerosIs) IInI
cnuse IIIckenIng nnd InrdenIng oI nn nrIery,
so IInI IIeIr vnIIs Iose IIeIr eInsIIcIIy.
AtheroscIerosIs TIe mnIn cnuse oI
coronnry nrIery dIsense. CIoIesIeroI nnd
oIIer deposIIs buIId up InsIde IIe vnIIs oI
nrIerIes, nnrrovIng IIe Iumen nnd reducIng
IIe eInsIIcIIy oI IIe vesseI vnIIs. TIIs cnn
cnuse IenrI nIIncks or prevenI IIe IenrI Irom
benIIng vIII n reguInr rIyIIm.
ChIIbIaIns PnInIuI or IIcIy sveIIIngs IInI
mny occur on coId Innds, IeeI, or enrs
becnuse oI poor cIrcuInIIon.
CIottIng BIood cIoIs mny Iorm II vesseIs nre
rougIened by deposIIs or Injured by
nccIdenI, surgery, or cIIIdbIrII.
EcchynosIs HemorrInge (bIeedIng) vIIIIn
IIe skIn IInI cnuses n dIscoIored, someIImes
bIuIsI, pnIcI; n bruIse.
EnboIus A bIood cIoI IInI IIonIs IreeIy In
IIe cIrcuInIory sysIem nnd evenIunIIy bIocks
nn nrIery.
FaIntIng FnIIIng over or pnssIng ouI cnused
by n brIeIIy reduced bIood IIov Io IIe brnIn.
enangIona A purpIIsI bIrIImnrk
resuIIIng Irom nbnormnI bIood vesseI
dIsIrIbuIIon.
enorrhoIds HemorrIoIds (pIIes) nre
vnrIcose veIns IInI occur In IIe recIum nnd
nnus vIen InuIIy vnIves IeI bIood IIov IIe
vrong vny nnd pooI. TIe surroundIng veIn
sveIIs nnd mny grov InIInmed.
ypertensIon HIgI bIood pressure.
SympIoms IncIude IIgIIIendedness,
IeIInrgy, mornIng IendncIe, IIusIed Ince,
nnd rIngIng In IIe enrs. TIe cnuses oI IIgI
bIood pressure nre oIIen unknovn, buI some
cnses nre cnused by kIdney dIsense.
ypotensIon Lov bIood pressure.
PetechIa A IIny spoI In IIe skIn cnused by
bIeedIng vIIIIn IIe skIn.
PuInonary enboIIsn A bIocknge oI one oI
IIe nrIerIes oI IIe Iungs.
Purpura MuIIIpIe poInIs oI bIeedIng vIIIIn
IIe skIn. CInrncIerIsIIc oI severnI dIsorders.
Raynaud s dIsease Sudden conIrncIIon oI
nrIerIes In IIe IIngers nnd Ioes.
Stroke Cnused by n bIocked or bursI nrIery
nIIecIIng IIe brnIn. ConIusIon, dIzzIness,
sIurred speecI, or pnrnIysIs oI IImbs mny
menn IInI n sIroke Ins occurred. In n severe
nIInck, IIe person Ioses conscIousness
nImosI ImmedInIeIy. Recovery depends on
nge, genernI IenIII, nnd IIe sIIe nnd sIze oI
IIe dnmnge. TrenImenI consIsIs mnInIy oI
resI nnd cnreIuI nursIng, pIysIoIIernpy, nnd
(II needed) speecI IIernpy. rugs nre
someIImes used Io Iover bIood pressure.
ThronbophIebItIs A bIood cIoI nnd
InIInmmnIIon IInI nIIecIs deep or surInce Ieg
veIns. II oIIen occurs In IIe bedrIdden, buI
eercIsIng IIe Iegs IeIps Io prevenI II.
CrnmpIng pnIn nnd sveIIIng In IIe cnII mny
suggesI deepveIn IIrombosIs, nnd requIres
medIcnI IrenImenI.
arIcose veIns SvoIIen superIIcInI veIns In
IIe Iegs cnused by InuIIy vnIves. BIood pooIs
In IIe veIns, mnkIng IIem buIge
(surroundIng muscIe prevenIs IIIs
InppenIng Io IIe deep veIns).
60
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Connon Ieg probIens
The ustraton on the rght pots the
stes of some of the probems that
commony affect the egs.
1 Varcose vens, these are engorged
bood vesses that are no onger capabe
of hepng to pump the bood up the eg.
2 Phebts, ths condton s caused by
the cottng of bood n the surface vens
of the eg, and can have serous
compcatons.
3 Varcose ucer, ucers of ths type are
usuay caused by varcose vens, and
nvove breakdown of the surroundng
tssue, and often ntense tchng.
4 Cramp, the ntense pan of cramp s
often experenced n the caves, and s
caused by the musce gong nto spasm.
Ths may be because of a sat defcency,
or the egs may have been exercsed
earer wthout aowng suffcent tme
for them to warm up and coo down.
5 Swoen ankes, the accumuaton of
fud n the ankes causes them to swe
and fee tender and heavy. Obesty,
pregnancy, excessve water retenton,
ack of exercse, and heart faure are a
contrbutory factors.
CIrcuIatIon facts
bout 10 percent of peope are born wth
fauty vaves that may cause varcose vens
f they stand for ong perods so that the
caf musces cannot pump bood uph.
The nsdes of the eyeds are usuay pae
f a person s anemc.
4
5
2
3
1
lntrcductIcn
T0
Iood Is IIe IIuId IIaI Is pumped aiound IIe body In
IIe cIicuIaIoiy sysIem. osI aduIIs Iave abouI 0 pInIs
. I oI bIood, vIIcI makes up abouI seven Io nIne
peicenI oI IIeIi IoIaI body veIgII. TIe maIn IuncIIons
oI bIood aie IIe IianspoiIaIIon oI subsIances, IIe
ieguIaIIon oI IempeiaIuie, vaIei conIenI, and p acId
base baIance , and IIe pioIecIIon oI IIe body agaInsI
IaimIuI Invadeis and dIsease.
BIood conponents
TIe IIquId pnrI oI bIood Is n cIenr,
yeIIovIsI, vnIery IIuId cnIIed
pInsmn. TIIs conInIns dIssoIved
sugnrs, snIIs, vnsIes, body proIeIns,
Iormones, nnd oIIer cIemIcnIs.
Suspended In IIe pInsmn nre red
bIood ceIIs, vIIIe bIood ceIIs nnd
pInIeIeIs, vIIcI IogeIIer mnke up
IIe Iormed eIemenIs oI bIood. TIe
red coIor oI bIood In IIe nrIerIes Is
due Io n proIeIn cnIIed IemogIobIn
cnrrIed by red bIood ceIIs.
HemogIobIn Is brIgII red vIen
IrnnsporIIng oygen In IIe nrIerIes
nnd n dnrker bIuIsIred In IIe veIns
vIen II Ins gIven up IIs oygen.
Red and whIte bIood ceIIs
Red bIood ceIIs IrnnsporI oygen
nnd cnrbon dIoIde, vIIIe vIIIe
bIood ceIIs cIenn IIe bIood, remove
debrIs, nnd desIroy mIcroorgnnIsms
IInI Invnde IIe body. Red bIood
ceIIs Inve no nucIeI or InIernnI
orgnneIIes, buI vIIIe bIood ceIIs nre
compIeIe ceIIs vIII nucIeI nnd
oIIer InIernnI sIrucIures. VIIIe
bIood ceIIs vIII grnnuIes In IIeIr
cyIopInsm IncIude neuIropIIIs nnd
bnsopIIIs. LympIocyIes nnd
monocyIes Inve Iev grnnuIes.
ReIatIve sI e and shape of the
naIn conponents of bIood
BIood facts
Bood reay s thcker than
water and fows four or fve
tmes more sowy.
ln a drop of bood, there are
about fve mon red bood
ces, 7,500 whte bood ces
and 300,000 pateets.
Nonocyte Basoph Neutroph
Neutroph
Ped bood ce Lymphocyte
Thrombocytes
(pateets)
SECTlON : OOD
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GeneraI bIood ceII fornatIon
Ped bood ces, whte bood ces,
and pateets are contnuay beng
destroyed, and the body must make
new ones to take ther pace. Bood ce
formaton s caed hematopoess or
hemopoess. lt occurs many n red
bone marrow, whch s found n the
breastbone, rbs, and hpbones n aduts.
Some ymphocytes and monocytes are
formed by ymphatc tssue, whch s
many n the ymph nodes, thymus,
and speen.
The fornatIon of red bIood ceIIs
Ths s caed erythropoess. Ped bood
ces carry oxygen. lf the oxygen eve of
the bood drops (not the number of red
ces), the body s stmuated to produce
more red bood ces, .e. more ces to
carry oxygen. The oxygen eve of the
bood may drop because of:
reduced numbers of ces (caused by
excessve beedng or excess red bood
ce destructon),
reduced avaabty of oxygen due
to hgh attudes or ness (such as
pneumona),
ncreased demands for oxygen
(common after aerobc exercse).
The IIfe cycIe of a red bIood ceII
1 ow eve of oxygen n the bood
stmuates the kdneys to produce a
hormone caed erythropoetn.
2 The eve of erythropoetn rses.
3 Ths promotes the formaton of red
bood ces n red bone marrow.
4 New red bood ces are reeased nto
the boodstream.
5 Od and damaged red bood ces are
engufed by whte bood ces vng n
the bone marrow, ver, and speen.
Hemogobn (oxygen-carryng part of the
ce) s broken down and reused.
6 Ths reeases the raw materas for
further red bood ce formaton.
New red bood ces are reeased nto
the bood.
The IIfe cycIe of a red bIood ceII
1
2
3
5
4
6
dney
Long bone
Lver
Speen
Iccd ceIIs
T2
Conponents
Bood s a speca type of connectve
tssue n whch formed eements (red
and whte bood ces) are suspended n
pasma (a nonvng fud). Peatve
percentages of bood components are:
pasma (55 ), whte bood ces and
pateets (1 ), red bood ces (44 ).
Forned eIenents
Erythrocytes (red bood ces).
Leukocytes (whte bood ces).
Thrombocytes (pateets).
Whte bood ces ncude neutrophs,
eosnophs, basophs, ymphocytes,
and monocytes.
PIasna
Ths s the qud porton of the bood. ln
addton to the formed eements, t
contans:
water,
sats,
protens (for exampe, abumn,
gobun, fbrnogen),
nutrents,
waste products, and
hormones.
FunctIons
Transport
Carres oxygen and nutrents to ces.
Transports waste gases (e.g. carbon
doxde) from ces to the ungs to be
expeed.
Transports wastes from ces to the
kdneys to be emnated.
Carres hormones from the endocrne
gands to where they are needed.
ReguIatIon
Peguates body temperature by
dsspatng heat from actve areas
(such as musces).
Heps reguate the water content
of ces.
Contans buffers that keep pH eves
n tssues norma.
ProtectIon
Cottng heps prevent hemorrhage
when bood vesses are damaged.
Certan whte bood ces hep protect
aganst harmfu mcroorgansms by
engufng them.
ntbodes n pasma hep protect
aganst dsease.
BIood conponents
Erythrocytes
(red bood ces)
Leukocytes
(whte bood ces)
Thrombocytes
(pateets)
Pasma
Whte ces
and pateets
Ped ces
SECTlON : OOD
T3
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Types of bIood ceII
CeII type
rythrocytes
(red bood ces)
Leu ocytes
(whte bood
ces)
Granuocytes
Neutrophs
Eosnophs
Basophs
granuocytes
Lymphocytes
Nonocytes
Platelets
FunctIons
Transport oxygen
and carbon
doxde
Enguf bactera
parastc
worms
Counteract
aergc reactons
Peease
hstamne and
antcoaguant
heparn
Produce
antbodes and
assst wth
mmune
response
Enguf bactera
ssst bood
cottng
Nunber per
drop of bIood
4- mon
3,000-7,000
100-400
20-50
1,500-3,000
100-700
250,000-500,00
0
LIfespan
100-200 days
(120 average)
hours
severa days
8-12 days
few hours
severa days
hours years
months
5-10 days
Iccd ceII deveIcpment
T4
BIood ceII deveIopnent
bood ces arse from the same type
of stem ce caed a hematopoetc stem
ce or hemocytobast. The dagram
beow shows the stages n deveopment
of the dfferent components of bood.
From eft to rght these are: pateets, red
bood ces, whte bood ces, and
pasma ces. The granuocyte whte
bood ces (neutrophs, basophs, and
eosnophs) have mutobed nuce,
whereas monocytes and ymphocytes
have snge nuce.
1 Formaton of
red bood ces.
Hemocytobasts
(1) dfferentate
nto erythrobasts
(4), whch make
hemogobn. The
erythrobast oses
ts nuceus and
becomes an
mmature red
bood ce caed a
retcuocyte (6).
Ths enters the
boodstream,
oses ts ce
organees and
matures nto an
erythrocyte ( ).
11 Pateets
formed by
fragmentaton.
12 1 Formaton
of granuocytes.
1 1 Formaton
of monocytes.
2 23 Formaton
of ymphocytes.
24 25 lmmature
and mature
pasma ces.
1
2
3
1
11
12
13
14
15
16
1
1
1
21
2
22
23
24
25
4
5
6
ey to dIagran
Thrombocytes
(pateets)
Erythrocyte Granuocyte Nonocyte Lymphocyte Pasma
ce
SECTlON : OOD
T5
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
B Iynphocytes
Those ymphocytes that are to become
B-ces (whte bood ces that produce
antbodes) probaby reman n the bone
marrow. Here, the ces dupcate and earn
how to recognze one specfc antgen
(substance that provokes an mmune
response). The mature B-ces then trave
to the ymphatc system and bood system.
When B-ces are actvated, they enarge
and become pasma ces.
Lynphocyte deveIopnent
Lymphocytes are sma whte
bood ces wth few granues n
ther cytopasm, and a arge,
round nuceus that takes up
most of the ce.
ymphocytes orgnate n the
bone marrow. Durng feta
deveopment, ony one type of
mmature ymphocyte s
produced by the bone marrow.
process of dfferentaton
then occurs that turns these
nto ether B-ymphocytes (or
B-ces) or T-ymphocytes (or
T-ces). See
pages - .
T Iynphocytes
Those ymphocytes that are to become
T-ces (whte bood ces that attack
and k other ces) trave to the
thymus gand (part of the ymphatc
system). Here, the ces dupcate and
earn how to recognze one specfc
antgen. The mature T-ces then trave
to the ymphatc system and bood
system, where they crcuate unt
caed nto acton. Both B- and T- ces
hep to protect the body from ts own
defense system.
B-ces
T-ces
Lymph system Bood system
Bone marrow
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes
Thymus
gand
BIood facts
bout 200 bon red bood ces are made
day about 2.5 mon per second.
Ped bood ces ve for about four months
before they break apart and de.
The speen may contan about one pnt
(more than 500 m) of bood.
cne marrcw and spIeen
T6
Bone narrow
Ped bone marrow s soft
connectve tssue found
nsde some bones. lt s
the man bood-makng
tssue n an adut. t
brth, a the bone
marrow n the body s red
marrow, but by
adoescence, most of ths
s repaced by yeow
marrow, whch stores fat.
eow marrow can
produce red bood ces
under stress, but does
not normay do so. Ped
marrow n aduts s found
n the ends of ong
bones, such as the femur
(thgh bone) and
humerus (upper arm
bone), where t fs n
sma spaces n the
spongy bone. lt s aso
found n some short
bones, such as the
sternum (breastbone),
rbs, cranum (sku), and
vertebrae.
SItes of red bone narrow In an aduIt
Cranum
Sternum
Femur
Humerus
Pbs
Pevs
Scapua
Vertebrae
Tba
Fbua
SECTlON : OOD
TT
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
SpIeen
The speen, ocated n the upper eft
abdomen, s the argest ymphod gand
n the body. lt s made up of sma
sands of whte pup scattered
throughout red pup. The whte pup
conssts of masses of ymphocytes
surroundng sma branches of the
spenc artery. s bood fows through
the pup, od or damaged bood ces,
debrs, and bactera are ftered out. The
speen aso stores ron from the od red
ces and serves as a reservor for bood.
PosItIon reIatIve to
other organs
Iew fron beIow to
show bIood suppIy
Speen
Sma ntestne
Pancreas
Bood suppy
Ga badder
lnferor vena cava
orta
Spenc ven
Spenc artery
Hus
Fbrous capsue
Spenc ven
Spenc artery
IeedIng and bIccd cIcttIng
TS
PreventIng bIood Ioss
Snce much of the bood n the
crcuatory system s under hgh
pressure, serous oss of bood can
occur after an n|ury. The body has
three ways of preventng uncontroed
beedng. These are:
the constrcton of bood vesse was
to restrct the fow of bood,
the cumpng together of pateets
to form pateet pugs (pateet
aggregaton), and
the process of bood cottng.
Cottng s essenta for the heang of
wounds, but t s fe threatenng f t
occurs n an unbroken bood vesse
and obstructs the fow of bood to a
vta organ, such as the heart.
BIood cIottIng
Bood cottng prevents excessve
bood oss from a wound. lt nvoves
convertng bood from a qud nto a
ge by means of a process caed
coaguaton. Ths compcated process
s a seres of chemca reactons that
nvoves more than 30 dfferent
substances. There are three man
stages n the cottng process. Frsty,
cottng factors are reeased by n|ured
tssue ces and pateets. Secondy,
chemca reactons form an nsoube
mesh of fbrn threads across the
n|ury. Thrdy, pateets and bood ces
become trapped n the mesh. The |ey-
ke mass shrnks and serum oozes
out, eavng a brtte ump, or cot
over the wound. Ths seas off the eak
whe the damage s repared
underneath.
ow a bIood cIot forns
1 When the skn s cut, bood wes to the
surface. Pateets (tny bood ces)
accumuate at the ste of n|ury. n
enzyme caed thrombopastn s
reeased nto the bood. Ths actvates a
seres of reactons to produce a proten
caed thrombn.
2 Thrombn nteracts wth fbrnogen (a
soube proten), aso present n bood,
to make the nsoube proten fbrn.
Fbrn forms mcroscopc threads, whch
trap red and whte bood ces and
pateets to form a cot that seas the
openng of the wound.
Bood
Whte bood ce
Skn
Ped bood ce Fbrn
SECTlON : OOD
T0
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
BIeedIng
Cottng factors n the bood usuay
sea a sma cut qucky. lt may hep f
you press a cean coth pad (such as a
foded handkerchef) aganst the
wound. lf beedng perssts, add more
ayers of coth, ncreasng the
pressure and keepng the n|ured part
st. cot shoud form wthn about
fve mnutes.
To stop heavy beedng, press the
wound edges together wth a cean
coth or even your fngers (provded
they are cean and free from cuts and
abrasons), and rase the cut mb.
Prevent shock by yng the patent
down wth hs or her feet above head
eve. lf possbe, cean a sma wound
wth antseptc, and stere gauze
swabs. Then cover t wth cean gauze
kept n pace by a bandage or adhesve
tape, and seek medca ad.
Press a pad aganst the wound
3 new cot s percent water but t
soon contracts and dres out. The mesh
of fbrn threads and the dead bood
ces harden to form a scab. Ths
prevents further bood oss and heps to
stop bactera and other germs from
nfectng the wound.
4 Beneath the scab, new ces form.
Once the od, damaged ces have been
repaced, the scab drops off. lf the scab
s removed before ths process has been
competed, further beedng may occur
and a new scab may form to sea and
protect the wound.
Cot
Scab New ces
BIood facts
When bood s transfused
(transferred) from one
person to another, the Ph
type and bood group
type must be matched
very carefuy.
Iccd grcups and trans usIcns
S0
Bood s grouped
accordng to specfc
antgens and antbodes
reated to red bood ces.
Nany antbodes react
wth antgens to make
them cump together, or
aggutnate. Two antgens
( and B) on the surface
of some red bood ces
are referred to as
aggutnogen and
aggutnogen B.
Bood pasma contans
antbodes that may react
wth aggutnogen or
aggutnogen B to make
the red bood ces
aggutnate or break
down.
nt- antbody attacks
aggutnogen , whe
ant-B antbody attacks
aggutnogen B. The
bood does not contan
antbodes to attack ts
own red bood ces. But
f a person s gven a
bood transfuson of
The reactIon of antIbodIes to aggIutInogens
AntIgens and antIbodIes
bood wth a dfferent
aggutnogen, the
antbodes w attack the
aggutnogen on the
foregn bood. Ths can
ead to harmfu effects
such as fever, |aundce,
kdney faure and even, n
some cases, death.
ggutnaton
nt- antbodes nt-B antbodes
ggutnogen ggutnogen B
SECTlON : OOD
S1
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
BIood typIng
Puttng bood nto dfferent groups s
caed bood typng. There are four bood
groups (types): , B, B, and O. They are
named accordng to the aggutnogens
on the red bood ces.
Ths tabe shows that peope wth type
bood have aggutnogen and ant-B
antbody, peope wth type B bood have
aggutnogen B and ant- antbody,
peope wth type B bood have
aggutnogens and B but nether ant-
nor ant-B antbodes, and peope wth
type O bood have nether
aggutnogens nor B but do have
ant- and ant-B antbodes.
enoIytIc dIsease
The process of red bood ce destructon n a fetus s
caed hemoytc dsease. lt affects newborn babes
wth Ph bood whose mothers have Ph- bood.
1 lf Ph bood from a fetus mxes wth a mothers Ph-
bood (through a damaged bood vesse for nstance),
the mother deveops ant-Ph aggutnns (antbodes).
2 Durng another pregnancy wth a Ph fetus, the ant-
Ph aggutnns pass through the pacenta, from the
mother to the fetus. Ths causes aggutnaton of the
fetuss red bood ces, damagng the unborn baby.
The Rh factor
Ths was frst studed n rhesus monkeys (hence the
name). lt s smar to the BO bood groupng system
n that t s based on the aggutnogens (substances
that promote bood cottng) present on the surface of
some red bood ces. Peope are Ph postve (Ph ) f
they have Ph aggutnogens. Peope wthout Ph
aggutnogens are termed Ph negatve (Ph-).
Ph bood
Ph- bood
Fetus
Ph- woman Ph baby
Peope wth type O bood are caed
unversa donors as ther bood can be
gven to peope of any bood group.
BIood group AggIutInogen AntIbody
Type
Type B
Type B
Type O
B
and B
nether
ant-B
ant-
nether
both
2
1
Iccd dIscrders and de enses
S2
BIood facts
There s no known permanent
cure for hemopha.
Scke ce anema affects one n
500 frcan mercans.
There are about 100 bood
antgen systems n addton to
the BO and Ph systems.
Norma
mae
a etes
s er
and o a
ffs ring
Parents
Carrer
femae
enophIIIa
person wth hemopha acks
a proten needed to make bood
cot qucky, so a mnor n|ury
may resut n profuse beedng
that s fe-threatenng. Certan
forms of hemopha are sex-
nked, and are caused by a
recessve gene (h) on the
(femae) chromosome.
lnherItIng henophIIIa
woman has two
chromosomes. lf she has a
snge hemopha gene
(genotype
H h
), she s a
carrer for hemopha, but she
does not have the condton
hersef. Her second
chromosome bears a norma
gene (H, whch codes for the
vta bood-cottng proten).
man has one and one
chromosome. lf he has ony
one hemopha gene (genotype
h
), ths w be expressed and
he w have the condton.
enophIIIac fenaIes
For a woman to suffer from hemopha, she
needs to have two hemopha genes (
h h
),
one on each chromosome. She woud need to
nhert the gene from both her parents. Ths s
ess key than nhertng one gene from one
parent, and s the reason why fewer women
suffer from hemopha than men.
Carrer
femae
Norma
femae
Norma
mae
Hemophac
mae
Chromosome
Hemophac
gene
Norma
gene
H h H H h H
SECTlON : OOD
S3
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
ChenIcaI defenses
Compement s a group of protens that
crcuates n the bood n an nactve
form. One of the protens n the group s
actvated f t contacts a foregn partce
or bacterum. The actvated proten sets
off a chan reacton that actvates the
others n the group. Durng ths stage,
chemcas are reeased that attract
phagocytc (engufng) ces (see
dagram). so, other chemcas are
reeased that cause the wa of the
foregn ce to become stcky. Ths makes
t easer for the phagocytes to grp and
enguf the foregn ce. Neanwhe,
Scke-ce anema s a serous heredtary
dsease caused by an abnorma form of
hemogobn. lt causes the red bood
ces to become rgd, rough, and
crescent-shaped ke a scke, nstead
of the norma dsk. Scke ces do not
carry or reease oxygen as we as
norma red bood ces. They cog
capares and other sma bood
vesses, reducng bood suppy to
some tssues, and causng sweng,
pan, and tssue destructon.
person who nherts ony one
defectve gene deveops a form of the
dsease caed scke-ce trat. Nost
peope wth scke-ce trat have no
symptoms of the dsease. On the other
hand, f two defectve genes are
nherted, more of the defectve
hemogobn s produced and the bood
ces become severey dstorted.
Symptoms of ths form of the dsease
ncude chronc anema (caused by
destructon of red ces), fatgue, bone
and kdney changes (such as decreased
bone marrow actvty), ncreased
susceptbty to nfecton, stroke
(especay n chdren), and even death.
Genetcsts beeve that scke-ce
anema s an adaptaton to copng wth
maara, snce scke-ce anema
provdes resstance to maara. When the
red ces of a person wth scke-ce
anema are nvaded by the maara
paraste, they stck to bood vesse was,
become deoxygenated, take on the
scke shape, and are then destroyed.
The maara paraste s destroyed, aong
wth the scke ces. Peope wth scke-
ce anema are usuay back, and can
trace ther heredtary orgns to paces
where maara s a probem.
SIckIe ceII anenIa
compement attaches tsef to the
remanng foregn ces, formng hoes n
the surfaces of the ces. Water passes
nto the foregn ces, forcng them to
burst.
Chan reacton
Phagocyte ce
Chemcas
Bacterum
Lynph facts
The argest ymph vesses
are the ymphatc ducts:
the rght ymphatc duct
and the thoracc duct.
Lymphatc capares are
more porous than bood
capares and et through
arger moecues.
lntrcductIcn
S4
TIe IympIaIIc sysIem Is a neIvoik oI vesseIs and
oigans IIaI diaIns IympI Iiom aII ovei IIe body back
InIo IIe bIood. ympI Is a body IIuId IIaI conIaIns
IympIocyIes vIIIe bIood ceIIs , pioIeIns, and IaIs. TIIs
Is a diaInage sysIem IIaI voiks aIongsIde IIe
caidIovascuIai sysIem IeaiI and bIood vesseIs .
TIe IympIaIIc sysIem Is aIso ImpoiIanI Io IIe Immune
sysIem, IIe body s naIuiaI deIense.
Lymph vesses are bnd-
ended and run parae to
vens and arteres. They
are thn-waed and, ke
vens, the arger vesses
have vaves that prevent
backfow. The vaves gve
these vesses a beaded
appearance. The fow of
ymph rees on pressure
supped by musce
acton and breathng. ln
addton, the musces of
the ymph vesse was
contract to hep move
ymph through the
system.
The ymphatc system
does not have a pump
comparabe to the heart.
Lymph ducts dvde nto
ymphatc trunks, agan
nto ymphatc vesses,
and fnay nto ymphatc
capares. Unke bood,
ymph does not fow
through the system n a
contnuous oop.
Lynph vesseIs
Bronchomedastna
trunk
Pght ymphatc duct
xary ymph nodes
Thoracc duct
lntestna
ymphatc trunk
Superfca
ymph vesses
SECTlON : NPHATlC S STEN
S5
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Lynph nodes
Some ymph vesses contan
enargements caed ymph
nodes. These contan ces that
remove bactera and
hep wth the mmune
response, they are essenta
to the functonng of the
mmune system.
ther IynphatIc organs
Other organs nvoved n the
ymphatc system are the
speen, the thymus, and the
tonss. Peyers patches and
NLT (mucosa-assocated
ymphatc tssue) are
mportant ymphatc tssues.
The speen fters and
ceanses bood, destroyng
worn-out or damaged bood
ces and returnng ther
