Shallow Gas & the Near Surface

There are only 6 shallow hazards.

by Ralph W. Baird

OVERVIEW
BPI with its affiliate joint venture partners provide high resolution geophysical services
including the data acquisition, data processing, interpretation, report production and
data base management of land and marine engineering geophysical, geologic,
engineering soils, hydrographic and environmental field survey information. These
services are used by engineering departments, consulting engineering and governmental
authorities to identify and plan for potential problems of the earth soils and sediments.
Projects are listed following this article.
Here is a link to the original study prepared by the author for the benefit of the Offshore
Operators Committee: LINK.
THERE ARE ONLY SIX SHALLOW HAZARDS
General
There are several instances every year where the six shallow hazards: shallow gas, near
surface faults, sediment strength, water bottom anomalies, glacier or river channels, and
man-made objects, have delayed man's quest for oil. These "geologic" features have
cost the oil industry hundreds of millions of dollars due to sediment failures, lost
circulation, and shallow blowouts. Many of these problems could have been avoided by
judicious use of digital high resolution geophysical data.
Engineers can change their drill plan to compensate for potential geologic hazards.
Losses can be avoided if near surface information from a wellsite survey is examined
and incorporated into the well plan.
Shallow Hazard No. 1: Shallow Gas (and Shallow Water Flows)
If shallow gas of a large enough quantity is encountered unexpectedly during drilling
operations, a blowout might occur. The driller has interest in shallow gas from mudline
to 3,000 feet and below. Shallow trapped gas areas can be avoided by changing the
wellsite location, or if required, and only if the frac gradient is sufficient, can be
penetrated by cementing a string of casing firmly above the gas zone, increasing mud
weight to penetrate through the gas zone, and continue the drilling operation. Gas that is
trapped in the shallow sediments usually originates from deeper gas reservoirs but can

also come from biogenic activity in the shallow sediments. Shallow gas can only be
confidently interpreted from high resolution seismic data that has been digitally
processed and displayed in true amplitude. See attached Figures 1. and 2.
Our experience with shallow water flows (SWF) is similar to shallow gas. In the case of
water flow, the problem to drilling is it can be water under very low over-pressure,
usually in an area of rapid sediment deposition, but there are exceptions. Our
recommendations regarding SWF is to not let even a small flow develop. Another
aspect, yet not fully understood is the long term effect of a casing/asset set through a
potential shallow water flow zone.

Shallow Hazard No. 2: Near Surface Faults
Near surface faults can create surface anomalies hazardous to jack-up and drilling rigs
including anchors and guy-wire bases. The fault plane itself can pass gas from a deeper
gas zone and if not controlled, a blowout will occur. The ocean bottom is unstable
around fault traces. Casing should not be terminated in or near a fault zone because
shear strength (frac gradient) of the sediments in the fault zone is much less than "non-
faulted" sediments. In deep water and to improve the resolution of faults, time or depth
migration of the digitally processed high resolution seismic data is recommended.
Shallow Hazard No. 3: Sediment Strength
Both slightly hard sediments and slightly soft sediments can create problems to drilling
operations. Jack-up rigs require ample leg penetration for stabilization for high shear
capacity for their legs. If leg penetration is too deep, the well may not be drilled
because the limit of penetration is the leg length. The water depth, the leg penetration,
and the required air gap (for insurance and safety purposes) must add up to less than the
leg length available. If this is greater, then the well cannot be drilled and another drill
rig or drillship should be chosen. Prediction of jack-up leg penetration is based on the
first good seismic reflector deeper than 20 feet below mudline. This reflecting horizon
can be interpreted from seismic data. Correlation to known engineering data from local
soil borings or leg penetration depth provide a more accurate estimate.
Anchor systems, including primary and piggy-back anchors, require at least 20 - 25 feet
(thickness) of mud for adequate shear strength. If a hard silt, sand, limestone, coral reef,
or salt is encountered shallower than 25 feet within the anchor's path, the anchor will
slide along the layer and not "dig in". This situation calls for additional piggy-back
anchors to be set in order for the combined shear strength of all anchors to provide
adequate tension carrying ability by the total anchoring system. High resolution
geophysical can be used to determine anchoring conditions.
Note: In addition, jack-up legs cannot penetrate hard materials such as coral reefs or
hard calcareous cemented sandstone or limestone. Sometimes these layers appear as
thin high velocity zones and are confused with shallow gas "Bright Spots" due to their
anomalous seismic acoustic velocity.
Shallow Hazard No. 4: Old Rivers and Glaciers
Old river channels can be filled with clay, porous material, mud, gravels, and/or
boulders. Any channel is potentially hazardous and should be planned for in the wellsite
location and drilling plan. Lost circulation in channels has cost the industry greatly in
the North Sea and the Gulf of Alaska, especially due to glacial boulder channels
causing high bit torque and lost circulation at shallow depth. Channels are interpreted
from high resolution data.
Shallow Hazard No. 5: Water Bottom Anomalies
Steep bottom slopes create sediments bottom stability problems for both jack-ups and
drillships. Water bottom features such as mud lumps, trenches, faults scarps, pockholes,
ridges and depressions can be interpreted from high resolution seismic data. The
vertical exaggeration in high resolution records makes the identification of water
bottom hazards and accurate description of the seafloor possible.