products to the ver for reuse.
lt aso acts as an organ of
bood-ce formaton f the
bone marrow s unabe to
produce enough to meet the
bodys needs.
L hP ATlC S STEh: E R S
Thymus
Speen
Tonss
Peyers patches
AxIIIary Iynph nodes
TIe IympI nodes
IocnIed In IIe nrmpII.
CIsterna chyII An
enInrged pnrI oI IIe
IIorncIc ducI IInI
receIves IympI Irom
severnI IympInIIc vesseIs.
CubItaI Iynph nodes
TIe IympI nodes nI IIe
eIbov.
lnnune systen TIe
body`s deIense sysIem
ngnInsI InIecIIve
orgnnIsms or oIIer
IoreIgn bodIes. II
IncIudes IIe IympInIIc
sysIem.
lnnunobIast
(or LympIobInsI)
A nucIenIed precursor oI
n IympIocyIe.
lnguInaI Iynph nodes
TIe IympI nodes In IIe
groIn nren.
Lynph A IrnnspnrenI
IIuId IInI Ienks Irom
bIood vesseIs InIo IIssue
spnces. II Is coIIecIed by
IIe IympInIIc sysIem.
Lynph ducts TIe InrgesI
IympI vesseIs: IIe rIgII
IympInIIc ducI nnd IIe
IIorncIc ducI.
Lynph gIand LympI
node.
Lynph node (or LympI
gInnd) ne oI IIe
knoIs In IIe IympInIIc
sysIem, vIIcI conInIn
IympIocyIes nnd
mncropInges IInI IIIIer
IIe IympI pnssIng
IIrougI IIe nodes.
Lynph trunks Mnjor
IympI vesseIs, IncIudIng
IIe subcInvInn, juguInr,
nnd Iumbnr Irunks.
Lynph vesseIs
LympInIIc sysIem.
LynphatIc capIIIarIes
TIe IInIesI Iubes oI IIe
IympInIIc sysIem. TIey
nre mIcroscopIc.
LynphatIc systen
A neIvork oI IympI
vesseIs nnd IympI
nodes. esseIs coIIecI
IympI Irom body IIssues
nnd reIurn II Io IIe
bIood nIIer InrmIuI
subsInnces Inve been
IIIIered ouI In IIe
IympI nodes.
LynphobIast
ImmunobInsI.
Lynphocyte A Iype oI
vIIIe bIood ceII IInI Is
Iormed In IIe IympI
nodes nnd produces
nnIIbodIes.
hacrophages Lnrge
ceIIs IInI scnvenge ceII
debrIs nnd IoreIgn
bodIes. TIey occur
mnInIy In connecIIve
nnd IympInIIc IIssue.
mph cIrcuIatIcn
S6
LynphatIc systen
Ces of the body are bathed n
nterstta, or tssue, fud. Nuch of ths
fud enters bood capares but the
remander enters the ymphatc system
before t returns to the bood. lt frst
enters the ymphatc capares. Then t
fows through ncreasngy arger ymph
venues and vens. Fnay, the fud
enters the rght ymphatc duct or
thoracc duct, whch empty ther
contents nto the subcavan vens
of the bood crcuatory system.
ha|or Iynph vesseIs and theIr InnedIate trIbutarIes
Pght bronchomedastna
trunk
Pght |uguar trunk
Pght nterna |uguar ven
Ponts where ymph drans
nto brachocephac vens
Pght subcavan ven
Superor vena cava
Brachocephac vens
Thoracc duct
Lymph vesses
Csterna chy
lntestna ymphatc trunk
Lymph nodes
ST
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Lynph draInage
The rght ymphatc duct drans ymph
from the top rght quadrant of the body.
The thoracc duct drans ymph from the
whoe of the rest of the body. The
csterna chy s a storage area for ymph
n the abdomna regon of the thoracc
duct. t ma|or mb |onts are custers of
ymph nodes (see page 88). Nodes vary
n sze from as sma as a pnhead to
over
2
5 nch (10 mm) n dameter.
Front vIew
Rear vIew
of Ieg
SIde vIew of head, neck, and trunk
Lymph nodes
are custered n
groups of up to
50 n the armpts
and around
the gron.
xary
ymph nodes
Superfca
cubta ymph
nodes
Superfca
nguna
ymph nodes
Superfca
poptea
ymph nodes
Occpta
ymph nodes
Cervca
ymph nodes
xary
ymph
nodes
Submandbuar
ymph nodes
Parasterna
ymph nodes
Pectora axary
ymph nodes
mph ncdes
SS
Structure
Lymph nodes (or gands) are sma
organs that e aong ymph vesses
throughout the body. Custers of them
are aso found n the gron, armpts,
and neck.
Each node conssts of a fbrous outer
bag contanng ymphod tssue. Ths s
a dense mass of connectve tssue that
houses ymphocytes (whte bood ces)
and macrophages (engufng whte
bood ces).
Lymphod tssue s grouped nto
nodues.
Lymph enters and eaves the node
through ymphatc vesses.
Vaves prevent the backfow of ymph.
Lynph nodes
FunctIons
Lymph nodes fter ymph. lnfectous
agents, damaged or cancerous ces,
and other debrs are trapped n the
fbrous tssue.
Lymphocytes and macrophages n the
nodes ceanse ymph by destroyng
bactera, vruses, and other harmfu
substances.
When the nodes are busy fghtng
nfecton, arge numbers of bactera or
vruses are trapped n them. Ths can
cause the nodes to become swoen
and panfu.
Lymphatc vesse
Nodue
Lymphod tssue
Vave
Lymphatc vesse
Lymph node
Fow of ymph
S0
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Thynus
The thymus conssts of
two obes of ymphod
tssue n the upper
chest.
lt s much arger n
chdren than n aduts
because the man task
of the thymus the
producton and
deveopment of a
speca type of
ymphocyte caed a
T-ymphocyte (or T-ce)
s carred out before
aduthood.
SpIeen
The speen resembes a ymph node n
structure, but t s much arger.
lt s made of two types of tssue: red
pup and whte pup.
Ped pup s ymphod tssue argey
comprsng bood, ymphocytes (whte
bood ces), and macrophages
(engufng whte bood ces).
Whte pup s many ymphocytes.
Bood enters the speen by the spenc
artery and eaves through the spenc
ven.
The man functons of the speen are to:
fter the bood,
produce ymphocytes, and
house ymphocytes and macrophages,
whch destroy harmfu substances and
cear up debrs.
Thynus In a chIId
Thynus In an aduIt
Spenc
artery
Spenc ven
Thymus
Thymus
mph dIscrders
00
Lynph dIsorders
AdenItIs InIInmmnIIon oI
IIe ndenoIds, smnII IympI
gInnds nI IIe bnck oI IIe
nnsnI cnvIIy, n sympIom oI
n vIde vnrIeIy oI InIecIIous
dIsenses.
Al S AcquIred
ImmunodeIIcIency
Syndromen InIe, IIIe
IIrenIenIng, buI noI
InevIInbIe, sInge oI HI
InIecIIon.
BurkItt s Iynphona
A Iumor oI IympIoId IIssue,
common nmong cIIIdren In
AIrIcn, IInI Is IIougII Io be
cnused by n vIrnI InIecIIon
sprend by mosquIIoes.
EnIarged spIeen A IypIcnI
sympIom oI n rnnge oI
dIsenses IInI IncIude
IypIoId Iever, mnInrIn,
sypIIIIs, nnd HI .
l Humnn
ImmunodeIIcIency Irus
nn InIecIIon IInI desIroys
IIe body`s Immune sysIem
nnd cnn Iend Io AIS. TIe
vIrus, vIIcI Is IrnnsmIIIed
IIrougI body IIuIds, nIIncks
nnIIbodyproducIng
IympIocyIes.
odgkIn s dIsease
A mnIIgnnnI dIsense oI
unknovn cnuse IInI nIIecIs
IIe IympI nodes, spIeen,
nnd oIIer orgnns reInIed Io
vIIIe bIood ceIIs.
lnnunodefIcIency Any
brenkdovn or InIIure oI IIe
body`s Immune sysIem.
LeukopenIa A condIIIon
In vIIcI IIe number oI
some vIIIe bIood ceIIs
(IeukocyIes) Is grenIIy
reduced.
LeukenIa A dIsense In
vIIcI IIe number oI vIIIe
bIood ceIIs (IympIocyIes) Is
permnnenIIy Incrensed. II
Ins mnny cnuses, IIe mosI
ImporInnI beIng n mnIIgnnnI
(cnncerous) unconIroIIed
producIIon oI IympIocyIes.
LynphadenItIs A genernI
InIInmmnIIon oI IIe
IympInIIc gInnds.
Lynphadenona
TIe medIcnI nnme Ior
HodgkIn`s dIsense.
LynphangIectasIs
Any nbnormnI vIdenIng
oI IIe IympI vesseIs.
LynphatIsn A genernI
enInrgemenI oI IympInIIc
IIssue IIrougIouI IIe body.
LynphenIa MedIcnI nnme
Ior IympInIIc IeukemIn.
LynphocythenIa
AnoIIer nnme Ior
IympInIIc IeukemIn.
Lynphoedena A sveIIIng
oI nII or pnrI oI nn orgnn due
IIe obsIrucIIon or dnmnge
Io IIe IympI vesseIs
drnInIng II.
LynphogranuIona
InguInaIe A venerenI
(seunIIy IrnnsmIIIed)
dIsense In vIIcI IIe IympI
gInnds oI IIe groIn become
enInrged.
LynphogranuIona
venerun AnoIIer nnme Ior
IympIgrnnuIomn InguInnIe.
Lynphona A Iumor oI
IympIoId IIssue.
LynphopathIa venerun
AnoIIer nnme Ior
Lynphosarcona
A mnIIgnnnI grovII oI
IympI gInnds nnd nodes,
IncIudIng IIe spIeen.
PoradenItIs venerea
AnoIIer nnme Ior
SpIenIc anenIa A cIronIc
dIsense, oI unknovn cnuse,
In vIIcI IIe spIeen
becomes enInrged nnd IIe
number oI red bIood ceIIs
(eryIIrocyIes) InIIs Inr
beIov normnI.
Status IynphatIcus
TIe medIcnI nnme Ior
IympInIIsm.
TonsIIIItIs InIInmmnIIon oI
IIe IonsIIs, n sympIom oI n
vIde vnrIeIy oI InIecIIous
dIsenses. TIe ndenoIds,
neIgIborIng IympI gInnds,
usunIIy become InIInmed nI
IIe snme IIme.
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TonsIIs
Tonss are pared masses of
ymphod tssue.
There are three pars of
tonss. The pharyngea tonss
are at the top of the pharynx
at the rear of the nasa cavty.
The paatne tonss e under
the nng of the throat behnd
the uvua. The ngua tonss
are at the back of the tongue.
The man functon of the
tonss s to protect aganst
harmfu substances that may
enter the body through the
nose and mouth.
Iew of extended tongue
SIde vIew of pharynx
Pharynx
secton through the
nose and throat regon
of the head shows how
the tonss are at the
crossroads of the ar
passageways. ln ths way,
they serve as the frst ne
of defense from the
exteror and as such they
are prone to chronc
nfecton. ln the past,
whenever the tonss
became repeatedy
nfected, t was customary
to have them surgcay
removed. Nowadays,
tonsts can be kept
under contro and treated
wth antbotcs.
Pharyngea tonss
Paatne
tonss
Paatne
tonss
Uvua
Lngua tonss
Tongue
Nasa cavty
Laryngo-
pharynx
Voca cords
Trachea (wnd ppe)
Pharyngea
tons
Paatne
tons
Tongue
Fever facts
genera nfammatory
response causes fever a
rased body temperature.
The purpose of a fever s to
speed up the chemca
reactons of the defense
system and thereby destroy
nvadng pathogens.
lntrcductIcn
02
TIe Immune and deIense sysIems pioIecI and deIend
IIe body agaInsI paIIogens dIsease causIng oiganIsms
sucI as bacIeiIa and vIiuses and oIIei IaimIuI
subsIances, and aie aIso InvoIved In IIe iesponse Io
IianspIanIed IIssues and oigans. TIey can be dIvIded
InIo Ivo compIemenIaiy sysIems IIe nonspecIIIc
noI aImed aI paiIIcuIai IaimIuI subsIances and IIe
specIIIc aImed aI paiIIcuIai IaimIuI subsIances .
TIe IympIaIIc sysIem Is aIso InvoIved In ImmunIIy.
Humora
mechansm
Chemca
defenses
Chemca
secretons
Body fuds
Nucous
membranes
Ceuar
defenses
lnfammatory
mechansms
NonspecIfIc defense systen
AIso cnIIed InnnIe (Inborn) ImmunIIy, IIIs
sysIem provIdes IIe IIrsI nnd second IInes oI
deIense ngnInsI pnIIogens.
FIrst IIne of defense
TIIs nIms Io sIop IIe InvndIng pnIIogens
Irom enIerIng IIe body. II Is provIded by
bnrrIers Io enIry sucI ns:
skIn;
mucous membrnnes (orgnn IInIngs IInI
secreIe n IIIck, sIImy IIuId);
bodIIy IIuIds (sucI ns snIIvn nnd Ienrs); nnd
cIemIcnI secreIIons (sucI ns sIomncI ncId).
Second IIne of defense
TIIs nIms Io sIop IIe sprend oI pnIIogens IInI
mnnnge Io cross IIe IIrsI IIne. II InvoIves:
InIInmmnIory nnd Iever response
mecInnIsms;
ceIIuInr deIenses (usIng pIngocyIes
enguIIIng ceIIs; nnd cyIoIoIc
nnIurnI kIIIerceIIs); nnd
cIemIcnI deIenses (usIng IIe proIeIns
InIerIeron nnd compIemenI).
SpecIfIc defense systen
AIso cnIIed ndnpIIve ImmunIIy, IIe specIIIc
deIense sysIem provIdes IIe IIIrd IIne oI
deIense ngnInsI pnIIogens. TIIs sysIem Is
commonIy knovn ns IIe Immune sysIem.
ThIrd IIne of defense
TIIs Is more specInIIzed IInn IIe prevIous
IInes ns II provIdes pnrIIcuInr deIenses Ior
dIIIerenI pnIIogens nnd II remembers IIose
IInI II Ins encounIered beIore. TIere nre Ivo
Iypes oI specIIIc deIense mecInnIsm:
IumornI, vIIcI produces nnIIbodIes
(proIeIns IInI nIInck IoreIgn proIeIns In IIe
body); nnd
ceIIuInr, vIIcI uses specInIIzed vIIIe bIood
ceIIs Io nIInck Invnders.
FIrst IIne of defense Second IIne of defense
Pathogens Pathogens Pathogens
Ceuar
mechansm
SECTlON : lNN NlT & DE ENSE
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lnnunIty lmmunty s the specazed resstance to a specfc dsease. person
can become mmune to a certan dsease n a varety of ways.
Ac uIred lmmunty
that s not nherted
has to be acqured n
some way.
lnborn Humans are mmune from
brth to certan dseases (such as
canne dstemper). Ths mmunty
s nherted.
PassIve Passve artfca mmunty
occurs when antbodes to a dsease
deveoped by another person or,
more rarey, by an anma are
n|ected nto an ndvdua. n
exampe of ths woud be the
n|ecton of a snake antvenn.
PassIve Passve natura mmunty
occurs when the mmunty to dsease
s transferred from one ndvdua to
another. newborn baby, for
exampe, passvey acqures natura
mmunty to certan dseases through
ts mothers breast mk.
ActIve ctve natura mmunty occurs
when a persons own mmune system
responds to the harmfu agent. lf a
person deveops meases, for
exampe, he or she w usuay
actvey acqure natura mmunty
to subsequent nfectons.
ActIve ctve artfca mmunty
occurs when a persons own mmune
system responds to the harmfu
agent. ln|ecton of a weakened form
of the harmfu agent (for exampe, a
poo vaccnaton) resuts n actve
artfca mmunty.
ArtIfIcIaI lf a person s deberatey
exposed to a certan nfectous
dsease (by mmunzaton, for
exampe), then the acqured
mmunty s sad to be artfca.
NaturaI lf a person s exposed
accdentay to a certan dsease n
the course of everyday fe, then
natura mmunty may resut.
Types of InnunIty
Ines c de ense
04
SkIn
Skn covers most of the bodys outer
surface. lt s made up of cosey packed
ces that contan keratn (tough, fbrous
proten) n the outer ayer. Ths makes
t dffcut for pathogens to cross
unbroken skn.
hucous nenbranes
Nucous membranes are the nngs of
many of the bodys cavtes, tubes, and
organs. They contan gobet ces that
secrete mucus (thck, smy fud). ln
some parts of the body (the respratory
tract, for exampe), the mucous
membrane s covered wth tny, harke
pro|ectons caed ca. The stcky mucus
traps harmfu substances, whch stops
them from enterng the body. ln the
respratory tract, ca move the mucus
toward the throat for swaowng, or
trgger sneezng and coughng to
remove the trapped partces.
BodIIy fIuIds
Certan body fuds such as tears,
sava, urne, and sweat hep to wash
away harmfu substances.
ChenIcaI secretIons
Tears and sava contan an enzyme
(proten that acts as a boogca catayst)
caed ysozyme. Ths destroys
mcroorgansms. Harmfu substances
that are swaowed can be destroyed by
the dgestve |uces n the stomach and
ntestnes. The chemcas n, or acdty of,
some secretons such as sweat, urne,
and vagna secretons aso hep to
destroy mcroorgansms.
Nucous
membranes
Nucus
Ca
Gobet ces
Tears, from eyes
Sava
Skn
lntestnes
Stomach
Sweat
Urne, vagna fuds
05
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lnfIannatIon
The functon of the nfammatory
response s to prevent the spread of
harmfu substances and to promote
tssue repar.
lf the skn or mucous membrane (nng
that secretes a thck, smy fud) s
breached, broken, or cut, then
pathogens can enter the body.
Chemcas are reeased by the damaged
ces that trgger the nfammatory
response. Bood vesses n the area
wden. Ths causes the typca redness
and heat of nfamed areas. Nore fud
than usua eaks from the bood vesses
nto the surroundng tssue, causng pan
For humora defense, see pages - 7.
Ceuar defense depends on
phagocytes, whch are whte bood ces
that enguf (eat) pathogens. The two
man phagocytc ces are neutrophs
and macrophages.
NeutrophIIs are sma and granuar.
Normay, they are the frst to eave the
bood and trave to the ste of nfecton.
Neutrophs de after engufng a few
foregn partces.
hacrophages are arger whte bood
ces that have eft the bood. s we as
engufng nvaders, they are responsbe
for cearng up dead neutrophs and
other damaged ces at the ste of an
Second IIne of defense
and sweng. The sweng makes access
easer for the ces and chemcas that
fght the nvaders. These are attracted by
other chemcas reeased n the area. lf
the ces and chemcas carry out ther
tasks successfuy, then the tssue s
repared. lf not, then the nfammatory
response contnues.
nfecton. Free macrophages roam the
body. Others, such as upffers ces n
the ver, are fxed they stay n one
organ. Phagocytes are attracted to stes
of nfecton by chemcas reeased
durng nfammaton. Once there,
phagocytes must frst contact and
recognze the partce as foregn. The
partce w then be swaowed by the
phagocyte. The phagocytes ce
membrane surrounds the partce and
fods nward, formng a bag. Ths bag
breaks away from the ce membrane
and enters the ce. The phagocyte then
dgests the partce usng enzymes
(protens that act as boogca cataysts)
reeased by ysosomes (fud-fed
partces).
Skn
Ces
Cut
Chemcas
lmmunIt and antIbcdIes
06
1 2 3
T-ce
unoraI InnunIty
Specfc defense mechansms provde
the bodys thrd ne of defense aganst
pathogens. Ths s more specazed than
the prevous frst and second nes
because:
t s specfc t recognzes and
provdes partcuar defenses for
specfc antgens (substances that
provoke an mmune response),
the mmunty provded s systemc
(not mted to the ste of nta
nfecton), and
t uses memory to recognze
prevousy encountered antgens, so
that an even stronger attack can be
aunched aganst them.
The response to partcuar antgens s
ether humora or ceuar.
AntIbody systen
humora response nvoves the
producton of antbodes (protens that
attack specfc antgens) by B-
ymphocytes (or B-ces), a type of whte
bood ce. B-ces are asssted by heper
T-ces (another type of whte bood ce).
Humora mmunty s many used
aganst toxns, vruses outsde body
ces, and bactera.
The prmary response happens on the
frst contact wth an antgen.
1The antgens on a bacterum are
recognzed by B-ces and heper T-ces
that have the rght receptors for t.
2The heper T-ces then secrete
substances that trgger the B-ces to
dupcate themseves. These copes are
caed pasma ces and memory B-ces.
3 Pasma ces produce antbodes that
nactvate the antgens.
PrInary response
ntgen
Nemory
B-ces
Peceptor
Peceptors
T-ce
Bacterum
Trggerng
substances
B-ce
B-ce
Pasma ces
ntbodes
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ConpIenent fIxatIon
ntbodes have stes to whch
the protens of the compement
group can bnd. Once the
antbody has bound to ts
target ce, t changes shape,
reveang ts compement-
bndng ste. The attached
compement w then k
the target ce.
NeutraII atIon
ntbodes can bnd to certan
stes on vruses, or toxc
chemcas secreted by bactera,
to stop them from bndng wth
tssue ces of the body. The
nvaders w eventuay be
eaten by phagocytes
(engufng whte bood ces).
AggIutInatIon
By groupng together to bnd to
more than one antgen,
antbodes can deveop cumps
of foregn ces whch are more
easy captured and engufed
by phagocytes.
ow antIbodIes work
Nany bactera, vruses, and toxns carry antgens (substances that
trgger an mmune response). The acton of antbodes on these
heps to nactvate the nvader n three man ways: compement
fxaton, neutrazaton, and aggutnaton.
Target ce
ntgen
ntgen
Tssue ces
Phagocyte
Bndng ste
Compement group
ntbody
ntbody
ntgen
ntbody
Foregn ce
CeIIuIar ImmunIt
0S
T ceIIs at work
1 Frst, the antgens on an abnorma
body ce, or dspayed n parts (caed
antgen presentaton) by a macrophage,
must be recognzed by T-ces that are
senstzed to them.
2 The macrophage and T-ce secrete
substances that actvate the T-ce.
3 The actvated T-ce then dupcates
tsef. These copes come n four
subgroups: ker T-ces, heper T-ces,
suppressor T-ces, and memory T-ces.
CeIIuIar InnunIty
ceuar response uses T-ymphocytes
(or T-ces) to attack antgens (substances
that provoke an mmune response). The
T-ce s a type of whte bood ce that
ony reacts to specfc antgens. lt dffers
from other ces of the mmune system
n that t can drecty attack and k
nfected body ces as we as foregn
ces. Ceuar mmune responses are
drected, n partcuar, aganst vruses,
cancerous body ces, and parastes.
IIIer T ceIIs
The ker T-ces are non-specfc n ther
acton. They drecty attack the nfected
body ces or foregn ces.
4 Once a ker T-ce has bound to an
antgen, t reeases toxc substances
that k the ce.
5 lt can aso reease substances that:
actvate other whte bood ces n the
area to become ker ces,
attract macrophages to the area, and
stmuate macrophages nto greater
phagocytc actvty.
1 2 3
4 5
er T-ce
Toxc substances ntgen
Nacrophage
er T-ce
Toxc
substances
Nacrophage
ntgens
Secreted
substances
T-ce copes T-ce
00
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eIper T ceIIs
The heper T-ces are vta to the whoe mmune
response. They act as drectors of the process.
6 On recognton of the antgen, heper T-ces secrete
substances that:
stmuate the actvaton of both T-ces and B-ces
(whte bood ces that produce antbodes), and aso
attract other types of whte bood ces to the area.
henory T ceIIs
Some T-ces come nto
pay on any subsequent
contact wth the same
antgen. Ths secondary
response may be years
after the frst meetng.
lf the same antgen s
found n the body agan,
then the memory T-ces
w recognze t.
They can qucky ntate
the mmune response by
producng the necessary
T-ce dupcates: ker
T-ces, heper T-ces,
suppressor T-ces, and
more memory T-ces.
AntIgens
Common antgens are
vruses, bactera, poen,
dust, funga spores, and
househod chemcas.
AntIbodIes
ntbody moecues
outnumber the ces of
the mmune system by
about 100 mon to one.
T-ce
Suppressor T ceIIs
Some T-ces aso have a reguatory effect on the
mmune response, but of a reverse nature.
fter the threat has been emnated, suppressor
T-ces reease substances that nhbt the actvtes of
T-ces and B-ces. Ths brngs the mmune response
to a hat and heps prevent autommune
(sef-nfcted) dsorders.
B-ce
ntgen
T-ce copes
ntgen
T-ce
B-ce
lnhbtng
substances
Suppressor
T-ce
ntgen
Nemory T-ce
6
lmmune and de ense dIscrders
100
Al S and l
One of the most devastatng mmune
dsorders s acqured mmunodefcency
syndrome (lDS). lt s caused by
nfecton wth the human
mmunodefcency vrus (HlV).
TransnIssIon
HlV s present n body fuds but ony
bood, semen, and cervca/vagna
secretons have been proved to
transmt the vrus.
The ma|or methods of transmsson are
sexua contact, bood transfusons, the
use of nonstere needes, and from
mother to fetus durng pregnancy.
lnfectIon
ln a person who s nfected wth HlV,
the mmune system s weakened.
Ths can ead to the deveopment of
lDS, n whch the ndvdua s
susceptbe to a varety of nfectons
and cancers.
ln an unnfected person, these nesses
woud not commony occur or woud
not be serous, but they take advantage
of the damage done to the mmune
system of an nfected person. For ths
reason, they are caed opportunstc.
Unt recenty, f lDS had deveoped,
the condton was usuay fata.
lDS-reated compex (PC) may aso
deveop n those nfected wth HlV. The
symptoms are weght oss, fever,
darrhea, and enarged ymph nodes.
l nuItIpIIcatIon
Havng entered the body, the vrus
many attacks certan whte bood
ces.
The most affected are the heper
T-ces, whch are vta for reguatng
the mmune system.
Nacrophages (engufng whte bood
ces), whch pay an mportant part n
the bodys defense aganst dseases,
are aso often affected.
l vIrus
The HlV vrus conssts of some nucec
acd contaned n a proten she.
n HlV vrus nvades a heper T-ce or
another type of whte bood ce (see
pages - ).
l vIrus
Co of nucec acd
Proten she
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AIIergIes or hypersensItIvItIes
A IypersensIIIve rencIIon occurs vIen
IIe body`s Immune sysIem cnuses dnmnge Io
IIssue ceIIs by IIgIIIng oII n IIrenIsucI
ns poIIenIInI mny ncIunIIy be
quIIe InrmIess.
AutoInnune dIsorders A person`s Immune
sysIem begIns Io nIInck IIe IenIIIy orgnns
nnd ceIIs oI IIs or Ier ovn body.
AuIoImmune dIsorders cnn cnuse n
vnrIeIy oI dIsenses.
Grave s dIsease An nuIoImmune dIsorder
IInI Iends Io nn overncIIve nnd enInrged
IIyroId gInnd.
ashInoto s thyroIdItIs An nuIoImmune
dIsorder In vIIcI IIe ceIIs oI IIe IIyroId
gInnd nre nIIncked. TIIs InIerIeres vIII IIe
producIIon oI Iormones by IIe IIyroId
gInnd, cnusIng InIIgue nnd veIgII gnIn.
huItIpIe scIerosIs (hS) A dIsense probnbIy
cnused by nn nuIoImmune dIsorder. II
nIIncks IIe coverIngs oI nerve IIbers In IIe
Isorders of the Innune and defense systens
brnIn nnd spInnI cord. SympIoms vnry In
severIIy buI cnn IncIude pnrnIysIs.
PernIcIous anenIa AnemIn Is IIe Inck oI
IemogIobIn (oygencnrryIng pnrI oI bIood).
PernIcIous nnemIn Is due Io n Inck oI vIInmIn
B
12
, nnd Is oIIen cnused by nn nuIoImmune
dIsorder.
RheunatoId arthrItIs An nuIoImmune
dIsorder vIIcI nIIncks IIe joInIs nnd
surroundIng IIssues, cnusIng IIem Io become
pnInIuI, svoIIen, sIIII, nnd even deIormed.
Severe conbIned InnunodefIcIency
(SCl ) A bIrII deIecI In vIIcI bnbIes Inck
suIIIcIenI TceIIs nnd BceIIs (vIIIe bIood
ceIIs). TIese ceIIs nre vIInI Io IIe vorkIng oI
IIe Immune sysIem. SuIIerers Inve IIIIIe or
no proIecIIon ngnInsI dIsense.
SystenIc Iupus erythenatosus (SLE)
A sysIemIc (noI IocnIIzed) nuIoImmune
dIsorder. II pnrIIcuInrIy nIIecIs IIe joInIs,
skIn, Iungs, nnd kIdneys.
l and InnunIty
1The HlV vrus destroys whte bood
ces when t uses them to mutpy.
2 s these ces are vta to the workng
of the mmune system, the vrus
eventuay weakens the bodys abty
to defend tsef aganst dsease.
So pathogens (dsease-causng
organsms) can easy nvade the body
and overwhem the mmune system.
Whte
bood ce
Whte
bood ce
HlV
HlV
Whte bood ce
Pathogen
1 2
102
AdIpose tIssue C

AdrenaI gIands
S E

T

Afferent D

AIInentary canaI
G G
T

Anus T

Aorta T

AppendIx
A

l

ArterIoIe A

Artery A

A
T

T

AudItory R
AxIIIary R
Backbone ertebraI
coIunn
BasaI gangIIa P

BasophII A

BIceps A

BIIe ducts T

BIadder A

BIood A

E
L
BIood pressure T

Bone T

Bone narrow S

BraIn T

BraInstenA

l

Breast A

Breastbone Sternun
BronchIoIe A

Bronchus T

CapIIIary T

CardIac R
CardIovascuIar R

CartIIage G
Cecun T

CeII T

103
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
CNS T
CerebeIIun T
l
CerebraI cortex T



CerebrunT

CervIx A

CIavIcIe E
CIItorIs A

CNS CentraI nervous
systen
Coccyx F

CoIIagen A

CoIon T

ConnectIve tIssue T

CorIun ernIs
Cornea T

Coronary arterIes S
CorpuscIes A

Cortex T
CranIaI nerves T

CranIunT

Cutaneous R
CutIcIe EpIdernIs
DNA A

ernIs C T

Iaphragn A
l

IgestIon T

NA eoxyrIbonucIeIc
acId
uodenun T

E|acuIatIon T

EndocardIun T

EndotheIIun T

En ynes B

EpIdernIs C T
EpIgIottIs A

EpItheIIun T

Erythrocytes R
Esophagus G T

104
FaIIopIan tubes U
O T

Fenur T

FoIIIcIe A
O

ForebraIn T
GaIIbIadder A

Ganetes S

GastrIc O
AIInentary canaI
Genes B

DNA
GenItaIIa S
GIand A

Gonads P

GranuIocytes

Gray natter T

GuIIet Esophagus
eart T

enogIobIn T

epatIc R
epatIc portaI veIn
PortaI veIn
IndbraIn B

ornones C

ypophysIs PItuItary
gIand
ypothaIanus A

lIeun T
lnnune systen T

l

Snooth
nuscIe
1e|ununT
1oInt T
aryotype T

Idney A

LactatIon M
Large IntestIne B
T

Larynx T
Leukocytes
T

LIganent F
LIver T

Lungs T

Lynph A

Lynph gIand Lynph
node
Lynph node L
O

105
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
LynphatIc systen A

hannary gIands T

heduIIa obIongata T

heIosIs A

henInges T

henopause

henstruatIon M

hetaboIIsn T

hItosIs O

hucous nenbranes T

NasaI R
NasaI cavIty T

Nerve A

Nervous systenT

l

Neuron N A

Neurone Neuron
NeurotransnItter A

NucIeIc acIds M

NucIeus T

Ifactory R
ptIc R
rgan A

rganeIIes T

varIes F

vIducts FaIIopIan
tubes
vuIatIon T

vunA
PaIate T
Pancreas A

systen T


T

PeIvIs A

PerIcardIun T

PerIstaIsIs

106
Rectun T

RefIex actIon T

RenaI R
RespIratIon B
T
D



RIbs T

SaIIvary gIands T
SerunB

SInus A

SkeIeton T

SkIn T

SnaII IntestIne T

M
Snooth nuscIe
U
l M

SphIncter A

SpInaI cord T

SpIne ertebraI
coIunn
Sternun T

SuprarenaI gIands
AdrenaI gIands
Suture A

Taste buds T

Phagocytes T

Pharynx T
PIneaI gIand E
A
PItuItary gIand
H A

l

ADH
l
PIasna T
PIeura T

PIexus A

PortaI veIn H
D

Prostate gIand A

l

Pudendun uIva
PuInonary R
Receptor A

10T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Teeth B
D

Tendons B
TestIs T O

ThaIanus A
l

Thynus A
l
ThyroId A

TIssue A

Trachea T

TubuIe A
TunIca A
B

UnstrIated nuscIe
Snooth nuscIe
Ureter T

Urethra T

UrInary systenT

UrIne L
tubes
Uterus A

l

UvuIa A
l

agIna T

ascuIar R

eIn A

enous R
entrIcIe A

enuIe A
ernIforn appendIx
AppendIx
ertebra A
ertebraI coIunn
B S T

l

estIbuIe A

ocaI cords T

uIva P T
hIte natter T

IndpIpe Trachea
onb Uterus
eb sItes tc vIsIt
10S
Facts On Fe, lnc.
Gray s Anatony
, contanng
htt bartleby co
BIoIogy nIIne
boogy Web ste nks.
Bl hE
scences.
htt bio e ac u
researchers.
unan Anatony nIIne
htt innerbodyco
and nutrton.
pen Irectory Pro|ect: CardIoIogy
edical ecialties Cardiology
The BIoIogy Pro|ect
The eart: An nIIne ExpIoratIon
lnteractve exporaton of the human heart
and reated body systems, wth a gossary.
htt sln fi edu biosci heart ht l
partcuary usefu.
100
lndex
CTH 44
adenods 0
aergc reactons 21, 73,
101
anema 2 , 8, 101
scke ce 82, 83
aneurysm 8
angna pectors 27, 51
antbodes 7, 11, 72, 73, 80,
- 7,
mmune system 2
whte bood ces 75
antgens 11, 75, 80, - 7,
8,
aorta , 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 5
bood pressure 22
bood vesses 14, 1 , 33,
38
crcuaton 52, 53
heart 2 , 30, 31
aortc vave 28, 31, 33, 40,
41
arteres , 8, 10, 14, 52-53
aneurysm 2
arm 2
bood pressure
capares 1
dsorders 27, 48, 8,
head 58
heart 12, 2 , 48, 50
eg 4
pressure ponts , 10
structure 1 , 17
vaves 28
arteroe , 10, 14, 17
bood pressure
capares 18, 1
atherosceross 27, 4 , 8
atra , , 11, 30, 32, 33, 3 ,
37
cardac cyce 42, 43
crcuaton 52
pumonary crcuaton
0
pumpng acton 3
vaves 40, 41
atroventrcuar node 34, 35
atroventrcuar vave 11,
40, 41, 42, 43
autommune dsorders ,
101
autonomc nervous system
14, 33, 34
babes 8, 3
heart dsorders 27, 4 ,
50, 51
basophs 70, 72, 73, 74
bcuspd (mtra) vave 11,
40, 41
beedng , 7, 71, 78-7
hemopha 2 , 82
bood 8, 11, 7, 70-83
crcuaton , 7, 8- ,
10, 11, 13, 52- ,
54
cottng 78-7
components 70, 72-73
coronary vesses 33
dsorders 2
exercse 25
heart 28, 2
key words 11
ymph system 84
pumonary crcuaton
0
speen 8
stress 44
vens 15
bood ces 70, 71-73, 74
bood groups 7, 11, 80-81,
82
bood pressure 10, 22,
- 7
arteres 1 , 17, 2
dsorders 27
heart probems 50
heartbeat 8, 35
hgh 44, 4 , 7, 8
ow 27, 7
smokng 4
vens 21
bood transfusons 7, 80
bood voume 7
body temperature 8, 35, 72,
2
bone marrow 7, 11, 18, 71,
75, 7
bracha artery 8, , 10, 52,
53, 2
bood pressure 22,
bracha ven 10, 54, 55
bran , 52, 54
bood vesses 14, 15, 55,
58, 5 , 8
fantng 27
heart probems 50
porta system 1
stroke 50, 8, 83
C
capares , 8, 10, 18, 1
arteroes 14, 17
bood pressure
ver 1
ymph 85, 8
pumonary crcuaton 0
scke ce anema 83
vens 15
venues 21
carbon doxde 13, 70, 72,
73
capares 1
exercse 25
lndex
110
cardac cyce 11, 42-43
cardac (heart) musce 11,
32-33, 34
cardac vens 10, 55
carotd arteres 8, , 10, 14,
52, 53, 5 , 58
cephac ven 8, 10, 15
choestero 44, 45, 4
heart probems 48, 50
smokng 4
crcuaton , 7, 8- , 11, 13,
44, 52-
key words 10
cottng 11, 8, 72, 73,
78-7
dsorders 2 , , 82
compement 83, 2, 7
coronary arteres 10, 11,
12, 14, 28, 40, 53, 5
dsease 27
heart probems 48, 50,
51
D
deoxygenated bood , ,
10, 53, 54
capares 1
coronary vesses 33, 5
heart 12, 2
pumonary crcuaton
17, 0
vens 20
dastoe 10, 22, 42
det 44, 45, 4
endotheum 10, 1 , 17, 18,
20, 21
eosnophs 72, 73, 74
epcardum 37
erythrocytes (red bood
ces) , 7, 11, 72
exercse 24, 25, 44, 45, 47
bood pressure , 7
cardac output 7
heart probems 50, 51
heart rate 23, 24, 34, 35
fantng 27, 8
femora vesses 8, 10
artery , 14, 52, 53, 4
ven 15, 54, 55, 5
fbrnogen 44, 78
granuocytes 11, 70, 74
heart 8, 28-51
arteres 14, 2
bood fow through ,
13, 38-3 , 42-43
bood pressure 22,
bood vesses 12, 38, 55
cardac musce 11,
32-33, 34
crcuaton , 7, 8- , 10,
11, 13, 52-
conducton system 34
contractons 35
coverngs and nngs 37
dsorders 27, 50, 51
key words 11
ocaton 8, 12, 30, 31
pumonary crcuaton
0
stroke voume 34
vaves 28, 40-41, 42-43
vens 15, 2
heart probems 27, 34, 35,
4 , 48-4 , 50-51
heart attack 27, 48, 4 ,
50, 51
heart faure 51,
personaty type 47
stress 44
heart rate 34-35
ftness 47
probems 27, 48, 50, 51
puse 7
rhythm 50, 51
smokng 4
stress 44
heart vaves , , 28, 31
probems 48, 50
heartbeat (cardac cyce)
28, 2 , 30, 42-43
arteres 17
bood pressure
rate (puse) , 8, 23
hemogobn 11, 70, 71
red bood ce
deveopment 74
scke ce anema 83
hemopha 2 , 82
hemorrhods (pes) 8
hepatc porta system , 15,
57
hepatc vesses 10, 14, 15,
53, 55, 1
HlV lDS 0, 100-101
hormones 8, 35, 44, 70, 72
hypertenson 8
hypotenson 27
ac vesses 8, 10
artery 14, 52, 53, 5 ,
4
ven 15, 54, 55, 57, 1,
5
mmune system 7, 73,
2-101
dsorders 0, 100-101
ymph 84, 85, 0
111
mmunty 2- 3, - 7
nferor vena cava , 8, 10,
12, 15, 2 , 38, 57
bood suppy 1
crcuaton 54, 55
pumpng acton 3
nfammaton 21, 2, 5
ntestnes, bood suppy 0
|uguar ven 8, 10, 15, 5
crcuaton 54, 55
venae cavae 57
kdney 7, 5 , 71, 72
L
eukema 2 , 0
eukocytes (whte bood
ces) , 7, 11, 72, 73
ver
bood ces 71
capares 18
crcuaton , 7
stress 44
umen 10
ungs , 10, 52, 53, 54
bood 72
bood vesses 38, 3 , 8
exercse 25
heart 12, 30, 31, 51
pumonary crcuaton 7,
13, 2 , 0
smokng 4
stress 44
ymph 7, 18, 1 , 75, 0
ymph nodes (gands) 7,
71, 84, 85, 8
HlV 100
poston 87
speen 77
structure 88
ymph vesses 10, 84, 85,
8 , 87
ymphatc system 7, 84- 1
ymphocytes 7, 70, 72, 73,
84
antbodes , 8
deveopment 74, 75
ymph 85
ymph nodes 88
speen 77, 8
stress 44
thymus 8
ymphoma 0
macrophages 5, 8
HlV 100
ymphatc system 85,
88, 8
mtra vave 11, 40, 41, 51
heart probems 51
monocytes 11, 70, 72, 73, 74
mutpe sceross 101
myocarda nfarcton 27,
48, 51
myocardum 11, 28, 32, 37,
48
myosn 32
N
neutrophs 11, 70, 72, 74,
5
nutrents , 1 , 25, 44, 72
oxygen and oxygenated
bood , 10, 11, 58, 72
anema 2 , 83
bood vesses 55
capares 1
crcuaton , 13, 54
exercse 25
fantng 27
heart 12, 28, 2
heart probems 48, 50, 51
hemogobn 70
pumonary crcuaton
20, 0
red bood ces 71, 73
stress 44
P
pacemaker 50
paptatons 27, 51
percardum , 11, 30, 37,
51
phagocytes 11, 4 , 2, 5,
7
ptutary gand 44
pasma , 11, 70, 72, 80
pasma ces 74, 75,
pateets (thrombocytes)
11, 44, 70, 71, 72
cottng 78
deveopment 74
porta systems , 7, 55, 1
pressure ponts , 10
protens 70, 72, 83, 84
pumonary artery 11, 14,
17, 0
crcuaton 53
heart 12, 2 , 31
vave 40, 41
pumonary crcuaton 7,
10, 13, 2 , 0
pumonary embosm 8
pumonary vave 28, 31, 33
pumonary ven 10, 15, 38,
55
crcuaton 54, 0
heart 12, 28, 2
lndex
112
puse , 10, 23, 24, 7
bood pressure
exercse 25, 45
wrst 2
red bood ces
(erythrocytes) 11, 74
antbodes 80
bood 70, 72
deveopment 74
dsorders 0
producton 7, 71, 7
stress 44
rena artery 10, 14, 52, 53,
5
rena ven 10, 15, 55, 57,
1
Phesus dsease 2
Phesus (Ph) factor 81
semunar vaves 40, 41, 42,
43
septum , 3
serum 11
scke ce anema 82, 83
snoatra node
(pacemaker) 34, 35
snuses 15, 33, 5
skn 18, 44, 78, 2, 4, 5
smokng 44, 45, 4 , 50
sphygmomanometer 22,
speen 7, 44, 71, 7 , 77, 8
bood suppy 1
dsorders 0
ymph 85
stress 27, 44, 47
bood pressure , 7
heart probems 48, 50, 51
stroke 50, 8, 83
subcavan vesses 10
artery , 14, 2 , 52, 53,
58, 2
ven 15, 54, 55, 5 , 8
superor vena cava , 7, 10,
15, 2 , 38, 57
bood vesses 55, 5
crcuaton 54
heart 12, 28, 31
pumpng acton 3
systemc crcuaton 7, 13,
2
systoe 10, 22, 42
T-ces , 8-
tachycarda 51
tempora vesses , 53, 58,
5
thrombocytes (pateets) 7,
11
thymus 75, 85, 8
tba vesses , 10, 53, 54,
55
tonss 85, 0, 1
transfuson 7, 100
transpant surgery 7
trcuspd vave 32, 40, 41,
51
tunca 10
vaves 32, 40-41
arteres 28
heart , , 11, 28, 31,
42-43
heart probems 48, 50,
51
ymphatc system 84, 88
vens , 20, 21, 2 , 28,
varcose vens 8,
vasa vasorum 10, 1 , 20
vens 8, 10, 15, 20, 21
arm 3
bood pressure
capares 1
crcuaton , 54-55
dsorders 8,
hand 3
heart 12, 2
eg 5
vaves 28
vena cava 8, 57
venae cavae 8, 20, 57
crcuaton 54
heart 12, 2
pumpng acton 2
ventrces , , 11, 3 , 37
capares 18, 1
cardac cyce 42-43
crcuaton 52
contracton contro 34
heart 30, 31
heart musce 32, 33
pumonary crcuaton 0
pumpng acton 3
structure 21
vaves 40, 41
venues , 10
venues 1 , 21
waste products , 1 , 25,
70, 72
whte bood ces
(eukocytes) 11, 73
antbodes , 8,
bood 70, 72
deveopment 74
dsorders 2 , 101
mmune system 2
phagocytes 5
producton 71
THEFACTS ON FlLE
THE HUMANBODY
CE S AND
ENETlCS
THE DlAGRAM GROUP
Note to the reader
CeIIs and GenetIcs
Edtora: Lone Bender, Davd Hardng, Tom Jackson
Dens ennedy, Gordon Lee, Jame Stokes
Facts On Fe, lnc.
New ork N 10001
The Facts On Fe ustrated gude to the human body. Ces and
genetcs / the Dagram Group.
p. cm.
lncudes ndex.
lSBN 0-81 0-5 80-2 (hc : ak. paper)
1. Cytoogy Juvene terature. 2. Human genetcs Juvene
terature. l. Tte: lustrated gude to the human body. Ces and
genetcs. ll. Tte: Ces and genetcs. lll. Dagram Group.
H582.5.F33 2005
11.0181 dc22
200402 104
Set lSBN: 0-81 0-5 7 -
purchased n buk quanttes for busnesses, assocatons,
nsttutons, or saes promotons. Pease ca our Speca Saes
Department n New ork at 212/ 7-8800 or 800/322-8755.
EB Dagram 10 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
Ce death 2
Cancer ces 4
SECTlON
CHRONOSONES
lntroducton
Chromosome number and functon 8
ees 70
DN structure 72
DN functon 74
Genes and gene expresson 7
DN repcaton 78
DN repar 80
Nutatons n DN 82
Chromosoma changes 84
SECTlON
HEREDlT
lntroducton 8
How nhertance works 88
Sex determnaton 0
Genetc dsorders 2
Chromosoma dsorders 4
Genes and cancer
Genetc testng 8
Gene therapy 100
Web stes to vst 108
lndex 10
SECTlON
CE STR CT RE
lntroducton
Ces, tssues, and organs 8
Ce membrane 10
Cytopasm 12
Cytoskeeton 14
Endopasmc retcuum 1
Pbosomes 18
Gog apparatus 20
Nuceus 22
Lysosomes 24
Ntochondra 2
Other organees 28
lnterceuar |unctons 30
Ca and fagea 32
Extraceuar matrx 34
SECTlON2
HO CE S OR
lntroducton 3
Dffuson and osmoss 38
ctve transport 40
Nembrane potentas 42
TP and ceuar respraton 44
Proten synthess 4
Ce sgnang 48
Types of ces 50
SECTlON
CE l E C C E
lntroducton 52
Controng the ce cyce 54
Ntoss 5
Neoss 58
Stem ces and specazaton 0
Ccntents
lntrcductIcn
4
dIsorders oI Iumnn ceIIs, cIromosomes, nnd
genes. II Ins been vrIIIen nnd IIIusIrnIed
In ceII bIoIogy, medIcIne, IenIII, nnd IygIene.
TIe subjecI Is denII vIII In cIenr sIeps, so IInI
IIe render cnn sIendIIy ncquIre n good overnII
nccess Io nrIIcIes.
TIere nre IIve secIIons vIIIIn IIe book. TIe
IIrsI secIIon Iooks In deInII nI IIe mIcroscopIc
sIrucIure oI Iumnn body ceIIs. TIe second
secIIon descrIbes nnd IIIusIrnIes IIe cIemIcnI
processes IInI Inke pInce vIIIIn IIese ceIIs.
SecIIon 3 Iocuses on ceII grovII nnd dIvIsIon.
SecIIon 4 denIs vIII IIe sIrucIure nnd
IuncIIon oI cIromosomes, IIe geneIIc
mnIerInI vIIIIn ceIIs. SecIIon 5 Iooks nI
IIe processes nnd ouIcomes oI IeredIIy nnd
InIerIInnce. VIIIIn secIIons 3 nnd 4,
dIscussIon nnd IIIusIrnIIon oI IIe sIrucIure
nnd IuncIIon oI IIe ceII componenIs nre
IoIIoved by prIncIpIes oI ceII dIsorders.
SecIIon 5 Iooks nI medIcnI ndvnnces In
geneIIcs. InIormnIIon Is presenIed ns doubIe
pnge IopIcs nrrnnged In subsecIIons.
unan body systens
ttes n THE FCTS ON
FlLE lLLUSTPTED
GUlDE TO THE HUNN
systems n turn. Some
of the ttes n the seres
ncude more than one
for human ces and
budng bocks and
a body systems.
SkeIetaI and
huscuIar Systens
BraIn and
Nervous Systen
eart and
CIrcuIatory Systen
A O T THlS OO
5
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
SectIon 1: CELL STRUCTURE epIores IIe
orgnnIznIIon nnd InIernnI sIrucIure oI ceIIs,
IookIng nI encI orgnneIIe In Iurn.
SectIon 2: CELLS R Iocuses on
ceII bIocIemIsIry, IIe cIemIcnI processes oI
IIvIng mnIerInI.
SectIon 3: CELL LlFE C CLE Iooks nI IIe
sInges oI ceII grovII, dIvIsIon, nnd
muIIIpIIcnIIon. II nIso descrIbes Iov non
specIIIc sIem ceIIs gIve rIse Io coIonIes oI
specInIIzed body ceIIs.
SectIon 4: C R h S hES IenIures IIe
body`s geneIIc bIueprInI, surveyed nI IIe
moIecuInr IeveI. II nIso Iooks In deInII nI IIe
doubIeIeII sIrucIure nnd IuncIIonIng oI
deoyrIbonucIeIc ncId (NA).
SectIon 5: ERE lT summnrIzes IIe
processes oI InIerIInnce nnd revenIs Iov
cInnges Io genes nI IIe moIecuInr IeveI
InIIuence InrgescnIe meInboIIc nnd pIysIcnI
cInrncIerIsIIcs.
body IuncIIons
ns n reIerence resource oI Imnges nnd IeI
Ior use In scIooIs, IIbrnrIes, or In IIe Iome
IenIIIcnre.
CeIIs and
GenetIcs
IgestIve
Systen
Systen
ReproductIve
Systen
lntrcductIcn
6
TIeie aie many dIIIeienI Iypes oI Iuman ceIIs, Ioi
eampIe, bIood ceIIs, neive ceIIs, and muscIe ceIIs. acI
ceII Iype Ias a sIiucIuie adapIed Io peiIoim paiIIcuIai
Iasks. ovevei, aII Iuman ceIIs and IIose oI oIIei
anImaIs sIaie a sImIIai basIc sIiucIuie and conIaIn
a iange oI InIeinaI sIiucIuies knovn as oiganeIIes.
uman ceIIs even sIaie IeaIuies vIII pIanI ceIIs.
BasIc ceII structure
The ce s surrounded by a narrow
fatty ayer caed the ce or pasma
membrane.
The nuceus s the ces contro center
contanng ts DN.
The nucear membrane s another fatty
ayer that encases the nuceus.
Chromosomes are bar-ke structures
found nsde the nuceus. They hod the
CeII facts
ces organees are
surrounded by a qud
caed cytopasm.
Ntochondra reease
energy from food.
DN and are ony ceary vsbe |ust
before and durng ce dvson.
The cytopasm, a ge-ke fud,
surrounds the nuceus.
Organees are suspended n the
cytopasm. Each organee has a
partcuar |ob.
Centroes are a par of rod-shaped
organees nvoved n ce dvson.
Nuceus
Ntochondron
Endopasmc retcuum
Nucear membrane
Pbosome
Lysosome
Vacuoe
Pasma membrane
Cytopasm
Gog apparatus
Centroe
SECTlON : CE STR CT RE
T
D
I
A
G
R
A
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CeIIuIar scaIe
Human ces come n
a wde range of szes.
human egg ce (ovum)
s comparatvey arge.
t 300 m n dameter, t s
|ust about vsbe to the
naked eye. Nost other
ces n the body are a
fracton of ths sze.
The ces that ne the
stomach are reatvey
arge. Lke skn ces, these
are graduay shed. Nusce
fbers, or myofbrs, woud
at frst gance appear to be
the argest body ces
snce they can be anythng
from 1 mm to amost
3 cm ong. However,
athough these fbers are
bound by a snge ce
membrane, they are not
reay a snge ce snce
they are mutnuceated
they may contan many
thousands of nuce each.
Ped bood ces are at the
smaer end of human
ces. They ack many of
the nterna features of
other ces.
Snge-ceed organsms,
such as yeast (a fungus)
and bactera tend to be
sma. lt woud take about
500 bactera, each 1.5 m
ong, to cover the perod
at the end of ths sentence.
CeIIuIar scaIe
300 m human egg ce
10 m stomach wa ce
7.5 m red bood ce
5 m yeast ce
1.5 m E. co bacterum
1-30 mm musce ces
mcron, or mcrometer
( m) s 1 month of a
meter, or
1
2500 nch.
CeIIs, tIssues, and crgans
S
LeveIs of organI atIon
The body s a snge organsm (vng
creature) made up of many dfferent
substances and structures. These can
be arranged nto eves of ncreasng
compexty caed eves of organzaton,
begnnng wth the most basc.
1 BIochenIstry: atoms and moecues
make the substances that are the
budng bocks (for exampe, water
and proten) of a the other eves.
2 CeIIs are the smaest vng unts
of the body.
3 TIssues are formed by groups
of ces wth smar structures and
functons (together wth other
substances).
4 rgans are formed by tssues.
5 Body systens resut from varous
organs workng together and
ncude, for exampe, the dgestve
system.
6 The body (organIsn)
s the sum of a the
eves exstng and
operatng together.
1
2
3
4
5 6
Structures of the body
Dgestve
system Stomach
toms
Noecue
Ce
Stomach
nngs
Body
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CeIIs, tIssues, and organs
lt s estmated that the human body
contans about 100 tron ces. These
are specazed to perform certan
functons and have a wde varety of
shapes and szes. They are organzed
nto separate structures wthn the body.
TIssues
Ces of the same type are organzed
nto ayers or other types of groupngs
known as tssues.
The ces n tssues are devoted to
a narrow range of functons. Exampes
of tssues ncude:
ces arranged to form a thn ayer
of tssue (eptheum) as found n
the nng of the mouth,
ces formng a tubue (sma tube)
as n a kdney tubue, and
musce ces arranged n a sheet of
musce tssue, as occurs n the wa
of artera bood vesses.
rgans
Tssues of dfferent knds are themseves
grouped together to form the organs of
the body. These ncude the skn, heart,
ver, and kdneys. For exampe,
human skn contans severa dstnct
ayers of tssue:
a protectve ayer of dead ces (a)
to prevent nfecton, and dryng out,
epderma ces (b), some of whch
form the har foces,
a basement membrane (c) separatng
the epderms from the derms, and
the derms ayer (d), whch ncudes
ces responsbe for mantanng the
strength and ntegrty of the skn, as
we as sensory nerve endngs, bood
vesses, and musce fbers.
Fat ayer of ces
Tubue
Bood vesses
Skn
a
b
c
d
CeII membrane
10
LIpId bIIayer
Ths fatty doube ayer contans:
Phosphopds (a) fat moecues
contanng phosphorus,
choestero (b) fat moecues that
stabze the pd ayer, and
gycoprotens (c) whch are made up
of proten (d) and carbohydrate (sugar)
moecues (e) on the extraceuar
(outer) surface of the proten.
CeII nenbrane
hIcrovIIII
These are tny, fngerke pro|ectons,
or fods, of the ce membrane tsef.
The functon of mcrov s to ncrease
the surface area of the ce. Ths aows
the ce to absorb more substances from
ther surroundngs and aso to secrete
moecues more effcenty.
CeII nenbrane structure
The ce membrane s a thn sheet of
fats, or pds, nterspersed wth arge
proten moecues. pd moecue has
two haves: a water-soube end and a
water-repeng one. membrane s a
doube ayer of phosphopd moecues.
The water-repeng ends form the outer
surfaces and the water-soube ends
mnge n between.
The ce membrane contros the fow
of materas n and out of the ces, and
mantans the ces ntegrty.
Ncrov
Ce membrane
c
e
a b
d
Ncrov
11
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Types of ceII |unctIon
(See aso page 30.)
TIght, or InperneabIe, |unctIon
Ths s formed by proten moecues
(f) of neghborng ce membranes (g)
fusng together. Tght |unctons are
found between the epthea ces that
ne the dgestve tract.
esnosone, or anchorIng, |unctIon
t these |unctons, on the nsdes of
the neghborng ces, are rvetke
thckenngs caed paques (h). These are
attached to the opposte sde of the ce
membrane by keratn faments (fexbe
proten strands aso used n har) (I).
Lnker protens (|) extend from the
paques and cross the space between
the ces.
Gap, or connunIcatIng, |unctIon
Protens (k) pass through both the
membranes of two ad|acent ces.
The protens are arranged nto groups
(connexons) whch form a hoow
channe (I) through the ce membranes.
These |unctons are found n heart
musces and n the musces of the gut.
SeIectIve barrIer
The ce membrane s a protectve
barrer that contros what substances
trave n and out of the ce. though
oxygen and carbon doxde pass
through freey, other substances have
dffcuty gettng through the membrane.
f
g
h
i
l
C tcpIasm
12
The cytopIasn
The cytopasm (semfud mxture) s the
ceuar matera outsde of the nuceus
(contro center) and nsde the ce
(pasma) membrane. ln humans, as
we as a pants and other anmas,
cytopasm conssts of cytoso (a ge-
ke fud), cytopasmc organees
(mnorgans), and ncusons (chemca
substances). Prokaryotc ces (those of
bactera and prmtve agae) have a
cytopasm and ncusons, but no
organees.
s a whoe, the cytopasm asssts n
the movements of organees and the
transport of substances wthn the ce,
provdes an envronment n whch
bochemca reactons can occur, and
heps to support and shape the ce.
CytosoI
Ths s a ge-ke, semtransparent fud
mosty comprsed of water. lt contans
dssoved sugars, sats, and other soutes.
Larger moecues, such as protens, form
coods. The cytoso hods the other
eements of the cytopasm n suspenson.
Nany vta substances, such as starch, are
stored n the cytoso n ths way unt they
are needed by the organees n the ce.
The cytoso s abe to change from a
semfud to a more sod state (n
con|uncton wth the cytoskeeton). Ths s
mportant for many ce functons.
lncusons are substances stored n the
cytoso. The ncuson depends on the ce
type. ln adpocytes (fatty ces), the pd
(fat) dropet s an ncuson. Pgments
(coorngs) such as meann n skn ces
aso count as ncusons.
CytopIasn
acuoIe
Ths s a arge, membrane-encosed,
sac that can occupy up to 0 percent
of the ces voume. The vacuoe
heps mantan ce shape and
osmotc baance,
stores sugars, sats, and toxns, and
pushes the cytopasm to the edge of
the ce, whch ads the nterceuar
transport of substances.
The vacuoe membrane contros the
movement of substances between
the cytopasm and the vacuoe.
A ceII vacuoIe
Cytopasm
Vacuoe
Vacuoe membrane
13
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StorIng nucus
Nany gands store ther products n the
cytopasm before secretng them.
Gobet ces are the most common
unceuar gands. They secrete mucus
(thck, smy fud), whch protects
surfaces from abrason, catches foregn
ob|ects, and ubrcates passageways.
The mucus s stored n the cytopasm
before t s reeased.
GobIet ceII
ExocrIne gIand facts
Exocrne gands, such as gobet ces,
reease substances from the body.
Gobet ces are commony ocated n the
dgestve, respratory, and reproductve
tracts.
Nucus
Cytopasm
Nuceus
C tcskeIetcn
14
The cytoskeIeton structure
The cytoskeeton s a knd of ntraceuar scaffodng.
lt conssts of a compex network of tny proten fbers
and tubes suspended n the cytoso (ge-ke fud)
nsde a ce. The cytoskeeton s a dynamc structure
that constanty changes as the ce grows and
especay when t dvdes. lt comprses three types
of proten structures: mcrotubues (tny tubes) (a),
mcrofaments (tny fbers) (b), and ntermedate
faments (c). None of these has a coverng membrane.
hIcrofIIanents
Ncrofaments are thn strands of the proten actn.
They are 5- nanometers (nm) wde.
The actn subunts are arranged n two chans.
ctn has the abty to contract (shorten).
Ncrofaments form bundes, fat meshes, or three-
dmensona networks.
They are most abundant at the perphery of the ce.
They are frequenty broken down and reassembed.
hIcrotubuIes
Ncrotubues are hoow cynders of tubun proten.
They are about 20-25 nm wde.
The tubun subunts are spherca.
Ncrotubues radate from the centromere (structure
at the ce center).
Lke mcrofaments, they are frequenty beng broken
down and reassembed.
Organees are arranged aong the mcrotubues.
lnternedIate fIIanents
These are fbers made from a range of proten.
lntermedate faments are about 10 nm wde.
These faments extend throughout the cytopasm.
They are attached to the ce membrane and may
span the ce from one sde to the other.
lntermedate faments form a mesh nsde the nuceus.
lntermedate faments are the most permanent and
stabe part of the cytoskeeton.
Tubun
subunt
lntermedate
fament
protens
ctn subunt
a b c
15
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AneboId novenent
The cytoskeeton s nvoved n amebod
movement used by whte bood ces n
humans and a range of ces n the
natura word. The movement nvoves
a pseudopodum (fase foot).
1 lnsde the ce, ts cytopasm
comprses a fud endopasm and a
more-sod ectopasm. ln a statonary
ce, the endopasm s found n the
center and the ectopasm s coser to the
ce membrane.
2 ln order for the ce to move, the
ectopasm forms a sma pro|ecton.
Endopasm fows n and the pro|ecton
becomes a pseudopodum.
3 s endopasm reaches the end of
the pseudopodum, t s converted nto
ectopasm. s ths ectopasm fows back
aong the ce membrane, the
pseudopodum s engthened further.
Smutaneousy, the reverse s
happenng at the rear of the ce, the
ectopasm s converted nto endopasm
and traves to the front of the ce,
brngng the rear forward (4).
Ncrofaments are nvoved n
generatng amebod movement,
athough t s not known exacty what
ther roe s. lt may be that the
mcrofaments fod up n the endopasm
and open out n the ectopasm. Ths
woud squeeze the endopasm forward.
The mcrofaments may sde aganst
each other movng the endopasm
forward, or the mcrofaments
dsntegrate at the front and
reassembe at the rear, takng
the endopasm wth them.
2
1
3
4
Ce
Nembrane
Cytopasm
Sma pro|ecton
Pseudopodum
EndcpIasmIc retIcuIum
16
RetIcuIun facts
Nore than haf of the membranes nsde a
ce are used to form the EP.
The EP extends from the nuceus a over the
ce formng a meshwork. s a resut, no
porton of the cytopasm s far from the EP.
lntraceIIuIar transport facts
snge hghy-foded membrane surrounds
the entre EP.
The space nsde the EP s caed the umen.
Protens made by the EP trave through the
umen before beng reeased.
Rough and snooth ER
Nucear membrane
Ce
EP
Smooth EP
Endopasmc retcuum (EP) s a type of
organee nsde a ce. EP s a network
of fud-fed tubes. There are two types
of EP, rough and smooth. ce may
have both or ony one, dependng on
ts functon.
Pough EP s |oned to the nucear
membrane. lts externa surface s
studded wth rbosomes (organees
nvoved wth proten formaton).
Smooth EP s contnuous wth rough
EP but has no rbosomes.
EndopIasnIc retIcuIun structure
Pough EP
EP umen
Pbosome
1T
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Rough ER
Nanufactures the budng bocks of
ce membranes (phosphopds and
choestero).
Heps make and transport protens.
The externa face provdes a ste for
chemca reactons.
ProteIn synthesIs and transport
1 Pbosomes (a) on the rough EP wa
(b) manufacture proten strands (c).
2 Wthn the umen, the proten strands
fod nto dstnctve shapes unque to
ther chemca structure, dentfyng
them as specfc protens (d).
3 Sugars (e) may be added to protens
to form gycoprotens (f).
4 Competed protens are encased n
membranous vesces (tny membrane
sacs) (g), whch pnch off the EP and
trave to other stes n the ce.
Snooth ER
Enzymes (boogca cataysts)
embedded n ts membrane was
are nvoved wth chemca
reactons concernng:
the makng of choestero,
the makng of sex hormones (sterods,
hormones made from choestero),
processng fats,
the detoxfcaton of posons, and
musce ce contracton.
1 2
3 4
EndopIasnIc retIcuIun functIons
a b
f
c
e
g
d
RIbcscmes
1S
Pbosomes are organees found nsde
a human ce. They are aso found n a
other pant and anma ces. Pbosomes
are used to decode DN
(deoxyrbonucec acd) nto protens.
They are tny, round granues.
Pbosomes are ocated on the rough
endopasmc retcuum (gvng t the
rough appearance). They are aso
found ndvduay throughout
the cytopasm.
RIbosone
CIose to the nucIeus
Pbosomes are most obvous on the
rough EP, where most of the ces
protens are manufactured. Pbosomes
read mPN (messenger rbonucec
acd) moecues, a type of nucec acd
coped from the ces DN, that are
carred from the nuceus through the
EP umen.
ecoders
Pbosomes have two parts, a arge (a)
and a sma (b) subunt. They are made
of rPN (rbosoma rbonucec acd) and
protens. Each rbosome s |ust over 20
nm n dameter and 30 nm n heght.
mPN moecues are passed between
the two unts. t ths pont the three-
etter code of the mPN s transated.