Shallow Hazard No. 6: Man-made Objects
Man-made objects exist wherever man travels. These include pipelines, debris, wrecks
and cultural items that can be detected with multi-sensor geophysical surveys. Each
must be avoided. Car bodies, garbage and schools of fish are commonly also seen on
high resolution records and have been misinterpreted by even the most experienced
analyst.
Review
Shallow, near surface geological engineering information and features are not visible on
conventionally stacked exploration seismic data. Shallow hazards are interpreted from
high resolution multi- fold, multi-sensor geophysical data properly digitally processed.
The risk and costs to offshore drilling has been reduced by the judicious use of wellsite
surveys with processing. The costs of the survey are small when compared to the costs
of even a small delay to drilling in the hostile marine environment. Application of high
resolution geophysical methods are everywhere, from environmental disposal problems
to land-based construction and offshore drilling.
MINI 3-D SURVEYS
3-D methods are equally applicable, is not more so, for high resolution geophysical
surveying then for conventional, lower resolution surveys. BPI offers both 3-D
acquisition and data processing of high resolution reflection seismic data. In addition,
offshore platforms may be undershot for sediment analysis in-situ by BPI high
resolution, high frequency telemetry hydrophones and receivers. The attached CDP
center plot is a map of such a survey recorded and processed by BPI.
LIST OF SERVICES
Engineering Geology/Geophysics
Environmental Geology/Geophysics
Abandoned Well Evaluation/Planning
Shallow Porosity Reservoir Definition
Land Engineering Site Surveys
Land/marine Soil Properties Profiles
Land/marine Environmental Planning
Land/marine Environmental Studies
Marine Site Investigations
Marine Jack-Up Rig Site Surveys
Shallow Gas Detection and Prediction
Debris Clearing Surveys
Potential Drilling Hazard Reports
Oil Platform Site Surveys
Pipeline Pre-Lay Surveys
Pipeline and Cabling Post-Lay Surveys
Wellhead Location Surveys
Harbor, Jetty and Berth Surveys
Depth to Bedrock
Location of Old Mines and Workings
Location and Mapping of Faults
Water Table Depth Determination
Quantification of Near Surface Aggregate
Permafrost Location and Depth
Side Scan Sonar Surveying
Hydrographic Surveying
Water Depth Determination/Certification
Underground Storage Site Planning
Salt Dome and Porosity Storage
Tunnelling Site Assessment
Current Metering
Wave and Tide Monitoring
Navigation and Positioning
Sea Bed Sampling
Nuclear Power Plant Site Feasibility
Environmental Clearance Reports
Paleontological and Geochemical Surveys
Safety Studies and Mishap Defense Reports
Blow-out Relief Well Safety Survey and Monitoring
Sediment Stability Studies
Mud Flow Surveys and Monitoring
Search and Location of Heavy Equipment and Shipwrecks
Coral Reef, Sand Waves, Trenches and Ridge Surveys
Deep Water Port and Approaches Clearance Surveys for Super Tankers
Tunnel Location and Monitoring
Sonar Void Zones for Submarine Locations
Harbor and Approaches Defense Feasibilities Studies including Microzonation
Legal Support Services
Expert Witnesses Services and Testimony

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