Front vew Sde vew
Pbosomes
on rough EP
Cytopasm
Pough EP
EP umen
Cytopasm
a
b
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FunctIons of rIbosones
When hed between the rbosoma
subunts, the snge strand of mPN
comes nto contact wth another type of
nucec acd caed tPN (transfer PN).
tPN moecues are coded to attach to
specfc amno acds, the budng bocks
of protens.
The mPN codes for partcuar amno
acds usng three-etter words, or
codons. The etters n each word
correspond to bases, speca unts ned
up aong the PN moecue. The bases
are guanne (G), cytosne (C), adenne
(), and urac (U). The four bases form
pars of oppostes: G wth C and wth
U. Therefore, each codon of mPN
bonds to a correspondng tPN
moecue made up of the opposte
bases. ln so dong, the tPN paces the
correct amno acd nto ts rght poston
for the proten beng produced.
Free rbosomes (those not attached
to rough EP) are nvoved n makng
protens, such as enzymes, to be used
by the ce tsef. Nembrane-bound
rbosomes (those attached to rough EP)
are mosty nvoved n makng protens
that w be used n the ce membrane
or exported out of the ce.
DN on chromosome
n nuceus
mPN
mPN
mPN eaves
nuceus
tPN
rPN
Base unts
cIgI apparatus
20
The GoIgI apparatus
The Gog apparatus, or compex, s
an organee found n most human ces.
lt s usuay ocated near the nuceus at
the center of the ce. lt s named after
the 1 th-century ltaan anatomst
Camo Gog, and s assocated wth the
secreton of substances from the ce.
The Gog apparatus s a stack of four
to sx fat, membrane-encosed, dsk-
shaped sacs known as csternae.
The stacked csternae resembe a
pe of dshes.
arge number of membranous
vesces (tny membrane sacs)
surround each Gog apparatus. Nost
vesces are ocated on the sde of the
Gog apparatus nearest to the rough
endopasmc retcuum (EP).
Each Gog stack has two faces, or
sdes. The cs face s on one sde and
the trans face s on the other. ln
genera, the cs face ooks toward the
rough EP and the trans face toward the
ce (pasma) membrane surroundng
the ce. These faces are functonay
and bochemcay dfferent, and
contan very dfferent enzymes
(boogca cataysts).
Each face s connected to ts
own network of branchng and
nterconnected tubues (tny tubes).
These are known as the cs-Gog and
trans-Gog networks.
Protens and pds trave from the EP
to the cs face n the vesces, where
they enter the csternae. These
substances are then reeased through
the trans face n other vesces.
GoIgI apparatus facts
The Gog apparatus prepares and devers
protens and other moecues ready for:
secreton from the ce,
ncuson n ysosomes (sacs of dgestve
enzymes), and
ncorporaton nto the ce.
GoIgI apparatus
GoIgI stack
Gog
apparatus
Csternae
cs
face
cs-Gog
network
trans-Gog
network
trans
face
Vesce
21
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ProteIn preparatIon and deIIvery
1 Protens (a) are devered to the Gog
apparatus (b) n vesces (c) sent by the
rough endopasmc retcuum (d).
4These vesces (g) pnch off from the
trans face of the Gog stack and move
to other parts of the ce.
5 Vesces contanng protens for
secreton (h) merge wth the ce
membrane (I) and e|ect ther contents
(|). Ths process s caed exocytoss.
3 Wthn the umen (nterna space)
of the csternae, the protens are
packaged nto Gog vesces (f).
2
4
5 6
2The vesces fuse wth the membranes
of the cs face (e) of the Gog
apparatus.
6 Vesces (k)
contanng
enzymes fuse
wth ysosomes (I).
Nembrane
components are
fused wth the ce
membrane (n).
b
f g
h
l
i
c d a
e
1
3
NucIeus
22
NucIeus structure
The nuceus s usuay ocated at the
center of a ce. lts shape often refects
the ces shape. For exampe, fat ces
have fat nuce.
nuceus conssts of:
The nucIear enveIope (a). Ths s made
up of two membranes. Lke
the ce membrane, each nucear
membrane conssts of a phosphopd
bayer (b) two ayers of phosphopd
moecues (c).
NucIear pores (d) t certan ponts, the
nucear membranes fuse to form hoes
n the nucear enveope.
NucIeopIasn (e) Ths a ge-ke fud
contanng vta chemcas, such as
nutrents and sats. The nuceous
and chromatn are suspended n
the nuceopasm.
ChronatIn (f) n amorphous dark area
NucIeus
made up of strands of DN
(deoxyrbonucec acd) (g). The DN
s wound around hstone protens (h)
comprsed of chromatn fbers (I).
cump of eght hstones on a DN
strand comprses one nuceosome.
Normay, chromatn s not vsbe
under a ght mcroscope. Durng
ce dvson, however, chromatn
condenses to form chromosomes,
whch are vsbe under a ght
mcroscope.
The nucIeoIus (|) Ths s a compact
ba of PN (rbonucec acd) and
protens. lt does not have an outer
membrane. Every nuceus has one
or more nuceo.
lnsIde the nucIeus
Nuceus
f i g h
c
b
d
a
e
23
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NucIeus shapes
The nuce n dfferent ces
have a range of shapes.
Ped bood ces, or
erythrocytes, do not have
nuce at a. The dfferent
whte bood ces
(eukocytes) have unusua
nuce. Neutrophs (1) have
mutobed nuce.
Eosnophs (2) have |ust
two obes. The nuceus of a
basoph ce (3), s hard to
see behnd the granues of
hstamne t contans.
Lymphocytes (4) are sma
ces, and ther nuce f
amost the entre ce.
Nonocytes (5) are very
arge ces. Ther nuce are
often kdney-bean shaped.
BIood conponents
The nuceus s the argest, most
mportant organee n most human
ces. However, mature red bood ces
(1) do not contan a nuceus. s a resut,
red bood ces cannot undergo ce
dvson. The red bood ce s nuceated
at an eary stage of deveopment, but
then e|ects ts nuceus to become argey
a vesse for hemogobn (a bood
proten). Nuceated bood ces ncude
neutrophs (2), eosnophs (3), and
monocytes (6), whch k nvadng
organsms. Basophs (4) produce
hstamnes to fend off nfectons, and
ymphocytes (5) produce antbodes.
4 Lymphocyte
5 Nonocyte
rythrocytes (red bood ces)
Leu ocytes (whte bood ces)
1 Neutroph
2 Eosnoph
3 Basoph
scscmes
24
Lysosones structure and functIon
Lysosomes are generay round, snge-
membrane sacs suspended n the
ces cytopasm (semfud mxture).
Lysosomes contan many dfferent
dgestve enzymes (boogca cataysts
used to break down arge moecues nto
ther consttuents) and have an nterna
pH of 5 (acdc), whch heps wth the
dgestve processes that take pace
nsde. The number of ysosomes n a
ce vares from one to severa hundred.
They are especay prevaent n
phagocytes, engufng whte bood
ces, such as neutrophs and
eosnophs, whch need to break up
the harmfu matera they absorb. The
contents of ysosomes aso break down
gycogen (stored carbohydrate), destroy
n|ured, redundant, or harmfu tssues
and ces by reeasng ther enzymes
a process known as autoyss (ce sef-
destructon) and provde stes where
substances, such as bactera, posons,
ceuar debrs, and mafunctonng
organees can be safey dgested
wthn the ce.
A Iysosone at work
The partce enters the ce by
a process such as phagocytoss
(ce eatng). Ths takes pace by
endocytoss: the ce membrane engufs
the partce, whch s then reeased nto
the ce nsde a arge membranous
vesce.
The phagocytc vacuoe or arge
membranous vesce formed fuses
wth a ysosome so the contents of
the two bodes mx.
Ce membrane
Lysosome
Nembranous vesce
Partce
Vesce
Lysosone
Lysosome
25
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CeIIs pIus Iysosones
Neutrophs (a), eosnophs
(b), and basophs (c) are
known as granuocytes.
The granuar appearance
of a and b s caused by ther
many ysosomes. Basophs
contan granues of hstamne.
The enzymes n the ysosome dgest
the partces moecues. Nany of the
enzymes break down the moecues by
hydroyss. Ths s a chemca process
that takes oxygen and hydrogen atoms
out of a moecue to form water.
Ths aso causes the arge moecues
to break nto smaer unts.
The resutng harmess waste
products are reeased through a pore
n the ysosome nto the cytopasm.
Nany of these substances, such as
water, amno acds, or phosphate
compounds, are usefu to the ce
and are recyced.
The unwanted wastes are secreted from
the ce by exocytoss. Ths process s the
opposte of endocytoss. The waste s
encosed n a vesce. The membrane of
ths vesce then fuses wth the ce
membrane. ln ths way, the vesce s
opened on the outsde of the ce, and ts
contents are reeased.
a b c
Enzyme
Partce
Lysosome
Pore
Waste
products
Waste products
Ce membrane
Vesce
NItcchcndrIa
26
The ceII s power pIants
Ntochondra (snguar: mtochondron)
are membrane-bound organees found
nsde a human ces. They reease
energy from nutrents derved from
food. Ntochondra are scattered
throughout the cytopasm.
Ntochondra are often depcted
as sausage-shaped, rod-shaped, or
spherca, dependng on whch ce
the exampe s from. ln a vng ce,
however, they are constanty changng
shape. Each mtochondron has:
a smooth outer membrane,
an nner membrane heavy foded nto
crstae (shef-ke structures),
a matrx (ge-ke substance nsde
the nner membrane),
enzymes (boogca cataysts)
dssoved n the matrx and
embedded n the crstae, and
ts own genes mtochondra DN
(deoxyrbonucec acd), or mtDN s
hItochondrIa
lnsIde a
nItochondrIa
hItochondrIaI
NA pIasnId
Ntochondron
Outer membrane
lnner membrane
Natrx
Enzymes
Crstae
usuay found n a doube-stranded
crcuar pasmd (smpe, bactera-ke
DN). Ntochondra possess ths DN
because t s thought that they were
once a type of free-vng bactera,
whch started to ve and functon
wthn other ces. ln sexuay-
reproducng organsms, the
mtochondra genome s derved
ony from the femae.
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Features
Ntochondra can fuse wth each other
and then separate.
They are most concentrated n areas n
whch energy expendture s greatest.
Ces that consume a ot of energy,
such as ght-senstve rod ces (beow),
have many mtochondra. Ces usng
ess energy have fewer mtochondra.
The number of mtochondra n a ce
changes accordng to need. lf, for
nstance, a restng musce s repeatedy
stmuated to contract, the number of
mtochondra n ts ces w ncrease.
mtochondron aways arses from a
prevous mtochondron. They repcate
n the same way as bactera.
Ntochondra w often attach
themseves to contracte protens such
as actn myofbrs n a musce ce.
Nusce dseases are nked to mtDN.
FunctIon of nItochondrIa
Ntochondra are nvoved n ceuar
respraton: the producton of the
ceuar energy storage moecue TP
(adenosne trphosphate). Fatty acds
CeIIuIar respIratIon
1 Gucose (a) and oxygen (b) enter
the mtochondron.
2 Enzymes (c) break the gucose down,
reeasng energy (d).
3Ths energy s used to bnd a
phosphate group to DP (adenosne
and amno acds (budng bocks of
protens) and gucose (smpe sugar)
can a be broken down to gve energy.
Gucose s the exampe gven beow.
dphosphate) (e) to make TP (f). Carbon
doxde and water are aso formed.
4When the ce needs energy, the bond
that hods the phosphate to TP s
broken. Ths reeases energy and
converts the TP back nto DP.
1 2 3 4
Rod ceIIs
f
a
b
c e
d
Other crganeIIes
2S
CentrIoIes
Centroes are a type of organee. They
occur n pars and e at rght anges to
each other near the nuceus (contro
center) of the ce. They are bundes of
CIIIa and fIageIIa fornatIon
Centroes form the bases of ca and
fagea (movabe pro|ectons from
the ce membrane).
1The centroes mutpy.
2They mgrate to the ce membrane.
mcrotubues (tny tubes) ke those used
n the cytoskeeton. The mcrotubues are
arranged n nne groups of three,
formng a tube.
3 Each centroe sprouts mcrotubues
that push the ce membrane outward
to form ca.
4 fageum resuts when mcrotubues
form a snge, onger pro|ecton.
1 2 3 4
CentrIoIes and fIageIIa
Ncrotubues
Proten
spoke
Cum
Ce Nuceus
Ncrotubues Centroes
Ce
membrane
Centroes Fageum
Ncrotubues
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PeroxIsones
Peroxsomes are a type of organee
found n human body ces, and those
of a pants and anmas. They are
snge-membrane sacs suspended n
the ces cytopasm. Peroxsomes are
very smar to ysosomes, but tend to
be smaer.
They contan powerfu enzymes
(boogca cataysts). The number of
peroxsomes n a ce vares from one
to severa hundred. They are especay
prevaent n the ver and kdney ces.
Peroxsomes are formed by growth and
bnary fsson (smpe dvson nto two)
of other peroxsomes.
CentrIoIes and peroxIsones
FunctIons
Peroxsomes detoxfy harmfu and
posonous substances such as
acoho, hydrogen peroxde, and
formadehyde.
Peroxsomes dsarm dangerous free
radcas.
These are energetc chemcas wth
unpared eectrons. They can scrambe
the structure of vta compounds such
as DN (deoxyrbonucec acd),
protens, and pds (fats).
Peroxsomes aso break down fatty
acds. though free radcas and
hydrogen peroxde are natura by-
products of ce actvtes, f they
accumuate n tssues to certan eves
they can become very harmfu.
Structure of peroxIsone
Centroes
Peroxsome
Snge
membrane Enzymes
lnterceIIuIar |unctIcns
30
TIght InterceIIuIar |unctIons
Tght, or mpermeabe, |unctons are
formed by proten moecues of
neghborng ces fusng together ke
a zpper. There s no nterceuar space
between ces at a tght |uncton.
Tght |unctons are found n epthea
tssues. These tssues:
cover the body surface as skn,
ne nterna cavtes, and
form gands.
speca type of epthea tssue caed
endotheum nes the was of the heart,
bood, and ymph vesses. ln the bran,
the endothea ces of capares
(the smaest bood vesses) have tght
|unctons. Tght |unctons between
epthea ces are formed ony between
those parts of the ce |unctons near
the free surface.
FunctIons
Ces that transport substances across
ther ce membranes have tght
|unctons. For exampe, the ces that
ne the ntestne absorb nutrents
through pores n the exteror surface of
the ce membrane. The nutrents then
move through the ce and out another
pore to the extraceuar matrx on the
other sde of the ce, and then nto a
bood vesse. The entry pores must be
kept separate from those that aow
passage out of the ce for ths process
to work effcenty. The presence of tght
|unctons near the outer surface s
thought to mantan ths separaton.
Wthout the tght |unctons, the entry
pores coud mgrate nto the regon of
the ext pores.
EpItheIIaI ceIIs
lnterceIIuIar |unctIons
Transport across nenbranes
Tght |uncton
Ce membrane
Epthea ce
Extraceuar
matrx
Proten moecues
Nutrents
Neghborng ces
Ext pore
Bood vesse
Entry pore
31
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AnchorIng |unctIons
t an anchorng |uncton, on the nsdes
of the neghborng ces, are rvet-ke
thckenngs caed paques (a). Each
paque s made of proten. eratn
faments (b) attach the paques to the
nsdes of the ce membranes (c). These
faments are part of the ces
cytoskeeton. Thnner protens caed
transmembrane nker protens (d)
cross the space between the ces (e).
LocatIons
There are two types of anchorng
|uncton: desmosomes and
hemdesmosomes. Desmosomes have
arger transmembrane nker protens
than the other |unctons. These nkers
are caed cadherns. nchorng
|unctons are used to connect epthea
(nng ces) to a basement membrane.
Together wth gap |unctons,
desmosomes form ntercaated dscs
(compex |unctons) between cardac
musce ces.
FunctIons
nchorng |unctons bnd ces together
n sheets or masses that form strong
structura unts.
The networks that these |unctons form
n tssues dstrbute tenson, hepng to
prevent tearng. Ths s why anchorng
|unctons are prevaent n areas that
are sub|ected to the mechanca stress
of pung and stretchng.
Wthn ntercaated dsks, for exampe,
desmosomes prevent ad|acent ces
from separatng durng heart
contractons.
Gap |unctIons
There are three man types of
communcatng |unctons:
gap |unctons,
synapses (nerve ce |unctons), and
pasmodesmata.
Transmembrane protens are arranged
nto groups (connexons) wth hoow
channes at the center. gap |uncton
comprses severa hundred connexons.
Gap |unctons form channes through
whch ons and sma moecues can
pass from one ce to the next,
resutng n the chemca and eectrca
coupng of ces.
ln unborn babes, gap |unctons
enabe nutrents to be dstrbuted
around the body before the crcuatory
system s deveoped.
AnchorIng |unctIon
cross sectIon
b
c
e
d
a
CIIIa and IageIIa
32
CIIIa
(Snguar: cum) These appear n arge
numbers as tny, harke fronds on the
ces exposed surface. Each cum s
made of bundes of mcrotubues (tny
tubes) covered by the ce membrane.
FunctIon
Cas wave-ke movement enabes
them to carry matter n one drecton
over the ces surface. Cated ces that
ne the arways move mucus (thck,
smy fud) toward the pharynx (throat)
to be removed by swaowng. Ths gets
rd of the arborne dust and bactera
trapped n the mucus and heps
cean and protect the nng.
CIIIa and fIageIIun
FIageIIa
(Snguar: fageum) These are
structuray the same as ca but are
onger and occur sngy n humans.
FunctIon
Fagea are used to move the ce
tsef. The ony exampe of human
ces wth fagea are sperm (mae
sex ces). The sperm uses ts
fageum to prope tsef toward the
femae egg ce (ovum).
Ca
Ovum
Fageum
lnsIde a cIIIun
Ncrotubues
Cum
Ce
membrane
Ca
Sperm
Fageum
33
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CIIIary notIon
There are two phases to each cary
moton. The power stroke (1), and the
recovery stroke (2). The motons of ca
are coordnated to make a wave trave
across the ce surface (3). Ths propes
substances across the ce.
2
1
3
Power stroke
Pecovery stroke Drecton of propuson
IndpIpe and Iungs
CIIIa In body aIrways
The nose, mouth, wndppe, and ungs are ned wth
cated gobet ces. These ces secrete mucus on the
surface of the arways. lrrtants are trapped n the
mucus and the ca on the gobet ces prope the
mucus toward the throat where t s swaowed.
The respIratory nucosa
Cum
Cum
Nucus
Ca
lrrtants
Nucus
Gobet ce
Ca
ExtraceIIuIar matrIx
34
The extraceIIuIar natrIx
Nutceuar anmas, such as humans,
are made up of tssues groups of ces
organzed and coordnated to perform
partcuar functons. To functon
propery, these ces requre a partcuar
envronment, whch s provded by the
extraceuar matrx (ECN) (a).
The components of the ECN are
secreted by the ces themseves.
The man consttuents beong to three
casses of protens. Coagens (b)
are nsoube fbers that form varous
chans, bundes, or other structures.
Nutadhesve matrx protens (c) bnd
to ce-adheson moecues (d) n ce
membranes and to other ECN
components. Proteogycans (protens
wth attached poysaccharde chans) (e)
contan water and form the buk of the
matrx or attach to ce surfaces.
FunctIons of the ECh
Heps bnd ces together.
Gves strength and protecton
to tssues.
Provdes a framework n whch
tssues can deveop and ces
can move.
ows communcaton wth and
between ces, for exampe va
hormones, neurotransmtters, and
other sgna moecues contaned
n the ECN.
ConnectIve tIssue
Ths conssts of ces wthn a
reatvey arge amount of
extraceuar matrx.
Exampes ncude cartage, bone,
tendon, and adpose (fat tssue).
The components, and the propertes,
of connectve tssues vary accordng
to ther poston and functon. For
exampe, bone must be strong and
fary rgd, whereas adpose must be
suppe and provde heat nsuaton.
Cytopasm
c
Ce
membrane
a
e
d
b
35
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Ths type of connectve tssue
s found around ymph nodes
(swengs n ymph ducts),
bone marrow at the center of
bones, and around the speen,
an organ assocated wth
mmunty and the ymphatc
system. lts man functon s one
of support. lt provdes a
framework upon whch these
organs rest. The tssue s made
up of retcuar ces that are
hed n a web of decate
retcuar fbers. The retcuar
ces are a type of fbrobast.
Fbrobasts are the ces that
secrete the ECN consttuents of
a types of connectve tssues.
AreoIar connectIve tIssue
RetIcuIar connectIve tIssue
Petcuar
fbers
reoar tssue s ocated
beneath the skn, between
musces, where t nes nterna
passageways, and around
certan bood vesses and
nerves, especay those nsde
organs. lts man roe s to bnd
nterna organs together so
they do not move around too
much and t adds strength and
eastcty to certan parts of the
body. reoar tssue s made up
of a few ces hed n a mesh of
strngy coagen fbers, eastc
fbers, and netke retcuar
fbers. ths s embedded
n a matrx of soft stcky ge.
Eastc fbers
Coagen
Stcky ge
Ce
Petcuar fber
Petcuar ce
lntrcductIcn
36
umans aie eukaiyoIIc, as aie aII oIIei anImaIs,
pIanIs, IungI, and many sIngIe ceIIed oiganIsms, sucI
as amebas. ukaiyoIes aII Iave IIe same basIc ceII
pIan, conIaInIng a iange oI oiganeIIes. acIeiIaI ceIIs
aie piokaiyoIIc. TIey aie smaIIei IIan eukaiyoIIc
ones and do noI Iave any obvIous InIeinaI
sIiucIuies. II Is vIdeIy accepIed IIaI eukaiyoIIc ceIIs
evoIved Iiom coopeiaIIves oI seveiaI piokaiyoIes.
TIese piokaiyoIes nov Ioim a ceII s oiganeIIes.
CeII netaboIIsn step by step
1 DN (deoxyrbonucec acd) n the
nuceus (the ces contro center) s
coped nto mPN (messenger
rbonucec acd).
2 mPN passes through pores n
the nucear enveope and enters the
cytopasm (semfud mxture) outsde
the nuceus.
3 The nuceous (a sphere of PN and
protens) n the nuceus manufactures
rPN (rbosoma PN).
4 rPN eaves the nuceus and enters
the cytopasm where t s made nto
rbosomes (tny, granuar partces).
Some rbosomes become attached to
the rough endopasmc retcuum
(rough EP). Others reman oose n the
cytopasm. Pbosomes are nvoved n
manufacturng the protens coded by
the ces DN.
5 ln the cytopasm or nsde the umen
of the rough EP, mPN attaches tsef
to rbosomes.
6 tPNs (transfer PNs) read the
proten-synthess nformaton carred by
the arrangement of a chan of nuceotde
unts as part of the mPN moecues.
CeII type facts
Human ces, ke those of
other anmas, are surrounded
by a ce membrane.
Pant ces, unke anma ces,
aso have a ce wa.
Ce membranes are hed
together by choestero.
The specfc amno acds (proten
budng bocks) that the tPNs carry
are bonded nto poypeptde chans.
typca proten s made up of severa
poypeptdes.
The poypeptde chans produced
by rbosomes are foded up nto ther
correct shapes nsde the rough EP to
produce protens. The shape of the
proten defnes ts chemca propertes
and ts metaboc functon.
Protens are shpped n vesces (tny
membranous sacs) from the rough EP
to the Gog apparatus.
1 The vesces fuse wth the wa of
the Gog apparatus.
11The Gog apparatus sorts, perhaps
aters, and fnay packages the protens
n Gog vesces.
12 Some protens are shpped to the
ce membrane n ths way and then
ncorporated nto the membrane.
13 Other protens (such as hormones
and dgestve enzymes) are secreted
through the ce membrane by
exocytoss to perform tasks esewhere.
14 Some enzymes are devered for
ncuson n ysosomes.
SECTlON 2: HO CE S OR
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15 Lysosomes enguf and use
enzymes to dgest harmfu substances.
16The dgested partces are then
expeed from the ce by exocytoss.
1 The ce s constanty takng n
substances. Phagocytoss (ce eatng)
s one exampe of an actve (energy-
usng) transport system.
1 Smpe dffuson of sma moecues
across the ce membrane s an exampe
of passve transport (wthout energy).
1 Ntochondra take n fues, such as
gucose sugar, to produce the energy
storage moecue TP (adenosne
trphosphate), whch the ce needs
to carry out ts actvtes.
A typIcaI anInaI ceII
Ce membrane
Vesces
Lysosomes
Phagocytoss
Exocytoss
Nuceous
Pough EP
DN
tPN
mPN
Pbosome
mno acd
Poypeptde
Dffuson
Gog apparatus
Nuceus
Ntochondron
DI usIcn and csmcsIs
3S
CeII nenbrane structure
The ce (pasma) membrane s made
up of a varety of moecues, ncudng
phosphopds, protens, and choestero.
Nost of these are abe to move about
wthn the membrane.
PhosphoIIpIds
doube ayer, about 5 nm thck, of
phosphopd moecues comprses
much of the ce membrane.
Phosphopds are modfed pds
(fats) that contan phosphorus. They are
dvded nto two man parts: a head and
a ta. s the poar heads are water-
seekng (hydrophc) and the nonpoar
tas are water-repeng (hydrophobc),
the phosphopd moecues orent
themseves wth ther heads pontng
outward and ther tas n contact.
ProteIns
lntrnsc protens pass through the
membrane and protrude on ether sde.
Extrnsc protens are attached to the
surface or one haf of the pd bayer.
Structura (or fbrous) protens are
strandke and connect to the ces
cytoskeeton. They may aso connect
the ce to ad|acent ces or to the
extraceuar matrx.
Functona (or gobuar) protens
are generay spherca and ncude
sensors and receptors, for exampe,
gycoprotens, enzymes, and transport
protens (channe protens and carrer
protens).
ChoIesteroI
Choestero s a sterod that gves the
bpd ayer extra strength.
CeII nenbrane
CeII nenbrane
Ce membrane
Nuceus
Phosphopd
Phosphopds
Choestero
Extrnsc protens
Structura protens
Channe protens
Carrer protens
Gycoprotens
lntrnsc proten
30
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1The contents of a ce form a hghy
concentrated souton. Large moecues,
such as protens, are bocked from
dffusng n and out of the ce by the
membrane. However, smaer moecues,
such as water, can move freey. When
a ce s paced n weak souton, ts
concentrated contents cannot dsperse.
lnstead water dffuses nto the ce to
make the contents ess concentrated,
and n the process make the externa
souton stronger. Ths type of dffuson
s caed osmoss.
FacIIItated dIffusIon
Nost substances cannot dssove
n both pds and water, so they
cannot cross a ce membrane.
Some, such as water, dffuse
through channes made of proten.
Large tems bnd to a carrer proten
straddng the membrane. Ths
chemca reacton makes the
proten change shape. s t does
so t moves the tem to the other
sde of the membrane.
1 2
3
snosIs
2Ths process contnues unt the ce
contents have the same concentraton as
the souton outsde the ce.
3 Snce water has fowed nto the ce, t
w swe up. lf the ce s n a very weak
souton or pure water, so much water
w dffuse nto t that the ce w
eventuay burst. The opposte happens
f a ce s paced n a stronger souton.
The ce oses water by osmoss, and ts
contents become more concentrated.
The ce shrnks and becomes crnked,
a process known as crenaton.
Water moecues
Large moecue Ce membrane
Burst ce
Dffusng tem Ce membrane
Carrer proten
ActIve transpcrt
40
ActIve transport
ln actve transport, the ce uses
energy supped by TP (adenosne
trphosphate) to transport substances
across ts membrane.
ctve transport s used f a partce:
s too arge to pass through the
membrane pores,
SoIute punpIng
1 carrer proten, caed a soute
pump, powered by TP, combnes
wth the partce.
2 lt then transports the partce across
the ce membrane. mno acds and
most types of on are transported
across the membrane n ths way.
ExocytosIs
Ths s how substances, such as
hormones, mucus, and waste products
are secreted from a ce.
1 membrane-covered vesce (sac)
carres the substance.
2The sac fuses wth the ce membrane.
3The partce s e|ected from the ce.
PhagocytosIs
Engufng other ces or partces by a
ce. Ths s generay used by whte
bood ces to destroy foregn bodes
such as bactera and vruses.
1 Part of the ce membrane
protrudes around the partce.
2The membrane encoses the partce.
3 4The sac formed separates from
the nner surface of the ce membrane.
Enzyme-contanng sacs (ysosomes)
then destroy the contents.
1 2
4
1
2
3
1
2
3
cannot dssove through the pd
bayer (fatty doube ayer) of the
ce membrane, or
needs to be moved aganst the
drecton of dffuson, from an area
of ower concentraton to an area
of hgher concentraton.
Ce membrane
Ce membrane
Partce
Sac
Secreton
Partce
Carrer proten
Ce
membrane
Vesce
41
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4
3 1 2
3 2 1
PInocytosIs
Ths process foows a smar sequence
to phagocytoss, but s used to transport
fuds nto the ce across the ce
membrane. The fuds ncude water and
the varous soutes dssoved n t and
quds contanng protens and fats.
Receptor nedIated endocytosIs
1 Noecues, generay gycoprotens, n
the ce membrane act as receptor stes
for certan hormones, mneras, and fats,
such as choestero.
2 4 Once a substance s attached to the
receptor, the membrane fods nward
and the sma sac created separates
from the nsde of the ce membrane.
The sodIun potassIun punp
n enzyme caed Na - TPase acts as
an on pump. lt s powered by TP.
ln one go, ths pump can transport three
sodum ons out of the ce and two
potassum ons back nto the ce. Ths
ensures that there are more potassum
ons nsde the ce than outsde and that
the reverse s true for sodum. Ths s
mportant for ces, such as neurons, that
need to carry eectrc potentas.
ons are pumped n the opposte
drecton to dffuson.
The pump has to functon amost
contnuousy to mantan the correct
eves of these ons.
Neary a thrd of the energy used by
a typca ce s used to keep the pumps
operatng. ln the case of eectrcay
actve ces, t uses up to two-thrds
of the tota energy.
lnsde ce
Outsde ce
Ce membrane
Ce membrane
Gycoproten
Fud Sac
Sac
Na - TPase
Sodum on
TP
Sodum on
Potassum on
Potassum on
Nembrane pctentIaIs
42
lon dIstrIbutIon
henbrane potentIaIs
ces contan arge negatvey-
charged moecues, especay protens,
that are effectvey trapped nsde the
cytopasm by the ce membrane. These
pay a sgnfcant part n creatng the
restng, or norma, eectrca potenta
across a ces membrane. Other
mechansms add to and mantan the
membrane potenta. These depend on
the propertes of the ce membrane
tsef, such as ts seectve permeabty
to ons and ts abty to actvey
transport ons from one sde to the other
wth pumps. Gated on channes, for
exampe, aow specfc ons through
the membrane ony when opened.
Negatvey charged
proten
on
RestIng potentIaI
ln a restng human ce the membrane
potenta s due many to open
potassum on ( ) channes n the ce
membrane that permt ons to dffuse
out of the ce to where they are ess
concentrated. These are known as the
restng channes. Ths resuts n
an overa budup of postve ons
outsde of the ce, eavng the nteror
eectrcay negatve reatve to
the exteror.
Dffuson of sodum ons (Na ) nto the
ce, whch woud counteract ths charge
dfference, s prevented because most
of the sodum channes reman cosed.
The dffuson of potassum ons depends
on the ce mantanng a hgh nterna
concentraton of potassum ons.
The ce acheves ths by usng energy
to actvey pump potassum ons nto
the ce, and sodum ons out of the ce
by means of the sodum-potassum
pump Na - TPase.
Exteror
Ce membrane
lnteror
Cosed Na channe
Na on
C
-
on
Open channe
ActIon potentIaI
Nerve ces, or neurons, carry
sgnas around the nervous
system by eectrca puses
caed nerve mpuses. These
puses trave down the axons
passng between ces at gaps caed
synapses. The mpuse s produced
by the ces acton potenta.
Ths s produced by openng the
sodum on channes so they
food nto the ce. Ths has
the effect of temporary
reversng the potenta
across the ce membrane,
makng t postve on the
nsde and negatve on
the outsde. Ths acton
potenta traves aong
the axon n a wave.
43
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
huscIe contractIon facts
smar acton potenta s used to
stmuate musce contractons.
The change of potenta n a musce ce
causes two protens n the ce actn and
myosn to overap each other. Ths shortens
the ength of the ce and the musce overa.
Synapse
Neghborng
ce membrane
Ce body
Dendrtes
xon
Synapses
cton potenta
Nerve mpuse
Neurotransmtters
When the acton potenta
arrves at the synapse, t causes
neurotransmtters to be reeased
whch trave to the next neuron.
At the synapse
ATP and ceIIuIar respIratIcn
44
AdenosIne trIphosphate
Wthout TP, a metaboc processes
woud soon stop.
ReIeasIng energy
TP (a) functons by reeasng the
energy t stores n ts phosphate bonds.
Breakng one bond (b) reeases |ust
enough energy (c) to fue most
bochemca tasks. The oss of a
phosphate group converts TP nto DP
(d) (adenosne dphosphate).
ProductIon
hgh-energy phosphate group (e)
s transferred to DP (d) to turn t nto
TP (f). Ths s an exampe of
phosphoryaton (the addton of
phosphate). lt occurs durng ceuar
respraton, whch s the breakdown of
the sugar gucose to reease enough
energy to form TP.
CeIIuIar fueI
The energy stored n TP s used for
both cataboc (destructve) and
anaboc (constructve) processes.
TP powers processes such as:
1 chemca reactons that requre
energy nput to proceed,
2 actve (energy-usng) transport
across the ce (pasma)
membrane, and
3 mechanca tasks such as the
contracton of musce ces.
b
1
2
3
c
a
d
e d
f
45
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
CeIIuIar respIratIon
Ceuar respraton s the
breakdown of the sugar
gucose. Ths reeases
enough energy to
phosphoryate many DP
moecues to produce the
chemca energy storage
moecue TP. Ths can be
summarzed as a smpe
equaton (see beow). ln
reaty, ceuar respraton
occurs n a seres of compex
stages, caed the rebs
cyce. t ponts n ths cyce,
eectrons are reeased, whch
are used n phosphoryaton.
hItochondrIa key
Ntochondra are the stes of ce respraton. The
enzymes nvoved are embedded n the foded
crstae.
xIdI Ing gIucose
Carbon doxde Water Energy Gucose Oxygen
C H
12
O O
2
CO
2
H
2
O 3 -38 TP
Carbon atoms Hydrogen atoms Oxygen atoms
hoIecuIes
ChenIcaI fornuIae
Outer membrane
Crstae
Enzyme
PrcteIn s nthesIs
46
U C
G
TranscrIptIon phase
1 Protens are chans of amno acds.
There are about 20 amno acds used
by human ces. The order of each chan
defnes the shape and functon of the
proten. ces DN (deoxyrbonucec
acd) contans the code for a the
protens the body needs. lnsde the
nuceus, the DN separates nto two
snge strands. One of these strands
serves as a tempate to produce a strand
of mPN (messenger rbonucec acd).
2 DN and other nucec acds are
composed of chans of unts caed
nuceotdes. The four nuceotdes are the
etters of the DN code. The mPN
nuceotdes attach to exposed
compementary DN nuceotdes,
makng a strand of mPN.
adenne C cytosne
G guanne T thymne
U urac
3The mPN eaves the nuceus and
attaches to a rbosome on the rough
endopasmc retcuum (rough EP).
1
2
3
mPN strand
mPN Pbosome
Snge DN strand
mPN strand
Nuceus
DN doube hex
Nuceotde
EukaryotIc ceII
Pbosome
Nuceus
4T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
When t s
compete, the
chan of bonded
amno acds
forms a hghy
foded proten.
5
4
6
tPN
Peptde bond
tPNs
Codon
Pbosome
Pbosome
TransIatIon phase
4 ln the ces cytopasm, a tPN
(transfer PN) moecue wth a specfc
three-etter code, or codon, attaches to
a specfc amno acd.
5The mPN codon nsde the rbosome
attracts a tPN wth the approprate
compementary bases.
6The tPN temporary bonds wth the
mPN. Ths brngs the amno acd that
t s carryng nto contact wth an amno
acd on a neghborng tPN. The two
amno acds become nked together
by a peptde bond.
mno acd
mno acd
mPN
CeII sIgnaIIng
4S
EndocrIne
Chemcas caed hormones are
reeased from endocrne gands,
such as the thyrod or ptutary,
and trave some dstance wthn
the body, usuay va the
boodstream, to nfuence
target ces. Nost hormones
perform severa dfferent roes.
ParacrIne
Chemca sgnas are reeased from
ces to affect target ces ony n the
vcnty. (Para means besde.)
For exampe, nerve mpuses are
transmtted between ad|acent nerve
ces by paracrne sgnas caed
neurotransmtters.
AutocrIne
Ces are affected by chemca sgnas
reeased by themseves.
For exampe, ces reease growth
factors that nfuence ther own
deveopment.
d|acent ce
Paracrne sgna Peceptor
Extraceuar sgna
Target ces
Secretory ce
Bood vesse
Endocrne gand Hormone
CeII sIgnaIIng
Ces need to communcate wth each
other for varous reasons.
The deveopment and coordnaton of
the many types of tssues, wth ther
numerous consttuent ces, depends
on ce-to-ce communcaton.
d|onng tssue ces often estabsh
permanent connectons va specazed
|unctons n ther ce membranes.
Ces aso reease sgnang moecues
nto the extraceuar envronment to
convey messages to neghborng ces.
These sgnang moecues bnd tghty
and specfcay to receptor protens
n the target ce.
The bndng of the extraceuar sgna
s usuay the frst step n a sequence
of reactons eadng to a partcuar
response n the target ce a process
known as sgna transducton.
40
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
1 2
1
mPN
LIpId soIubIe hornones
These substances can dffuse across ce
membranes. They ncude the sterod hormones
(for exampe, testosterone, progesterone, and
cortso) and the thyrod hormones (thyroxne
and trodothyronne).
Lpd-soube hormones are carred n the bood
by carrer protens. The hormone moecues are
reeased from ther carrer, eave the bood
vesse, and enter ad|acent tssue ces.
1 The moecues cross the pasma membrane of
a ce and bnd to receptors n the cytoso.
2 The bound receptor-hormone compexes enter
the ce nuceus and ater the transcrpton of
certan genes n the nucear DN. Ths affects
the producton of partcuar protens, and
therefore the actvty of the ce.
ater soIubIe hornones
These cannot dffuse across ce
membranes and bond to receptors
on the ces surface nstead.
They ncude peptde hormones (for
exampe, nsun and growth factors)
and sma non-peptde moecues (for
exampe, epnephrne, and hstamne).
though prostagandns are pd-
soube hormones, they too bnd
to ce-surface receptors.
1 Sgna moecues bnd to receptors on
the ce surface, causng a change n the
conformaton (three-dmensona shape)
of the receptor proten.
2Ths can ead to varous changes wthn
the ce. For exampe, the
bndng may trgger an ncrease n the
concentraton of a second messenger
an ntraceuar sgna chemca that
affects the ces actvtes.
Peceptor-hormone
compex
Hormones
Peceptor
lntraceuar
sgna chemca
2
Nuceus
Hormone moecue
DN
T pes c ceIIs
50
CeII type
dpocytes
Chondrocytes
Epthea ces
Erythrocytes
Fbrocytes
Leukocytes
Neurons
Osteocytes
escrIptIon
Each ce contans a
arge dropet of fat
Large and crcuar
ces found n
cartage
There are three
man types: fat,
cuboda, and
coumnar
Toroda (donut-
shaped) red bood
ces wth no
functonng nuce
Long, fat, and
branchng ces
found n connectve
tssues
Whte bood ces of
varous shapes that
are a arger than
erythrocyctes
Ce body has
extensons coated
n fat
Crcuar ces found
n bones
FunctIon
Store food as fat
Cushon and nsuate body parts
Nantan cartage
lmmature chondrocytes (known
as chondrobasts) form cartage
Lne the body
ct as a protectve barrer
bsorb or secrete substances
Transport oxygen and carbon doxde
around the boodstream
Nantan connectve fbers, such
as tendons and gaments
lmmature fbrocytes, caed fbrobasts,
form connectve tssues
Fght nfecton by destroyng
nvadng germs
Transmt nerve mpuses
Nantan bones
lmmature osteocytes, caed osteobasts,
form bones
51
D
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M
TIssue groups
Ces that work together to perform a
certan functon or set of functons are
grouped nto tssues. There are four
man groups of tssue: Epthea
tssues ne the bodys nterna and
externa surfaces, connectve tssues,
such as bone, gve the body ts
structure, muscuar tssues produce
movement, and nervous tssue
coordnates the body.
TIssue type LocatIon
Epthea ungs
nng of bood and ymph
vesses
nng of parts of the dgestve
and respratory tracts etc.
skn
Connectve under skn
at |onts
between other tssues and
organs
skeeton
boodstream
Nuscuar muscuar system
heart
was of bood and ymph
vesses
parts of dgestve tract etc.
Nervous bran
spna cord
nerves
lntrcductIcn
52
osI ceIIs Iave IIIe cycIes. TIey aie Ioimed, giov,
dIIIeienIIaIe InIo a specIIIc ceII Iype, ieacI maIuiIIy,
andvIen necessaiydIvIde Io iepioduce. TIose
IIaI do noI iepioduce ieacI maIuiIIy and IIen iemaIn
IuncIIonaI Ioi IIe iemaIndei oI IIeIi IIIespan In IIe
case oI neive ceIIs IIIs can be Ioi as Iong as 00 yeais.
TIe ceII cycIe vaiIes consIdeiabIy Iiom one ceII Iype Io
anoIIei. TIe IIIe cycIe oI a ceII Ias Ivo maIn peiIods
InIeipIase and ceII dIvIsIon.
CeII nenbrane
Ths enveopes the ce and
contros whch materas
enter and ext
NucIear nenbrane
Ths s a doube membrane
that surrounds the nuceus
NucIeus
The nuceus s where
most of the ces DN
s stored
GoIgI apparatus
Ths structure s nvoved
n secretng substances
from the ce
ChronatIn
Substance that
contans the ces
DN strands
CytopIasn
ge-ke fud that
contans the organees
CeII dIvIsIon facts
Ces need to dvde to:
repace dead, ost, or
damaged ces,
repar damaged tssue,
enabe the body to grow,
make sex ces for
reproducton.
Nost human ces w contan these
structures. n excepton s red bood
ces, whch do not have nuce snce
they do not need to reproduce. Durng
ce dvson the DN s doubed so each
new ce w contan a fu set of genes.
CentrIoIes
The centroes are part
of the cytoskeeton
and are nvoved n
ce dvson
hItochondrIon
The power pant of the ce
where energy s produced
EndopIasnIc retIcuIun
Network of fud-
fed tubes
SECTlON : CE l E C C E
53
D
I
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G
R
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M
CeII dIvIsIon
Ce dvson (mtotc
or N phase) s the
process by whch ces
reproduce. There are
two man ways n
whch ces dvde: by
mtoss or meoss.
itosis s the
process n whch the
parent ce dvdes to
make two daughter
ces dentca to tsef.
eiosis s the
process by whch ces
used for sexua
reproducton sperm
and ova (eggs) are
produced. Four ces
are produced n
meoss, each wth
haf a set of DN.
Ce Centroes
1
2
3
DN
lnterphase and ceII dIvIsIon
The tme when a ce s not dvdng s
known as the nterphase. lt has three
subphases: growth
1
, synthetc, and
growth
2
. Durng these phases,
mportant changes occur n
preparaton for ce dvson.
1 Growth
1
(or G
1
) Ths s a perod
of rapd growth for the ce. lt s aso
the tme when the sma rod-shaped
structures caed centroes begn to
make copes of themseves. Ces spend
a varyng amount of tme at ths stage
dependng on ther functon, age, and
the surroundng temperature. For ces
that dvde rapdy, t may ony ast
a few mnutes. For others, t can ast
for months or even years.
2 SynthetIc (or S) Durng ths phase,
strands of deoxyrbonucec acd (DN),
whch make up the bar-shaped
chromosomes, dupcate themseves.
Ths ensures that future copes of
the ce w receve the same genes
(nhertabe coded unts of DN).
3 Growth
2
(or G
2
) The fna preparatons
for ce dvson are made. The centroes
fnsh repcatng, and each ce now has
two pars.
Neoss
lnterphase
Ntoss
CeII dIvIsIon
G
1
G
2
S
N
S-phase
CdkC
Ntotc
CdkC
G
1
CdkC
CcntrcIIIng the ceII c cIe
54
1
2
3
CeII cycIe controI
Precse contro of the events of the ce
cyce s essenta for norma growth and
deveopment of the body. Breakdown
n the contro mechansms can ead to
abnorma mtoss and ce dvson,
or uncontroed proferaton of ces,
whch produces cancerous tumors.
Cdks are crucIaI controIIers
DN repcaton, mtoss, and other
processes of the ce cyce are
performed n a partcuar sequence by
numerous enzymes and other protens.
Contro s exerted by a sma group
of enzymes caed cycn-dependent
knases (Cdks).
CycIIns In ceII cycIe phases
The dfferent phases of the cyce are
controed by dfferent types of cycns.
Ther concentratons rse and fa n
sequence, as they are syntheszed
and then broken down.
1 G
1
phase Ce starts the ce cyce and
syntheszes G
1
Cdk-cycn (CdkC)
compexes, whch actvate transcrpton
factors that copy the genes that encode
enzymes needed for proten synthess.
2 S phase S-phase CdkCs actvate the
enzymes that perform DN repcaton.
3 G
2
phase Ntotc CdkCs are syntheszed
n an nactve form.
DN repcaton
55
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
CheckpoInt controI and arrest
CheckpoInt 1 Damage to DN causes
G
1
arrest and aows ce to repace
damaged or ost DN nuceotdes
before they are coped durng S phase.
CheckpoInt 2The presence of
unrepcated DN causes S arrest
and aows ce to compete DN
repcaton before mtoss.
CheckpoInt 3 Damaged DN causes G
2
arrest, enabng the ce to repar doube-
strand breaks n DN that otherwse
CeII cycIe checkpoInts
Ces montor ther progress through
the ce cyce at four checkponts.
These are ponts where the cyce stas
(arrests) f certan processes have not
been competed, or f there s damage
to the ces DN.
Such checkponts ensure that the ce
does not start mtoss prematurey,
whch coud have dsastrous
consequences for the ce.
For exampe, f chromosomes enter
mtoss whe they are st repcatng,
they become separated nto fragments,
eadng to the death of the ce.
woud cause fragments to separate
from chromosomes durng mtoss.
CheckpoInt 4 Deayed or fauty assemby
of the mtotc spnde causes N arrest,
n whch the cruca phase of mtoss s
deayed, and chromosomes reman n
a condensed state. Ths prevents
abnorma segregaton of chromosomes,
whch woud produce daughter ces
wth too many or too few
chromosomes.
Checkpont 3: G
2
arrest
Checkpont 4: N arrest
CeII cycIe phases
Checkpont 1: G
1
arrest
Checkpont 2: S arrest
P
P
O
P
H
S
E
N
E
T
P
HSE
NItcsIs
56
1
2
3
4
5
Ntoss s the process by whch most
body ces reproduce themseves. The
parent ce shown here has ony four
chromosomes n ts nuceus (contro
center), rather than the actua 4
found n human body ces.
Before nItosIs begIns
1The par of centroes (rod-shaped
structures) dupcates tsef, so that
there are two pars |ust before ce
dvson. The deoxyrbonucec acd
(DN), whch forms the chromatn
(fbers of genetc matera) n the
nuceus, aso dupcates.
hItosIs
Ths process s dvded nto four
stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and teophase. Ce
dvson ends wth cytokness.
Prophase
2 The pars of chromatn threads
co up and condense to make
chromosomes. Each chromosome
s made up of two dentca parts
caed chromatds. These are |oned
together by beadke centromeres,
makng the chromosomes
appear -shaped.
3The centroes move apart.
network of threads caed the
mtotc spnde (made of mcrotubues
ke those used by the cytoskeeton)
deveops between them. s the
spnde grows, t pushes the
centroes to opposte ends of the ce.
4 The ce nuceus breaks apart.
hetaphase
5 The chromosomes ne up n the
mdde of the ce on the spnde.
hItosIs: Prophase to netaphase
Chromatn
Spnde
Centroes
Centromeres
Chromatds
T
E
L
O
P
H
S
E
P
H
S
E
5T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
1
6
hItosIs: Anaphase to cytokInesIs
Anaphase
6 The chromosomes spt apart at
ther centromeres. Each chromatd
s now a daughter chromosome.
The spnde fbers retract toward
the centroes, pung each set of
chromosomes toward ether end of
the ce. The ce engthens.
TeIophase
The chromosomes n each haf of
the ce unco and become chromatn
threads agan.
The spnde dsappears and nucear
membranes form around each mass
of chromatn.
CytokInesIs
1 The cytopasm (ge-ke fud) of
the ce dvdes. Ths s caed
cytokness. The ce spts nto two
dentca daughter ces.
CeII dIvIsIon facts
Ntoss can be aso be vewed as two
separate processes: nucear dvson
whch repcates the nucear matera,
and cytokenss, n whch the ce
contents are dvded n two.
Daughter ces produced by mtoss are
genetcay dentca to each other.
Daughter ce
Nucear
membrane
P
P
O
P
H
S
E
l
1
2
4
3
5
NeIcsIs
5S
Neoss s the process by whch
reproductve or sex ces (ova
eggs or sperm) are produced.
Usuay, human body ces have 4
chromosomes. Egg and sperm ces
have ony 23 chromosomes haf the
norma amount. Thus, when the
sperm fertzes the egg, the zygote
(fertzed egg) has the correct
number of 4 chromosomes. The
reducton dvson of meoss s the
process that resuts n ces wth ony
23 chromosomes. The parent ce
shown here has ony four
chromosomes, rather than the actua
4 found n human body ces.
Before neIosIs begIns
1The centroe (rod-shaped structure)
dupcates tsef, so
that there are two |ust before ce
dvson. The chromosomes n the
nuceus dupcate themseves, too.
FIrst neIotIc dIvIsIon
Ths dvson s spt nto four
phases: prophase 1, metaphase 1,
anaphase 1, and teophase1. The
dvson ends wth cytokness.
Prophase l
2The chromosomes par up, wth the
two parts (chromatds) |oned at the
centromeres. Groups of four
chromatds are caed tetrads.
3 4The chromatds n each tetrad
swap genetc matera. Ths s caed
crossover. lt ensures that each sex
ce has a unque mx of genes.
5 Neanwhe, the nucear membrane
breaks down and a spnde forms
between the two centroes.
heIosIs: Prophase 1
Centroes Chromosomes
Nuceus
Centromere
Chromatds
Spnde
Tetrad
C TO
lNE
S
lS
T
E
L
O
P
H
S
E
l
NETPH
SE
l
P
H
S
E
l
6
1
50
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
hetaphase l
6 The tetrads ne up n the mdde
of the spnde.
Anaphase l
The spnde fbers retract and pu
the chromosomes toward opposte
ends of the ce. Ths spts up the
tetrads, but the chromatds reman
n ther orgna pars.
TeIophase l
The chromatds reman |oned as
they move to opposte ends.
Nucear membranes reform around
each of the chromosomes and the
spnde dsappears.
CytokInesIs
1 The cytopasm dvdes. Ths s
caed cytokness. Two daughter ces
resut. Each of these ces has the
genetc matera of one par of
chromatds from each tetrad.
Second neIotIc dIvIsIon
Ths second dvson haves the
chromosomes n each ce. lt s
smar to mtoss, except that the
chromosomes are not dupcated
frst. Both the ces dvde, resutng
n four ces wth two chromosomes
each, haf the orgna number.
11
12
heIosIs: hetaphase 1 to cytokInesIs
Stem ceIIs and specIaII atIcn
60
UnIpotent versus pIurIpotent
Stem ces may undergo asymmetrc
ce dvson to yed another stem ce
and a more specazed ce that s
somewhat dfferentated and therefore
restrcted n ts deveopmenta potenta.
Stem ces that dvde to produce |ust
one type of dfferentated ce (DC) are
caed unpotent (US). That s, they have
a snge capabty.
Purpotent (havng many capabtes)
stem ces (PS) mght produce two,
three, or more types of dfferentated
ces (D1, D2, D3).
Sten ceIIs overvIew
Stem ces are undfferentated ces that
produce the specazed ces needed for
tssues and organs.
n eary embryo contans stem ces
wth the potenta to deveop nto any of
the dfferentated ces found n the
body, they are the startng pont for
many deveopmenta pathways.
Varous types of stem ces reman
actve throughout adut fe n many of
the bodys tssues. For exampe,
ntestna stem ces contnuay dvde
to repensh the ces of the gut nng,
whe stem ces n bone marrow gve
rse to dfferentated bood ces, such as
ymphocytes and erythrocytes.
Bone narrow sten ceIIs
bood ces orgnate utmatey
from bood-formng (hematopoetc)
stem ces n the bone marrow.
Purpotent stem ces dvde to
produce myeood stem ces, whch
reman n the bone marrow, and
ymphod stem ces, whch
trave to the thymus.
Nyeod stem ces produce
red bood ces, eosnophs,
pateets, and macrophages.
Lymphod stem ces gve
rse to eukocytes, such as
B-ces and T-ces. Eosnoph B-ce
B-ce
Eosnoph
Ped
bood ce Eosnoph
Lymphod
stem ce
Nyeood
stem ce
Purpotent stem ce
PS
PIurIpotent sten
ceIIs
UnIpotent sten ceIIs
US
US
US
PS
PS
DC
US
D3
PS
D2
PS
D1
PS
Stem ce poo
Stem ce poo
PS PS
PS
US
US
US
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1
2
3
4
5
EnbryonIc sten ceIIs
The eary human embryo s many
composed of purpotent stem ces wth
the potenta to form vrtuay any tssue
n the body. fter about 14 days the
stem ces have aready become
PrIncIpIes of therapeutIc sten ceII use
1 Tssue ces are removed from
the patent.
2 nuceus s taken and n|ected nto
a donor egg ce from whch the
nuceus has been removed.
3The egg ce s stmuated to dvde
and form an embryo (a process
caed conng).
4 Stem ces are soated from the
embryo and cutured.
5The approprate type of stem ces
are transpanted to treat the patent.
specazed to produce ony certan body
parts. Scentsts have devsed methods
of cuturng embryonc stem ces, as a
profc new source of these ces, wth
vast therapeutc possbtes.
Nuceus Tssue ces
Donor egg ce
Embryo
Stem ce transpant
Stem ce cuture
CeII death
62
Progranned ceII death
The body has a mechansm for brngng
about the ordery death and dsposa of
certan ces.
Ths s caed programmed ce death,
or apoptoss, and t occurs durng
deveopment and as part of agng.
lt s dstngushed from ce death
brought about by dsease or n|ury,
n whch the damaged ces typcay
swe and burst, reeasng ther contents
and causng pan and nfammaton.
Functonng ce Nsshapen ce poptotc bodes Phagocyte
Events of ceII death
1The ce becomes sghty msshapen
and starts to shrnk. ln the nuceus the
chromosomes become condensed.
2The nuceus and cytopasm start to
fragment, formng apoptotc bodes.
3 Surroundng phagocytc ces, such
as macrophages, enguf the apoptotc
bodes and dgest them. The dgested
matera s e|ected from the phagocyte
and recyced by new ces.
1 2
3
Caspases
poptoss nvoves the actvaton of
enzymes caed caspases. These
promote processes that ceave certan
key ce consttuents, such as the
protens n the nucear enveope,
endospasmc retcuum, and the
cytoskeeton, so that the ce can begn
to be dsmanted.
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lnportance of ceII death
durIng deveIopnent
unan enbryo eveIopnent of Ieg
3.5 days 5 days 10 days 14 days
CeII death durIng deveIopnent of hunan Ieg
Shaded areas ndcate where ce death s occurrng,
to shape the dgts on the deveopng mb bud.
poptoss s used to orchestrate
remova of entre structures, especay
durng an embryos deveopment.
For exampe, kng of ces w aow
structures, such as the fngers and
toes, to take shape.
Ce death s aso a cruca part of
reguatng the formaton of the nervous
system. ln the centra nervous system,
up to 85 percent of the neurons are
programmed to de durng deveopment.
Neurons are unusua ces, however, n
that once the nervous system has
matured, they cannot be repaced f they
de. Ths s why n|ures to the nervous
system can eave permanent dsabty.
Lmb bud
rea of
ce death Toe buds
ControI of ceII death
Two dfferent mechansms contro when
ces embark on apoptoss:
CessatIon of trophIc sIgnaIs
Nost ces requre contnua extraceuar
sgnas to stay ave. These survva
sgnas are caed trophc factors.
ln the absence of trophc sgnas,
the ce actvates a sucde
program of apoptoss.
SendIng `nurder sIgnaIs
Specfc extraceuar sgnas actvate
apoptoss and effectvey murder a
ce. Ths can happen when mmune ces
cause apoptoss of, for exampe, vra-
nfected or magnant ces. Ce murder
s aso an essenta process durng
deveopment, as a way of removng
unneeded ces.
Cancer ceIIs
64
eveIopIng cancer
When ce dvson goes wrong, cancer
can deveop. Cancer s a form of
neopasm (abnorma ce growth, or
tumor). lt s more harmfu than other
formatons of rapdy dvdng ces, such
as warts. Cancerous growths are
Causes
Cancer s commony assocated wth
agng, but t s not known exacty why
t deveops.
CarcInogens
Certan agents, caed carcnogens, pay
a roe n causng cancer. nown
carcnogens ncude:
chemcas n tobacco,
utravoet (UV) rays n sunght,
hgh-energy radaton (for exampe,
nucear radaton or -rays),
asbestos fbers, and
some fung.
Iruses
Certan vruses have aso been
assocated wth cancer, ncudng:
NornaI ceIIs Cancerous ceIIs
human mmunodefcency vrus (HlV),
nked wth the otherwse rare
aposs sarcoma,
hepatts B, nked wth ver cancer,
papoma vrus, nked wth cancer of
the cervx (the neck of the uterus).
ther factors
Other factors that may nfuence the
deveopment of cancer are:
det,
nherted tendences,
stress,
acoho, and
contnued rrtaton of membranes.
magnant and not bengn (ocazed and
reatvey harmess). Nagnant growths
are abe to metastasze (spread around
the body through the bood and ymph
vesses) and damage surroundng
tssues.
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eveIopnent and spread
Types of cancer
Cancers are cassfed accordng to
where they orgnate n the body.
Nost often, a cancer begns n a ma|or
organ of the dgestve, respratory,
reproductve, urnary, or ymphatc
systems. Carcnomas are the most
common cancers and start n epthea
tssue (skn and organ nngs). Sarcomas
are cancers that start n connectve
tssue, such as cartage.
Nutated ce Heathy ce
Bood vesse
Deoxyrbonucec acd (the ces
nherted bueprnt, or DN) undergoes
mutaton (a change n the code t
carres). Ths change mght be trggered
by a carcnogen, or t coud |ust be a
random event. The mutated ce can then
begn to dvde rapdy.
The mutpyng cancerous ces nvade
surroundng tssues (such as nerves,
musce, and bone), causng damage to
heathy ces and any other structures n
the oca regon. Ths causes pan and a
oss of certan body functons.
Eventuay, cancerous ces can break
nto a nearby bood or ymph vesse.
They are then abe to metastasze (trave
around the body) and deveop
secondary cancerous stes n tssues
a ong way from the prmary ste.
Tumor
lntrcductIcn
66
gene piovIdes eacI ceII In IIe body vIII InsIiucIIons
Ioi makIng synIIesI Ing a paiIIcuIai pioIeIn oi paiI
oI a pioIeIn . acI pioIeIn, eIIIei dIiecIIy oi IndIiecIIy,
deIeimInes a paiIIcuIai measuiabIe cIaiacIeiIsIIc oi
ceII IuncIIon. ioIeIns aie Ioimed eIIIei as en ymes
pioIeIns IIaI conIioI bIocIemIcaI ieacIIons oi
sIiucIuiaI pioIeIns pioIeIns IIaI Ioim paiI oI IIe
ceII oi oIIei sIiucIuie .
Except for sex ces, a human
ces contan a set of about
30,000 genes. Whch genes
manufacture protens depends
on where n the body a ce s
stuated. For exampe, the gene
for eye coor w be actvated
ony n the ces of the eyes rs.
The genes for the enzyme
protens nvoved n dgeston
w be actvated ony n the
ces of the stomach nng.
Structure of a chronosone
chromosome conssts of
protens caed hstones,
and a spra (or hex) of two
strands of deoxyrbonucec
acd (DN). The DN s coed
around the hstones, whch
then co themseves up
formng a superco carryng
severa hundred or thousand
genes. Genes provde the
bueprnt for a human body,
from eye coor to heght. Tny
varatons n genetc
nformaton make each
person unque.
Gene facts
heathy ce has two sets
of ts genes, one from each
of the parents.
Each copy of the gene s an
aee. Ony one aee s
expressed by the ce.
here and when genes are actIve
DN
Chromosome
Protens
SECTlON : CHRONOSONES
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BasIc structure of a chronosone
Chromosomes are usuay dffuse,
threadke structures, not easy
dstngushabe from each other
wthn the nuceus.
Just before and durng ce dvson
the chromosomes condense (become
shorter and fatter), so that ther
dfferent shapes become vsbe under
a mcroscope.
The chromosome aso copes tsef,
makng two dentca chromatds that
meet at a narrow pont caed the
centromere.
The centromere can be n the mdde
(metacentrc), coser to one end than
the other (acrocentrc), or very near
one end (teocentrc).
hetacentrIc AcrocentrIc TeIocentrIc
Chronosone IocatIon
SynbIotIc NA
Not a the DN n a human ce s part
of the genetc code. segment of DN
that codes for a poypeptde s caed a
cstron. So a cstron of DN equates to a
nhertabe gene. However, cstrons are
made up of ntrons and exons. Exons
are sectons that contan code, whe
ntrons do not. The ntrons are
passed on durng reproducton aong
wth the exons, but pay no roe n the
functonng of the ce. Therefore the
DN n ntrons s symbotc, snce t
harmessy rees on the exons
for survva.
rms of
chromosome
Centromere
Centromere
Centromere
Short arm
Long arm
Ce membrane
Coed mass of
chromosomes
Nuceus
Chrcmcscme number and unctIcn
6S
Genes and chronosones
lnherted factors that determne the
characterstcs of an ndvdua are
caed genes. They are coded on strands
of DN ocated on the chromosomes n
the nuceus of each ce.
Appearance of genetIc naterIaI
For most of a ces fe, the
chromosomes are not vsbe but
are dspersed wthn the nuceus
as dffuse chromatn matera.
When a ce s about to dvde, the
chromatn matera cos up very tghty
nto chromosomes that are then vsbe
under a mcroscope.
sma beadke
structure caed a
centromere dvdes the
chromosome nto arms.
Each chromosome s
made up of a chan of
nuceosomes. These
are hstone protens
wth deoxyrbonucec
acd (DN) wrapped
around them.
Just before ce dvson
occurs, the threadke
chromosomes become
more tghty coed. They
condense to form the
shorter, thcker, rod-
shaped chromosomes.
Structure of a chronosone
FornatIon of chronosones
Nuceus
Chromatn
matera Chromosomes
Chan of nuceosomes
1 2
DN strand Hstones Centromere
Threadke
chromosome
Chronosone fact
part from sperm and ova
(or eggs) a human ces
contan 4 chromosomes
Ths number s unque to
humans. Not a DN s hed
wthn the chromosomes,
however. Some s found n
the mtochondra.
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onoIogous paIrs
ln nonreproductve ces there are two
sets of chromosomes, one set nherted
from each parent. Each chromosome
beongs to a homoogous par wth
another from the other set. Pared
chromosomes ook smar and carry the
same genes. There are 23 homoogous
pars of chromosomes n human ces.
Chronosones fron a ceII of a hunan naIe
shown arranged In honoIogous paIrs
Autosones and sex chronosones
ln humans, a but one of the pars are
caed autosomes, snce they are
fundamentay ake. The 23rd par
determnes the sex of the ndvdua. ln
mae humans, the 23rd par s not ake
n appearance, wth one chromosome
smaer than the other. ln femaes, the
sex chromosomes are the same sze.
FunctIon
Each chromosome carres severa thousand genes
(nherted unts of DN). These provde nformaton
that s the master pan or desgn, of a person.
Genes determne features such as har, skn, and
eye coor, the shape of faca features, heght,
and possby, some personaty trats. Tny
dfferences or varatons n the nformaton the
genes carry make each person unque.
aryotypes: chronosone nunbers
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 10 11
12 13 14 15 1 17 18 1 20 21 22 23
Homoogous par
utosomes Sex
chromosomes
AIIeIes
T0
AIIeIes
TIe vord gene Ins severnI deIInIIIons. In
IIs bnsIc Iorm, n gene Is IIe smnIIesI unII oI
InIerIInnce, vIIcI cnn be recognIzed ns beIng
pnssed on Irom ceII Io ceII. II Is nIso n secIIon
oI NA IInI conInIns IIe code Ior n cerInIn
cInrncIerIsIIc, sucI ns eye coIor. Fveryone Ins
coIored eyes buI IIey nre noI nII IIe snme
coIor. TIIs Is becnuse IIeIr eyecoIor genes nre
noI nII IIe snme. TIe dIIIerenI Iorms oI n gene
AB bIood groups
ln the BO system, the
gene that determnes a
persons bood group has
three ma|or aees: , B,
and O. Each of these
aees contans the code
for a chemca marker, or
antgen, that appears on
the surface of bood ces.
(ln the case of O, t codes
for a ack of antgens.)
human nherts two of
these aees and ths
defnes ther bood group:
, B, B, or O. Bood of
one group cannot be
mxed wth another
because t w cause
cottng.
lnherItIng a bIood group
Nutpe aees, such as those for bood
groups, are transmtted n the same way
as genes that have ony two aees. Ths
s because no matter how many aees a
gene has, an ndvdua can have no
more than two of them, and ony one
nre cnIIed nIIeIes. A gene mny Inve Ivo or
more nIIeIes. In genernI, everyone InIerIIs Ivo
nIIeIes oI encI gene, one Irom IIeIr moIIer
nnd one Irom IIeIr InIIer. TIe nIIeIe used Io
deIermIne nn InIerIIed cInrncIerIsIIc Is
decIded by n sysIem oI domInnnce. Some
domInnnI nIIeIes nre epressed In preIerence
Io recessIve (undomInnnI) ones, vIIIe oIIer
pnIrs oI nIIeIes nre boII epressed.
ey
aee
bood group
w be passed on to ther offsprng.
ln the exampe above, the group-B
father passes on ether B or O aees,
whe the group- mother passes on
or O. They can produce offsprng
wth any of the four bood groups.
Parents
Father Nother
Gametes
or sex ces
Offsprng
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( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Genotypes and phenotypes
s a person can ony nhert
one bood-group aee from
each parent, there are sx
dfferent ways that they can
combne. These are a the
genotypes (genetc makeup)
for ths trat. persons actua
bood group s ther phenotype
(expresson) of these aees.
The phenotype of a
gene depends on the
reatonshp between the
two nherted aees. One
aee may be domnant
over the other recessve
one, whe aees of
equa domnance mght
both be expressed n the
phenotype, or appear as
a mxture. Contnung
wth the bood group
exampe, aees and B
are domnant. They are
aways expressed n
preference to O, whch s
the recessve aee.
(Someone wth bood
group O has to have
nherted two recessve O
aees from the parents.)
The domnant and B
aees are aso
codomnant. Ths means
that when both are
present, both are
BIood group antIgens and antIbodIes
expressed. Each group
produces a combnaton
of antgens (markers) and
antbodes (chemcas that
attack antgens). There are
two antgens n the BO
system: and B. There are
aso two correspondng
antbodes: ant- and
ant-B antbodes. The
combnaton of these
BIood group
B
B
0
AntIgen
B
B
nether
AntIbody
ant-B
ant-
nether
ant- ant-B
onInant, codonInant, and recessIve aIIeIes
defnes the bood group.
lf a person has the aees
and B, they w have
both and B antgens
but nether antbodes
(bood group B). Ths
s because and B are
codomnant. Therefore,
from nne possbe
genotypes, there are four
phenotypes produced.
ey
genotype
( ) bood group
matrx, or grd,
s used to work
out a the possbe
genotypes from
the mx of aees.
DNA structure
T2
The doubIe heIIx nodeI of NA
The structure of DN conssts of two
chans of nuceotdes ntertwned to
form a doube hex, or spra.
Each nuceotde conssts of a sugar
(deoxyrbose), a phosphate group,
and a base unt.
The DN base mght be a purne,
such as adenne () or guanne (G),
or a pyrmdne, such as thymne (T)
or cytosne (C).
SpIraI Iadder arrangenent
of doubIe heIIx
NA paIrs
The DN moecue s a
doube hex t ooks
ke a twsted adder.
The sdes are formed
by the sugar deoxyrbose
and phosphate. The
rungs are formed by
pars of bases. The order
of the bases s what
makes up the genetc
code. The code has four
etters, one for each
base. Severa hundred
bases n a row form
a gene.
The sugar and phosphate groups nk to
form the backbone of each chan,
whe the bases pro|ect nto the center of
the hex.
The two strands run n opposte
drectons, and are hed together by
bonds between pars of bases.
The base parng s hghy specfc:
adenne aways pars wth thymne, and
guanne wth cytosne.
NA paIrs
Cytosne
Guanne
denne
Thymne
Deoxyrbose
Phosphate
Pared bases formng crossbonds
Drecton of sugar-phosphate backbone
Strands formng backbone
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Ths s a more detaed
moecuar mode of the
DN doube hex.
lt provdes a more
accurate depcton
of how the atoms are
arranged than the smper
adder mode.
ha|or and nInor grooves
DN doube hex has
two grooves that co
around ts ength. The
arger one s caed the
ma|or groove and the
smaer one, the mnor
groove. Noecues
nteract wth the
exposed nuceotde
bases n the ma|or
and mnor grooves.
hoIecuIar doubIe heIIx nodeI
ey
toms of a base
Phosphorus
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Carbon
On the
moecuar
mode, atoms
are represented
as bas of
reatve szes.
Na|or groove
Nnor groove
DNA unctIcn
T4
DN (deoxyrbonucec acd) functons prmary by drectng
the producton of protens. Each DN moecue can carry
thousands of genes. Every gene carres the pan for budng
a partcuar proten, or part of a partcuar proten. Whch
protens are produced decdes everythng about a ce, from
whether t s part of a musce or the bood, and the human
body as a whoe, from the coor of the har and skn to a
propensty to certan dseases.
The `CentraI ogna
Ths descrbes the fow of
genetc nformaton from DN
to proten: DN makes
rbonucec acd (PN), whch
makes proten. Ths nvoves
two man stages: transcrpton
and transaton.
1 TranscrIptIon
The genetc nformaton the
nuceotde sequence carred
by one strand of the DN hex
s transcrbed onto an mPN
(messenger PN).
2 TransIatIon
The nformaton n the mPN
s then read by tPN
(transfer PN) and transated
nto a sequence of amno acds
that make a proten.
3 Reverse transcrIptIon
n enzyme caed reverse
transcrptase can make DN by
copyng PN, but there are no
enzymes that can convert
proten sequences nto DN or
PN sequences, and no
enzymes that can make
protens drecty from DN.
The Inportance of proteIn synthesIs
1
2
3
Fron NA to RNA to proteIn
Peverse
transcrpton
mPN
moecue
Transaton
Proten
Transcrpton
DN doube hex
T5
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2
3
C U U C U G
C T T C T G
C U U C U G
C T T C T G
The process of makng
PN from DN s caed
transcrpton.
1The two DN strands
that make up the doube
hex become detached
from each other. They
party unwnd from the
hex. Ths exposes the
genes (sequences of
bases) and makes t
possbe to transcrbe
them. Just one of the
strands serves as a
tempate to produce
the PN strand.
2The enzyme PN
poymerase bnds to the
DN and moves aong t,
attachng free nuceotdes
to the exposed
compementary DN
bases, makng ths a
strand of mPN.
3The new mPN
moecue has exacty the
same nuceotde sequence
as one of the DN
strands the one that was
not actng as the tempate.
However, PN moecues
do not have the base
thymne. lnstead they
contan urac. Urac
bonds to adenne, n the
same way as thymne. The
mPN traves out of the
nuceus to the rbosome
where transaton occurs.
ey:
Base on NA
strand
adenne
T thymne
G guanne
C cytosne
ConpIenentary base on
RNA strand
U urac
adenne
C cytosne
G guanne
TranscrIptIon
ReadIng the nessage
Tempate strand
Non-tempate strand
PN moecue
Non-tempate strand
1
DN
Nuceotdes
PN poymerase
DN bases
Tempate strand
enes and gene expressIcn
T6
TranscrIptIon
The ce does not get ts
nstructons for assembng
poypeptdes drecty from
nucear DN. lnstead, the base
sequence of each gene s read
across, or transcrbed, nto
another snge-stranded
nucec acd, caed
messenger PN (mPN).
1The DN strands of the gene
unwnd and one strand serves
as a tempate for the assemby
of mPN, by the enzyme PN
poymerase. The other DN
strand s not transcrbed,
athough ths s the strand
that s actuay repcated.
2 The mPN conssts of a
snge chan of nuceotdes,
and resembes a snge strand
of DN except that the base
urac (U) occurs nstead of
thymne (T).
3 The base sequence n mPN
s compementary to that of ts
DN tempate, and carres the
genetc code, n the form of
base trpets, or codons.
mPN s made n the nuceus,
and then moves nto the
cytopasm, where poypeptde
assemby takes pace.
1
2
3
Gene expressIon
DN s the genetc matera, but other
nucec acds pay a vta roe n gene
expresson, the process of puttng the
nformaton carred by genes nto effect.
The expresson of most genes resuts n
the synthess of a poypeptde wthn the
ce.
Gene expresson nvoves two man
steps: transcrpton and transaton.
Gene transcrIptIon
Drecton of
transcrpton
Tempate DN strand
DN doube hex
mPN
Untranscrbed
DN strand
Codons of
base trpets
PN
poymerase
Bases added
to PN here
TT
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TransIatIon
The base sequence of each mPN
moecue s read by a rbosome a
custer of protens and another type of
PN (caed rbosoma PN, rPN).
thrd type of PN, caed transfer
PN (tPN), brngs amno acds to
the assemby ste.
s the mPN moecue feeds through
the rbosome, amno acds are added
to the end of the growng poypeptde
chan. (Severa poypeptde chans
make up a proten.)
Each type of tPN bears an antcodon,
whch compements that of the mPN
codon currenty nsde the rbosome.
Because of ths, the amno acds are
ncorporated nto the poypeptde
chan n the correct order.
Gene transIatIon
Proten
Poypeptde chan
Pbosome
Dockng steon rbosome
mPN moecue
mno acd
tPN
ntcodon on tPN
Poo of tPN moecues
and amno acds
DNA repIIcatIcn
TS
The two parenta strands of
DN unwnd and a new strand
forms on each orgna strand
of DN. Both of the frst
generaton DN hexes woud,
therefore, consst of one new
and one od strand each. ln
theory DN strands can
persst forever, aways
formng the orgna haf
of a new doube hex.
NA repIIcatIon
ln order to ensure that
daughter ces have the same
genetc nformaton as parent
ces after ce dvson, t s
essenta that DN
(deoxyrbonucec acd) s
repcated exacty.
DN poymerase
new DN strand n fna hex
1The DN doube hex uncos and the
two strands separate. These act as
tempates (mods) for new strands.
SenI conservatIve repIIcatIon
Step by step repIIcatIon
adenne
guanne
thymne
cytosne
phosphate group
sugar (deoxyrbose)
ey
1
NArepIIcatIon
Hex
1st
generaton
2nd generaton
Strands
T0
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
4 The end resut s two DN moecues
dentca to the orgna doube hex.
Each conssts of one new and one od
strand or seres of nuceotdes.
2 ln the presence of the enzyme
DN poymerase, free nuceotdes
(the budng bocks of DN) attach
to exposed compementary bases
on the orgna strands. denne ()
aways attaches to thymne (T), and
guanne (G) aways attaches to
cytosne (C).
3 DN poymerase then |ons these free
nuceotdes, one at a tme, onto the end
of the DN strand that s beng
syntheszed. The DN poymerase
then moves on to the next nuceotde
of the tempate DN strand, aows a
compementary nuceotde to par wth
t, then |ons that onto the new DN
strand. Ths process s repeated a aong
both of the orgna strands.
2 3
4
Drecton of
synthess
Free nuceotde
Orgna strand
New strand
NA repaIr
To ensure norma gene functon, t s vta
that a ce mantans the correct sequence
of bases n ts DN.
Changes n ths sequence can arse
because of:
copyng errors DN poymerase
occasonay nserts the wrong base
durng DN repcaton,
spontaneous chemca changes n the
DN whch can occur randomy n norma
externa envronmenta condtons, or
mutagens certan chemcas and types
of radaton nduce chemca changes n
the DN.
`ProofreadIng by NA poIynerase
DN poymerase can dentfy and
remove a msmatched base whe t
s eongatng a daughter DN strand
durng DN repcaton. lt then nserts
the correct base, compementary to
the correspondng base n the
tempate strand.
hodeI of NA poIynerase
Ths depcts the enzyme as smar to the
nsde of a party-open rght hand. The
tempate strand s bound to the
fngers, and ncomng nuceotdes are
added to the 3 end of the growng
strand at a po (poymerase) ste
between the fngers and the pam.
lf an ncorrect base s added to the
strand, the end of the new doube-
stranded DN mets (the strands
separate) enabng the daughter strand
to be transferred to an exonucease ste
(exo), where the ncorrect base
s repaced.
lf changes n the DN sequence become
permanent, they are caed mutatons.
When a body ce accumuates
mutatons, t may begn to mafuncton
and de, or possby become cancerous.
Noreover, defects n sex ces can be
transmtted to the persons offsprng.
Whe neary a mutatons cause
probems, a few actuay produce
benefts. Nutatons are the drvng
force behnd evouton by natura
seecton. Nevertheess, ces have
severa mechansms to dentfy and
repar changes n ther DN.
DNA repaIr
S0
po
exo
3 5
5
po
3
5
5
exo
En yne `hand
No mstakes
lncorrect base
detected
lncorrect base
repaced by
correct base
Pam
Fngers
Tempate strand
3 end of
growng strand
Thumb
hIsnatch repaIr
ln spte of the proofreadng capabty of
DN poymerase, errors n base parng
st arse durng DN repcaton. One
of the ways n whch ces correct these
errors s msmatch repar. lmmedatey
after repcaton has taken pace, varous
enzymes coaborate to dentfy and
remove ncorrecty pared bases from
newy syntheszed DN strands. DN
segment contanng the msmatch s cut
out, and a new segment syntheszed.
The most cruca aspect of such a
process s that the repar enzymes
dstngush between the od tempate
(parent) strand and the newy
syntheszed (daughter) strand, so that
the ncorrect daughter strand s the one
beng repared usng the correct base
sequence (.e., that of the tempate
strand) as a reference.
The repaIr process
The key components of msmatch repar
n human ces are enzymes encoded by
certan genes.
1 NutS (.e., product of the mutS gene)
bnds to a msmatch.
2 NutH bnds to a GTC (guanne,
adenne, thymne, and cytosne)
sequence near to the defect. (GTC
sequences on the tempate strand are
marked wth a methy group).
The nearby bound NutS recruts NutL,
whch nks NutS to NutH. NutH then
cuts out the segment of unmethyated
daughter strand contanng the defect.
3 Snge-stranded bndng proten
protects the ntact tempate strand.
4 new segment of DN s assembed
to f n the gap usng the parent strand
as tempate, and |oned up (gated) on
ether sde by a gase enzyme.
CheckIng daughter strand
unmethyated GTC
(daughter strand)
methyated GTC
(tempate strand)
S1
D
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G
R
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NutS NutS
Defect n
daughter
strand
1 2 3 4
ey:
NutH
NutL
Bndng
proten
Pepared
DN
Tempate strand
NutatIcns In DNA
S2
hutatIons
mutaton s a sudden and nhertabe
ateraton n the ces genetc matera
ts DN (deoxyrbonucec acd).
lt s estmated that on average three
mutatons occur per ce dvson.
These can occur durng DN repcaton
pror to ce dvson or be caused by
mutagens (mutagenc agents).
Exampes of mutagens ncude:
varous knds of radaton, ncudng
nucear radaton, -rays, and
utravoet (UV) ght, and
chemcas, such as the tars n tobacco
smoke. Nost mutatons have no
notceabe effect or are corrected by
the ces machnery after they arse.
Some, however, are harmfu, whe a
tny few produce a tangbe beneft,
makng the body functon better.
Types of nutatIon
mutaton that occurs n a reproductve
ce may be passed on n the gametes
(sex ces, such as ova and sperm). lt w
then be nherted by any offsprng.
mutaton that occurs n a non-
reproductve ce w not be passed on
to the offsprng. lt may, however, be
passed on to other body ces that are
produced from the mutant ce by ce
dvson. Nagnant tumors (cancers) are
thought to arse from mutant ces n ths
way. There are two man types of
mutaton: gene mutatons and
chromosome mutatons.
Fron codon to proteIn
tPN
Dfferent antcodon
mPN strand
Pbosome
Nutated codon
Dfferent amno acd
tered proten
S3
D
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A
G
R
A
M
Gene nutatIons
sma-scae change n the ces
genetc matera s caed a gene
mutaton. snge gene may be
affected f a sma amount of
genetc matera s:
a added, b ost, c rearranged,
or d substtuted.
The genetc code s based on
groups of three bases caed
codons n the DN. Sma
changes n the sequence of
bases can have a ma|or effect on
the coded words or trpe-base
codons they form. Ths changes
the structure and nature of the
proten made by the gene.
ln the tabe (rght) three-etter
words have been used to
represent the base trpets
(codons) n DN.
hutatIng codons
NornaI the od man saw the dog
(base trpets that code for the norma message)
hutatIons
a the od man saw ath edo
(one base a has been added)
b the od ns awt hed ogt
(one base a n man has been ost)
c the od man as the dog
(base trpet saw has been rearranged
d the od man saw the hog
(base d n dog has been substtuted by h)
C D
C D
C D
C
C
D
D
C
C D
C D
Chronosone nutatIons
arge-scae change n the ces genetc
matera that affects severa genes, or
even an entre chromosome, s a
chromosome mutaton. Some of the
genes (represented beow by bocks
of etters) n the chromosome may be:
1 deeted, 2 rearranged, or 3 dupcated.
1
2
3
ChrcmcscmaI changes
S4
2 3
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
L
N
L
N
D
L
N
D
L
N
C
D
These mutatons are those that happen
on a arge scae, generay durng ce
dvson. They ncude deeton, dupcaton,
nversons, and transocatons. Severa
genetc dsorders, ncudng Down
syndrome, are caused by these changes.
Chromosome 1 par
Break
Segment |ons to one
of chromosome 2 par
Unmutated 1 and mutated 2
both carry DE genes
Chromosome 1 wth deeton 2 (recombnant) 1 (norma)
1
Centrc
rng
centrc
fragment
Lost Lost
Lost
Lost
rIgIns of dupIIcatIons
chromosome break:
These can occur before or durng
meoss. segment breaks from
chromosome 1 and |ons to
chromosome 2. The mutated
chromosome 2 carres a dupcaton
of an unmutated chromosome 1 nto
the daughter ce.
rIgIns of deIetIons
1The chromosome tp breaks off,
formng an acentrc fragment (a
fragment ackng a centromere). Ths
fragment s ost, snce t cannot attach to
the spnde durng nucear dvson.
2Two breaks occur aong the
chromosome, a fragment s ost, and the
broken ends re|on.
3 Both ends of the chromosome break
off and are ost, and the broken ends
re|on formng a rng-shaped structure
(a centrc rng).
Segment breaks away
S5
D
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A
G
R
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1
C
D
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
D
C
D
C
D
C
C
D
C
D
D
C C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D D
C
RecIprocaI transIocatIon
Ths nvoves segments smpy changng
paces and no chromosoma matera
beng ost. bout one n 25 persons
carres a recproca transocaton. The
process s as foows:
1The acentrc fragments from two non-
pared chromosomes swap paces.
2 On competon of meoss, a sex ce
rIgIn of InversIons
Ths occurs when a chromosome
(segment BC) s ooped on tsef. Two
breaks occur, and the segment BC
rotates and reattaches. The gene order n
the nverted segment s reversed.
contanng both mutated chromosomes
st has the fu compement of genes.
3The sex ce can fuse wth a norma sex
ce to produce a genetcay baanced
zygote (the ce formed by the unon of
two gametes or sex ces), athough
chromosome pars do not share the
same genes.
lnversons that do not nvove the
centromere are caed paracentrc, those
that ncude t are termed percentrc.
Transocated
segments
Sex ce wth both mutated chromosomes
Break
Loop Break Pe|on
Pe|on Loop
ParacentrIc InversIon PerIcentrIc InversIon
lnverted
segment
2 3
Break
Break
Genetcay
baanced zygote
lnverted
segment
Centromere
lntrcductIcn
S6
veiyone Is dIIIeienI. uman beIngs, IIke oIIei oiganIsms,
sIov enoimous vaiIaIIon In IIeIi appeaiance ve Iook
dIIIeienI, Iave dIIIeienI peisonaIIIIes, and beIave as
IndIvIduaIs. II oI us, Iovevei, Iave ceiIaIn IeaIuies, oi
cIaiacIeis, IIaI ve sIaie vIII one oi boII oI oui paienIs.
oi eampIe, you mIgII Iave cuiIy biovn IaIi IIke youi
moIIei, and a dImpIed cIIn IIke youi IaIIei. ucI cIaiacIeis
Iave been IiansmIIIed Iiom oui paienIs Io ouiseIves, and IIey
aie piesenI Iiom bIiII. TIe piocess by vIIcI cIaiacIeis aie
IiansmIIIed Iiom paienIs Io IIeIi oIIspiIng Is caIIed IeiedIIy.
TIese cIaiacIeis aie desciIbed as InIeiIIed cIaiacIeis. TIe
unIIs oI InIeiIIance aie genes.
The most obvous
nherted characters
are usuay faca ones,
such as har coor, eye
coor, shape of the
nose or mouth.
The nhertance of faca
characters can often be
traced back over severa
generatons of
ancestors, for exampe
by ookng at od
famy photographs.
Ac uIred characters
Not a characters are nherted. Some
are not present at brth, but are
acqured durng our ves.
Exampes of acqured characters are
the abty to skateboard, to speak
a foregn anguage, or the oss of a
fnger n an accdent.
cqured characters cannot be
passed on to chdren.
lnherItance of facIaI characters
Son Daughter
Father Nother
Lght,
cury har
Dark eyes
Snub nose
Ceft chn
Dark,
straght har
Pae eyes
Thn nose
Ponted chn
Dark,
straght har
Pae eyes
Snub nose
Ceft chn
Dark,
straght har
Pae eyes
Snub nose
Ponted chn
SECTlON : HEREDlT
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SonatIc nutatIons
These mutatons occur n body ces and
are transmtted ony to ces that arse
from dvsons of the mutant ce(s).
They can resut n a subset of ces that
are notceaby dfferent n some
way. Ths s known as a mosac.
They are not transmtted to offsprng.
GernIIne nutatIons
These arse n germ ces that gve
rse to gametes (sex ce).
lf the mutaton enters a gamete,
then t s transmtted to the
persons offsprng.
Types of varIatIon
Nost characters vary ether contnuousy
or dscontnuousy.
ContInuous varIatIon
Characters such as heght and weght
vary wthn a graded range of vaues.
lndvduas can fa anywhere between
two extremes: two ndvduas can be
very dfferent, or dffer ony sghty,
n respect of the same character.
The ma|orty of ndvduas tend to fa
n the mdde of the range.
IscontInuous varIatIon
ln ths case a character, such as tongue
rong, shows two or more dstnct and
separate forms.
Ths s an nherted character, and an
exampe of dscontnuous varaton.
ou can ether do t, or you cannot.
There s no ntermedate state.
lnportance of nutatIons
Tongue roIIIng
Norma
offsprng
GernIIne tIssue
Norma
offsprng
Nutant
offsprng
SonatIc tIssue
Norma ces
Norma
ces
Nutant
ces
Nutant
ces
eIght varIatIon
Hcw InherItance wcrks
SS
AIIeIes
Genes for a partcuar feature occur n
pars: one gene on each chromosome
of a homoogous par. These pared
genes are caed aees.
ono ygous aIIeIes
When aees are dentca (they have
the same DN sequence), the ndvdua
s sad to be homozygous for that gene.
For exampe, both aees mght be for
brown eyes (B). Homozygous means
same zygote. That s to say that every
offsprng produced by ths ndvdua
w have at east one gene copy of B.
etero ygous aIIeIes
lf the pared genes consst of dfferent
aees, the ndvdua s sad to be
heterozygous. For exampe, one aee
mght be for brown eyes (B) and the
other for bue eyes (b). Heterozygotc
ndvduas produce two types of
offsprng, one wth the B gene, the other
carryng the b gene.
onInant and recessIve aIIeIes
One aee may be domnant: ts
character (for exampe, brown eye coor)
s expressed n preference to the
character of the other aee (for
exampe, bue eye coor). The weaker
aee s caed recessve.
SInpIe InherItance
n nhertabe character s determned
by the acton of a par of aees of a
snge gene, one of whch s domnant
and the other recessve. Ths pattern s
caed monohybrd or snge-factor
nhertance.
Unfortunatey, very few human
characters are nherted n such a
smpe manner. One cassc exampe,
eye coor, s nherted smpy, athough
ts nhertance s not qute as
straghtforward as depcted opposte.
PaIred genes on chronosones
ee ee
o o ygous etero ygous
lleles
enoty e
Phenoty e brown eyes bue eyes brown eyes
Homoogous par
SECTlON : HEREDlT
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or or
or or
ono ygous parents
The aee for brown eyes (B) s domnant to that for
bue eyes (b). lf a homozygous man has brown eyes
(genotype BB) and has chdren wth a woman who s
homozygous for bue eyes (genotype bb), each chd
w be heterozygous (genotype Bb) and have the
fathers eye coor. Ther mothers recessve gene
w not be expressed.
lnherItance of eye coIor
etero ygous parents
lf a heterozygous (Bb) person has a
chd wth a heterozygous (Bb) partner,
three out of four chdren from ths
partnershp woud be expected to be
brown-eyed. Of these, one woud be
homozygous (BB) and two heterozygous
(Bb). The recessve aee (b) woud be
expressed ony f one of the chdren
were homozygous recessve (bb).
The probabty of the coupe havng
a bue-eyed chd woud therefore be
one n four.
Eye coIor
Sex ces
Chdren
Parents
Sex ces
Chdren
Parents
lrs coors
the eye
Sex determInatIcn
00
Of the 23 homoogous pars of
chromosomes, 22 pars are caed
autosomes, snce they are the same as
each other. The 23rd par s not aways
Sex chronosones
One of the homoogous
chromosome pars
s responsbe for
determnng the sex of
an ndvdua. The sex
chromosomes exst n
two forms, and , so-
caed because of ther
characterstc shape
durng ce dvson.
The dfference between
the sexes s that maes
provde ony genetc
matera n ther sex ces,
whe femae ova aso
contan nutrents.
Autosones and sex chronosones
the same and ths determnes the sex
of the ndvdua. The femae sex
chromosomes are the same, but the
mae ones, shown here, are not.
1 FenaIe sex
chronosones
Femae sex chromo-
somes are both ,
gvng the ndvdua the
genetc consttuton
(genotype) .
2 haIe sex
chronosones
Naes have one
chromosome and one
smaer chromosome,
gvng the ndvdua
the genotype .
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 10 11
12 13 14 15 1 17 18 1 20 21 22 23
Homoogous par
utosomes
Sex chromosomes
SECTlON : HEREDlT
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lnherItIng 46 chronosones
One member of each par of
homoogous chromosomes
s nherted from the mother
and the other from the father.
sperm and ovum each
possesses ony 23
chromosomes (the so-caed
hapod number). Ths ensures
that when the sperm and the
ovum fuse at fertzaton, the
offsprng (zygote) has the
norma human compement of
4 chromosomes (the dpod
number) n each ce.
1 Naes are
heterogametc. That
means they produce
gametes (sex ces) whch
contan wth equa
probabty ether an
or a chromosome.
femae s homogametc.
her ova aways carry
an chromosome.
2 When a sperm and
ovum fuse at fertzaton,
the sex of the resutng
chd s determned by the
type of sex chromosome
passed on n the fathers
sperm. There s an equa
probabty that offsprng
w be femae or mae.
ow sex Is deternIned
FertIII atIon
ConbInatIons of spern and ova
Sperm Sperm
Ova Ova
Sperm
Ovum
Zygote
Offsprng
23
23
23 23
4
Nae Femae
Femae Femae Nae Nae
enetIc dIscrders
02
lnherIted dIseases
Dseases or condtons that are nherted
are caed genetc dsorders. Some of
the most common of these are caused
by gene mutatons (sma-scae
ateratons n the ces genetc matera).
bout 20 percent of the 50,000 human
genes may show varaton (that s, they
have two or more aees). Nuch of ths
varaton probaby does not affect the
heath or survva of the ndvdua. Each
person s probaby a carrer of haf a
dozen recessve aees for a severe
dsease. However, these aees are
ony expressed f an ndvdua s
homozygous (has dentca pared
aees) for the dsease.
Genotypes
Parents
Nae
sperm
F
e
m
a
e

o
v
a
onInant dIseases
The chdren of a person wth a
domnant genetc dsease on an
autosoma chromosome have a two
n four (50 ) chance of nhertng t.
h norma aee
H mutant aee sufferer/carrer
ey
Pattern of InherItance
n ndvdua needs to nhert ony
a snge mutant aee to suffer from
an autosoma domnant condton.
ln such heterozygous ndvduas,
the other, norma aee s ether
nadequate to meet the bodys
needs, or ts functon s bocked
competey.
ln homozygous sufferers (who are
rare), both aees are defectve, the
dsease can be more severe, or s
etha at an earer age.
CharacterIstIcs of genetIc dIsorders
affected ndvduas have at
east one affected parent.
Both maes and femaes are
equay key to nhert and
transmt the dsease.
carrers aso suffer from
the dsease.
The dsease w not appear
among the descendants of
unaffected parents.
or or
SECTlON : HEREDlT
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Sone autosonaI donInant dIseases
a ilial hy ercholesterole ia: eevated
eves of bood choestero eadng to
coggng of the arteres and premature
death from heart attack.
untington disease: progressve
nervous degeneraton causng muscuar
ncoordnaton and dementa.
Li- rau eni syndro e: causes cancers
of mutpe organs and tssues,
ncudng breast and bran tumors.
RecessIve dIseases: cystIc fIbrosIs
Ths gene mutaton affects the mucous
gands of the body, causng them to
produce mucus (thck, smy fud) that
s thcker than norma.
Effect on the pancreas
The thck mucus tends to bock ducts
n the pancreas, a gandke organ that
produces hormones and dgestve
enzymes. The bockages cause damage
to pancreatc tssue and poor dgeston
of food n the sma ntestne.
arfan syndro e: ong mbs wth
oose |onts, pus defects of the heart
and arteres.
Neurofibro atosis: defectve nerves,
bones, musces and skn, wth
pgmented spots.
etinoblasto a: tumors of one or both
retnas of the eyes.
Effect on the Iungs
Breathng and gas exchange are
mpared and nfectons such as
pneumona are more key.
Genotype
Cystc fbross s caused by a recessve
aee. Heterozygous ndvduas (Cc),
athough carrers, w be heathy
because the norma aee s domnant.
Homozygous ndvduas (cc) w
actuay have the dsease.
Gametes
norma carrer carrer sufferer
Offsprng
Parents
Heterozygous carrer
Heterozygous
Heterozygous carrer
Homozygous Homozygous
ChrcmcscmaI dIscrders
04
own syndrone Turner s syndrone
own syndrone
Ths condton s caused by an extra
chromosome n the 21st par, so that the
ndvdua has 47 chromosomes nstead
of the norma 4 . though the extra
chromosome can come from ether
parent, the rsk of havng an affected
chd does rse wth the age of the
mother. For women n ther twentes, the
fgure s about one n 2,000, the rsk
rses wth age, reachng more than one
n 50 for women over 45.
Turner s syndrone
ln Turners syndrome, the ndvdua has
a snge chromosome and acks a
second sex chromosome. The
ndvduas sexua genotype (genetc
consttuton) s O. Normay, a person
s ether (femae) or (mae).
The condton resuts n certan
characterstc physca features.
The person s recognzaby femae n
appearance but has ncompete
sexua deveopment and s nferte.
Extra chromosome
There are severa condtons that can
affct humans n whch an ncorrect
number of chromosomes s nherted by
offsprng. These condtons are caused
by a mstake durng meoss the ce
dvson that eads to the formaton of
the gametes (sex ces), ova, or sperm.
Havng an abnorma chromosome
number s caed aneupody, and a
person or organsm so affected s
termed an aneupod. The most common
forms of aneupody are Turners
syndrome (ost chromosome) and
Down syndrome (ganed chromosome).
chromosome
SECTlON : HEREDlT
05
D
I
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G
R
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M
IInefeIter s syndrone
Ths s another exampe of aneupody
n humans. Sufferers have the
combnaton of sex chromosomes,
havng receved an extra from ether
parent. ffected ndvduas are mae
and stere, wth ta, sghty femnne
stature, and mdy mpared menta
abtes. lt occurs n about one n
1,000 mae brths.
Cat cry syndrone
Ths dsorder s nked to a deeton
of the short arm of chromosome 5.
Newborn affected ndvduas typcay
have a round face wth wde-set eyes
and ow-set ears. Growth s sow. They
have a hgh-ptched cry, resembng
that of a ktten when newborn.
Newborn baby wIth cat cry syndrone
Chronosone 1 deIetIon
IInefeIter s syndrone ( )
Chronosone 1 deIetIon
The deeton of haf of the ong arm
of chromosome 18 causes sow growth
and mpared menta abty. There are
aso characterstc faca features,
notaby a downturned mouth wth no
mdne ndentaton (carp mouth),
and abnormay shaped ears.
Low l
Breast deveopment
Femae-pattern
pubc har
Ta
Femnne physque
Wastng away
of testces
Stere
bnorma ears
Carp mouth
Noon-shaped face
Wde-set eyes
and fod n corner
of each eye
No mae-pattern badness
No beard
enes and cancer
06
Cancer
Cancer s fundamentay a genetc
dsease, resutng from an accumuaton
of genetc defects. These defects dsrupt
the norma mechansms that contro
ce growth and ts proferaton, so that
eventuay the affected ce begns to
dvde uncontroaby and becomes
cancerous.
haIIgnant tunor In a Iung
LIneage of a tunor
ln ths exampe, three
mutatons are requred to
transform a norma ce
nto a cancer ce (but ths
number vares dependng
on the type of cancer).
Wth each successve
mutatona event whch
may be years apart the
ce ne becomes more
and more abnorma. One
ce carryng the thrd
mutaton s transformed
nto a cancer ce, and ts
progeny form a tumor.
Hence, a the numerous
(perhaps bons) of ces
n a tumor are the
descendants of a snge
ce, and represent a
cone of cancer ces.
Essenta features of cancer ces:
Dvde n an uncontroed way to form
a growng magnant tumor.
Lose the specazed features of
surroundng norma tssue ces.
Spread to ad|acent tssues and to
dstant stes n the body (a process
caed metastass).
Frst
mutaton
Second mutaton
Progresson Growth of tumor
1st
2nd
3rd
Lymphatc vesse Cancer ce
Thrd mutaton
ey:
Nagnant tumor
Epthea ces
nng ung
Connectve tssue
ayer
Smooth musce
SECTlON : HEREDlT
0T
D
I
A
G
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M
CoIon cancer
The deveopment of coon cancer n
humans occurs n a seres of steps.
Each step nvoves a specfc mutaton
n epthea ces nng the arge
ntestne (coon and rectum) and
s characterzed by changes n the
appearance and behavor of the ces.
Se uence of events
1 mutaton nactvates one of the
tumor suppressor genes. Ths eads to
the appearance of sma growths
(poyps) on the coon wa.
2 ln one of the ces of a poyp there s
a mutaton producng an oncogene.
(Oncogenes cause cancer.) Ths
encodes a cancer-causng
oncoproten an abnorma sgna
proten that s permanenty swtched
on. The poyp ce gves rse to a
sma bengn (harmess) precancerous
tumor.
3 ln a precancerous tumor ce, a
mutaton occurs that turns off another
tumor suppressor gene. The affected
ce grows more rapdy than others,
and produces a arger, athough st
harmess, tumor (adenoma).
4 mutaton causes yet another
tumor suppressor gene to swtch off
n a ce of the adenoma, resutng n a
magnant cancer (carcnoma), whch
nvades neghborng tssues.
5 Further genetc changes enabe
tumor ces to eave the orgna
ste and spread esewhere va
bood vesses the process
caed metastass.
1
2
4
5
3
Bengn
precancerous
tumor
Poyp
Coon wa
denoma
Carcnoma
Bood vesse
Tumor ces
enetIc testIng
0S
1
2
3
Gene nappIng
1 CreatIon of a NA IIbrary
The genome (compete set of genes) of an organsm
s coned to create a DN brary. Ths s a coecton
of recombnant DN (deoxyrbonucec acd)
moecues, each contanng part of the orgna DN.
2 Chronosone waIkIng
The base sequence of a regon at the end of one
cone s determned. Ths s used as a probe to fnd
an overappng cone. regon at the other end of ths
cone can then be sequenced and used as a probe
to fnd the next cone. Ths can be contnued unt
a whoe chromosome s covered.
3 The physIcaI nap
When a chromosome has been waked, a coecton
of ordered, overappng cones has been created.
The regons of known sequences comprse the
physca map. The engths of the rest of the
chromosome fragments can then be measured.
Chronosone waIkIng
The physIcaI nap
nown
sequences
Chromosome fragments DN cones
DN brary
Genome
Base sequence, probe regon
Overappng cone
Overappng cone
Cone
DN moecues
Probed regon 3
Probed regon 4
Coned chromosome
SECTlON : HEREDlT
00
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
1
2
4
5
NA fIngerprIntIng
DN fngerprntng (or genetc
fngerprntng) s an exampe of the use
of sophstcated bochemca technques
n the anayss of genetc matera.
The unI ueness of genetIc naterIaI
n ndvduas genetc matera s
unque to that person. The excepton
s n the case of dentca twns (two
ndvduas formed from a snge
fertzed egg). Ther genetc matera
1 2 Each ce has a
nuceus, whch contans
the DN. Ths s
carefuy extracted.
3The repettve
sequences are cut from
the DN usng specfc
enzymes that act as
chemca scssors.
s effectvey dentca, athough somatc
mutatons durng deveopment make
them ook sghty dfferent.
The hypervarIabIIIty of NA
Part of the DN of each ndvdua s
hypervarabe (t vares greaty between
unreated ndvduas). Such regons
contan repettve sequences. The
number of repettons and ther exact
ocaton are unque to an ndvdua.
4 5The resutng DN
fragments are separated
nto transparent bands n
an agar ge by a process
caed eectrophoress. The
bands that represent the
hypervarabe regons
need to be seected.
The bands are made
vsbe and seected by
transferrng the pattern to
a nyon membrane and
then addng a radoactve
DN probe that bnds to
the hypervarabe regons.
6 -ray fm s paced
aongsde the membrane.
The unque pattern of
bands known as the DN
fngerprnt appears on the
deveoped fm.
AnaIysIs
DN fngerprnts are used
chefy by poce forensc
scentsts to show that a
person has eft ces on an
ob|ect or at a crme scene.
ProducIng a NA fIngerprInt
Nuceus
Ce
lnvsbe bands -ray fm
gar ge
Nyon membrane
DN
DN fngerprnt DN
Pepettve
sequence
3
6
ene therap
100
Gene therapy
Gene therapy nvoves nsertng a
heathy gene nto a human body to
repace or augment the functonng of a
fauty gene. Ths technque, whch s st
n ts nfancy, promses to be partcuary
usefu for treatng nherted dseases
nvovng gene mutatons such as cystc
Iseases treated
Cystc fbross (n whch
ces produce mucus that
s thcker than norma).
denosne deamnase
(D) defcency (n whch
the gene producng the
D enzyme s defectve,
preventng bone marrow
from producng heathy
whte bood ces to
combat nfectons).
Skn cancer (meanoma).
hethod of appIIcatIon
eroso spray s used to
dever the new DN to
dseased ung tssue.
Some bone marrow s
removed, ncudng stem
ces, whch ater deveop
nto whte bood ces,
the bone marrow,
ncudng stem ces,
s treated wth the
new gene, and
the treated ces are
returned to the body s
bone marrow.
Genes that cause
cancerous ces to sef-
destruct are n|ected.
Neanoma ces contan a
regon of DN, caed a
promoter, that swtches
on the sef-destruct
genes.
hethod of repIacenent
Copes of the heathy gene
are apped drecty to the
surface of the affected
ces, so that they take
up the new gene.
No operaton s requred.
Dseased ces are removed
from the body, copes of
the heathy gene nserted
nto them, and the ces are
then returned to the
correct pace n
the body.
New genes are n|ected
nto the boodstream.
The genes are
programmed to be
actvated ony when they
enter specfc target ces
that have speca
characterstcs.
fbross, hemopha, and thaassema.
However, t remans controversa.
RepIacIng fauIty genes
One of the ma|or probems n gene
therapy s how to pace new genes ony
nto the ces that need them. Three
methods are currenty beng deveoped.
SECTlON : HEREDlT
101
D
I
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M
Once a heathy human gene has been
soated, pacng t n the rght ces s
dffcut enough, but t must aso be
nserted n the correct poston wthn
the rest of the ces DN so t can
correct the probem.
Both of these dffcutes can, n some
cases, be overcome wth the use of a
vrus (a pece of parastc DN). Vruses
1The vrus s encouraged
to take up a copy of the
heathy gene. The vruss
own genetc matera s
modfed n such a way
that the vrus cannot
mutpy and harm the
target ces nto whch t
s ntroduced.
2The vrus s devered to
the patents target ces by
any of the three methods
descrbed opposte. Once
the vrus reaches a target
ce, t ready attaches
tsef to the ce membrane
and emptes the genetc
matera nto the ce.
UsIng vIruses In gene therapy
are bts of DN that cannot repcate
themseves. lnstead they nsert
themseves nto the DN of ces and
harness the ces machnery to make
copes of themseves. Specay
engneered vruses can be used as
vectors (carrers) to take a therapeutc
gene nto a specfc ce and poston
t on the rght chromosome.
ow a vIrus deIIvers a gene to the NA
3The heathy gene s then
ncorporated nto the ces
DN and the ce begns
to manufacture the gene
product that treats the
patents condton.
vrus s a strand of DN (or possby PN)
surrounded by a proten coat. The protens protect
the DN and hep t enter a ce.
Target ce Vrus Vrus coat Chromosome Heathy gene
Gene
product
102
AdIpose tIssue C

AdrenaI gIands
S E

T

Afferent D

AIInentary canaI
G G
T

Anus T

Aorta T

AppendIx
A

l

ArterIoIe A

Artery A

A
T

T

AudItory R
AxIIIary R
Backbone ertebraI
coIunn
BasaI gangIIa P

BasophII A

BIceps A

BIIe ducts T

BIadder A

BIood A

E
L
BIood pressure T

Bone T

Bone narrow S

BraIn T

BraInstenA

l

Breast A

Breastbone Sternun
BronchIoIe A

Bronchus T

CapIIIary T

CardIac R
CardIovascuIar R

CartIIage G
Cecun T

CeII T

103
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
CNS T
CerebeIIun T
l
CerebraI cortex T



CerebrunT

CervIx A

CIavIcIe E
CIItorIs A

CNS CentraI nervous
systen
Coccyx F

CoIIagen A

CoIon T

ConnectIve tIssue T

CorIun ernIs
Cornea T

Coronary arterIes S
CorpuscIes A

Cortex T
CranIaI nerves T

CranIunT

Cutaneous R
CutIcIe EpIdernIs
DNA A

ernIs C T

Iaphragn A
l

IgestIon T

NA eoxyrIbonucIeIc
acId
uodenun T

E|acuIatIon T

EndocardIun T

EndotheIIun T

En ynes B

EpIdernIs C T
EpIgIottIs A

EpItheIIun T

Erythrocytes R
Esophagus G T

104
FaIIopIan tubes U
O T

Fenur T

FoIIIcIe A
O

ForebraIn T
GaIIbIadder A

Ganetes S

GastrIc O
AIInentary canaI
Genes B

DNA
GenItaIIa S
GIand A

Gonads P

GranuIocytes

Gray natter T

GuIIet Esophagus
eart T

enogIobIn T

epatIc R
epatIc portaI veIn
PortaI veIn
IndbraIn B

ornones C

ypophysIs PItuItary
gIand
ypothaIanus A

lIeun T
lnnune systen T

l

Snooth
nuscIe
1e|ununT
1oInt T
aryotype T

Idney A

LactatIon M
Large IntestIne B
T

Larynx T
Leukocytes
T

LIganent F
LIver T

Lungs T

Lynph A

Lynph gIand Lynph
node
Lynph node L
O

105
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
LynphatIc systen A

hannary gIands T

heduIIa obIongata T

heIosIs A

henInges T

henopause

henstruatIon M

hetaboIIsn T

hItosIs O

hucous nenbranes T

NasaI R
NasaI cavIty T

Nerve A

Nervous systenT

l

Neuron N A

Neurone Neuron
NeurotransnItter A

NucIeIc acIds M

NucIeus T

Ifactory R
ptIc R
rgan A

rganeIIes T

varIes F

vIducts FaIIopIan
tubes
vuIatIon T

vunA
PaIate T
Pancreas A

systen T


T

PeIvIs A

PerIcardIun T

PerIstaIsIs

106
Rectun T

RefIex actIon T

RenaI R
RespIratIon B
T
D



RIbs T

SaIIvary gIands T
SerunB

SInus A

SkeIeton T

SkIn T

SnaII IntestIne T

M
Snooth nuscIe
U
l M

SphIncter A

SpInaI cord T

SpIne ertebraI
coIunn
Sternun T

SuprarenaI gIands
AdrenaI gIands
Suture A

Taste buds T

Phagocytes T

Pharynx T
PIneaI gIand E
A
PItuItary gIand
H A

l

ADH
l
PIasna T
PIeura T

PIexus A

PortaI veIn H
D

Prostate gIand A

l

Pudendun uIva
PuInonary R
Receptor A

10T
D
I
A
G
R
A
M
Teeth B
D

Tendons B
TestIs T O

ThaIanus A
l

Thynus A
l
ThyroId A

TIssue A

Trachea T

TubuIe A
TunIca A
B

UnstrIated nuscIe
Snooth nuscIe
Ureter T

Urethra T

UrInary systenT

UrIne L
tubes
Uterus A

l

UvuIa A
l

agIna T

ascuIar R

eIn A

enous R
entrIcIe A

enuIe A
ernIforn appendIx
AppendIx
ertebra A
ertebraI coIunn
B S T

l

estIbuIe A

ocaI cords T

uIva P T
hIte natter T

IndpIpe Trachea
onb Uterus
eb sItes tc vIsIt
10S
Access ExceIIence:
NatIonaI eaIth huseun
Lnks to a range of resources n boogy,
botechnoogy, and heath ssues.
htt accesse cellence org
Ask a BIoIogIst
rzona State Unversty staff answer ema
questons for students at grades -12.
htt as abiologist asu edu
BIoIogy nIIne
source of boogca nformaton, sutabe
for homework, research pro|ects, and
genera nterest, wth hundreds of boogy
Web ste nks.
CeII and hoIecuIar BIoIogy nIIne
n nformaton resource for ce and
moecuar boogsts as we as genetcsts.
htt cellbio co
eaIth ScIences
and unan ServIces LIbrary
Provdes nks to seected Web stes about
a aspects of fe scences that may be
usefu to both students and researchers.
unan Genone Pro|ect
EducatIon Resources
ldentfes sequences of a the genes n
human DN, stores the nformaton, and
addresses ethca ssues.
htt ornl go hg is education
education ht l
pen Irectory Pro|ect: CeII BIoIogy
Cell iology ducation
pen Irectory Pro|ect: GenetIcs
enetics
The BIoIogy Pro|ect
The Dctonary and Scence Pesources are
partcuary usefu.
Facts On Fe, lnc.
100
lndex
actve transport 37, 40-41,
44
adenne 72, 75, 81
DN repcaton 78, 7
proten synthess 1 , 4
adenosne trphosphate
(TP) 27, 37, 44, 45
actve transport 40, 41
sodum-potassum
pump 41, 42
adpocytes 12, 50, 51
aees , 70-71
genetc dsorders 2
nhertance 88-8
amebod movement 15
amno acds 37
actve transport 40
ce metabosm 3
gene expresson 77
ysosomes 25
mtochondra 27
mutaton 82
proten synthess 1 , 4 ,
47, 74
anaphase 5 , 57, 58, 5
apoptoss (ce death) 2-
3
autoyss 24
base unts 72
DN repar 80
DN repcaton 7
gene expresson 7 , 77
gene mappng 8
mutaton 83
proten synthess 1 , 47,
75
basoph 23, 25
bone 34, 35, 50
bone marrow 0, 100
C
cancer 54, 4- 5, - 7
gene therapy 100
genetc dsorders 3
mutatons 80, 82
cartage 34, 50, 5
ce cyce 54, 55
ce death 2- 3
ce dvson 52, 53, 54
cancer 4,
chromatn 22
chromosomes , 7, 8
DN repcaton 78
genetc dsorders 4
mtoss 5
mutaton 82, 84
nuceus 23
stem ces 0
ce (pasma) membrane ,
10-11, 12, 3 , 37
actve transport 40, 41
amebod movement 15
ce structure 52
centroes 28
ca 32
dffuson 38, 3
endopasmc retcuum
1 , 17
Gog apparatus 20, 21
ysosomes 25
sodum-potassum
pump 41, 42
tght |unctons 30
ceuar respraton 27,
44-45
centroes , 28, 52, 53, 5 ,
57, 58
centromeres 7, 8
cytoskeeton 14
meoss 58
mtoss 5 , 57
mutaton 84, 85
choestero 10, 3 , 38, 41
endopasmc retcuum
17
genetc dsorders 3
chondrocytes 50
chromatds 5 , 57, 58, 5 ,
7
chromosomes , 22, -
aees 88
ce death 2
ce dvson 53, 55,
5 -5
gene mappng 8
gene therapy 101
genetc dsorders 4, 5
mutaton 82, 83, 84, 85
proten synthess 1
sex determnaton 0- 1
ca 28, 32-33
codons 1 , 47, 7 , 82, 83
coagen 34, 35, 51
connectve tssue 50, 51
cancer 5,
extraceuar matrx 34,
crenaton 3
cytokness 5 , 57, 58, 5
cytopasm , 12-13, 52
ce death 2
gene expresson 7
ysosome 24, 25
mtochondra 2
mtoss 57
peroxsomes 2
rbosomes 18
cytosne 72, 75, 81
DN repcaton 78, 7
cytoskeeton 12, 14-15, 52
ce death 2
ce membrane 31, 38
mtoss 5
lndex
110
D
dffuson 37, 38-3
actve transport 40
ce communcaton 4
metabosm 37
osmoss 3
sodum-potassum
pump 41, 42
dgestve system 8, 11, 13,
51, 0
DN 3 , 37, 72-73
aees 70
cancer 5
ce communcaton 4
ce dvson 53, 54, 55
ce structure 52
chromosomes , 8,
gene expresson 7
gene mappng 8
gene therapy 100, 101
mtochondra 2 ,
mtoss 5
mutaton 82
nuceus , 22
74, 75
repar 80-81
repcaton 78-7 , 80, 82
rbosomes 18
DN fngerprntng
DN poymerase 78, 7 ,
80, 81
domnance 70, 71, 88, 8
ectopasm 15
eectrca potenta 42-43
embryo 0, 1, 3
endocrne gands 48
endocytoss 24, 41
endopasm 15
endopasmc retcuum ,
1 -17, 3 , 2
enzymes
ce death 2
ce dvson 54
ce membrane 38
ce metabosm 3 , 37
chromosomes
DN fngerprntng
DN repar 80, 81
DN repcaton 7
endopasmc retcuum
17
gene expresson 7
ysosomes 24, 25, 40
mtochondra 2
peroxsomes 2
proten synthess 75
respraton 45
rbosomes 1
eosnophs 23, 24, 25, 0
epderma ces
epthea ces , 11, 50, 51
cancer 5, , 7
|unctons 30, 31
erythrocytes 23, 50, 0
eukaryotes 3 , 4
exocrne gands 13, 51
exocytoss 21, 25, 3 , 37,
40
extraceuar matrx 34, 38
fertzaton 58, 1
fbrobasts 35, 50, 51
fagea 28, 32-33
gene expresson 7 -77
gene mappng 8
gene therapy 100-101
genes 52, 53
aees 70, 71, 88
ce dvson 54
chromosomes , 8,
DN repar 80, 81
nhertance 8
meoss 58
mutaton 82, 83
proten synthess 74, 75
genetc dsorders 84,
2- 5,
genome 2 , 8
genotype 71, 3
gobet ces 13, 33
Gog apparatus , 20-21,
3 , 37, 52
granuocytes 25
guanne 72, 75
DN repar 81
DN repcaton 78, 7
heredty 8 -8
hormones
actve transport 40
ce communcaton 48,
4
ce metabosm 3
endocytoss 41
endopasmc retcuum
17
extraceuar matrx 34
ncusons 12
nhertance 8, 8 -8
aees 70, 71
dsorders 2, 100
mutaton 82
nterphase 52, 53
111
|unctons 11, 30-31, 48
keratn 11, 31
rebs cyce 45
L
eukocytes 23, 50, 0
pds (fats) 12, 17, 41
ce membrane 10, 38
Gog apparatus 20
ymph nodes 35
ymph vesses 30, 5,
ymphocytes 23, 0
ysosomes , 24-25, 37
ce metabosm 3 , 37
phagocytoss 40
macrophages 0, 2
meoss 53, 58-5 , 4
messenger rbonucec acd
(mPN) 18, 1 , 3 , 37
mutaton 82
74, 75
rbosomes 18
metabosm 3 -37, 44
metaphase 5 , 58, 5
metastass 5, , 7
mcrofaments 14, 15
mcrotubues 14, 28, 32,
5
mcrov 10
mtochondra , 2 -27, 37,
45, 52,
mtoss 53, 54, 55, 5 -57
monocytes 23
mucus 13, 32, 40, 3
musce ces , 7,
contracton 17, 43, 44
mutatons 80, 82-84
cancer 5, , 7
chromosomes 82-85
gene therapy 100
genetc dsorders 2- 4
nhertance 87
myofbrs 7, 27
N
nervous system 8, 3
neurons (nerve ces) , 50,
51
acton potenta 43
ce death 3
connectve tssue 35
|unctons 31
fe span 52
sodum-potassum
pump 41
neurotransmtters 34, 43,
48
neutrophs 23, 24, 25
nucear enveope 22, 3
nucear membrane , 52
ce dvson 57, 58, 5
endopasmc retcuum
1
nucec acds 18, 4 , 7
nuceous 22, 3 , 37
nuceotdes 72, 73
ce dvson 55
ce metabosm 3
DN repar 80
DN repcaton 7
75
nuceus , 22-23, 37
ce death 2
ce structure 52
chromosomes 7, 8
cytoskeeton 14
DN fngerprntng
gene expresson 7
meoss 58
mtoss 5
myofbrs 7
4
stem ce transpants 1
oncogenes 7
organees , 1 -2
ce structure 52
centroes 28
cytopasm 12
endopasmc retcuum
1
eukaryotes 3
Gog apparatus 20
mtochondra 2
nuceus 23
peroxsomes 2
rbosomes 18
osmoss 3
osteocytes 50
ova (egg ces) 7
ce dvson 53
chromosomes
genetc dsorders 4
meoss 58
mutaton 82
sex chromosomes 0,
1
P
passve transport 37
peroxsomes 2
phagocytes 24, 2
phagocytoss 24, 37, 40
phenotypes 71
pnocytoss 41
lndex
112
pasmodesmata 31
pateets 0
poypeptdes 3 , 37, 7 ,
77
prokaryotes 12, 3
prophase 5 , 58
proten synthess 3 ,
4 -47, 74-75
ce dvson 54
chromosomes
endopasmc retcuum
1 , 17
rbosomes 18, 1
protens 8
actve transport 40
ce communcaton 4
ce death 2
ce dvson 54
ce membrane 10, 11,
38
cytopasm 12
cytoskeeton 14
endocytoss 41
extraceuar matrx 34
gene expresson 77
|unctons 30, 31
mtochondra 27
mutaton 82, 83
nuceus 22
rbosomes 18
pseudopodum 15
red bood ces 7, 23, 52
reproducton 52, 58
respraton 27, 44-45
respratory tract 13, 33
rbonucec acd (PN),
ce metabosm 3
nuceous 22
rbosomes 1
rbosoma rbonucec acd
(rPN) 18, 3 , 77
rbosomes , 18-1 , 3 , 37
endopasmc retcuum
1 , 17
gene expresson 77
mutaton 82
75
rough endopasmc
retcuum 1 , 17, 37
ce metabosm 3
proten synthess 4
rbosomes 18, 1
sex ces (gametes)
ce dvson 52
chromosomes , 1
genetc dsorders 4
nhertance 87
meoss 58
mutaton 80, 82, 85
sex chromosomes ,
0- 1, 4, 5
skn 7, , 30, 35, 51
cancer 5
smooth endopasmc
retcuum 1 , 17
sodum-potassum pump
41, 42
soute pump 40
sperm 32
ce dvson 53
chromosomes
genetc dsorders 4
meoss 58
mutaton 82
sex chromosomes 1
spnde (mtotc) 55, 5 -5 ,
84
squamous ces 51
stem ces 0- 1, 100
stomach ces 7, 8
synapses 31, 43
teophase 5 , 57, 58, 5
thymne 72, 75
DN repar 81
DN repcaton 78, 7
gene expresson 7
proten synthess 4
tssues 8, , 34, 48, 51
cancer 5,
stem ces 0, 1
transfer rbonucec acd
(tPN) 1 , 37
ce metabosm 3
gene expresson 77
mutaton 82
urac 1 , 4 , 75, 7
vacuoes , 12
vesces 24, 25, 37
actve transport 40
ce metabosm 3
endopasmc retcuum
17
whte bood ces 15, 23,
24, 40, 50, 100
zygote 58, 85, 88, 1

Human Body (ระบบร - างกายมน - ษย - เล - ม 1)

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